Thèses sur le sujet « Experimental volcanology »

Eruption dynamics are sensitive to ash aggregation, and ash aggregates (e.g. accretionary lapilli) are commonly found in eruptive deposits, yet few experiments have been conducted on aggregation phenomena using natural materials. Experiments were developed to produce a probabilistic relationship for the efficiency of ash aggregation with respect to particle size, collision kinetic energy and atmospheric water vapor. The laboratory experiments were carried out in an enclosed tank designed to allow for the control of atmospheric water vapor. A synthetic ash proxy, ballotini, and ash from the 2006 eruption of Tungurahua, in Ecuador, were examined for their aggregation potential. Image data was recorded with a high speed camera and post-processed to determine the number of collisions, energy of collisions and probability of aggregation. Aggregation efficiency was dominantly controlled by collision kinetic energy and little to no dependence on atmospheric water vapor was seen in the range of relative humidity conditions tested, 20 to 80%. Equations governing the relationships between aggregation efficiency and collision kinetic energy and the related particle Stokes number, respectively, were determined for implementation into large scale numerical volcanic models.

Afin de parvenir à une meilleure compréhension des processus d’évolution des magmas réunionnais, nous avons réalisé une étude ayant pour objectifs principaux : (1) la simulation expérimentale du système d’alimentation du Piton de la Fournaise, à partir d’un matériel de départ de composition typique de Steady State Basalt et dans des conditions de pression, température, fO2 et de teneurs en volatils (H2O, CO2) réalistes ; (2) la détermination de la séquence de cristallisation d’échantillons représentatifs des roches plutoniques réunionnaises de façon à les comparer avec les résultats expérimentaux et (3) l’obtention d’une base de données volcanologiques, pétrologiques et géochimiques significative sur le groupe de laves anormales (« Abnormal Group ») permettant de confirmer son existence dans le système d’alimentation du Piton de la Fournaise. La découverte de verres silicatés ayant des compositions caractéristiques de l’Abnormal Group confirme l’implication de ces magmas dans l’activité éruptive. Toutefois, les roches plutoniques n’enregistrent pour la plupart que des séquences de cristallisation témoignant d’une évolution superficielle des magmas. Cette dernière est simulée de façon satisfaisante par les expérimentations réalisées dans la gamme 0.1 à 50 MPa qui conduisent à des modèles pétrologiques et des pressions de stockage en accord avec les données géophysiques. Les expérimentations à plus forte pression démontrent l’existence de paliers au sein du système d’alimentation qui peuvent en grande partie expliquer les diverses compositions réunionnaises, mais posent la question de la composition des magmas parentaux
To better understand magmatic processes associated with the evolution of La Réunion magmas, we have carried out a multi-approach study aimed at (1) simulating experimentally the feeding system of the Piton de la Fournaise volcano, using a Steady State Basalt starting material and P-T-fO2-Volatiles (H2O, CO2) conditions compatible with the natural system; (2) determining crystallization sequences representative of La Réunion plutonic rocks for comparison with the experimental results and (3) constructing a volcanological, petrological and geochemical database for lavas of the Abnormal Group, to confirm the existence of Abnormal melts in the feeding system of the volcano. The discovery of glasses having chemical characteristics similar to the Abnormal Group establishes the implication of Abnormal melts in eruptive processes. However, plutonic rocks record crystallization sequences that for the most part indicate a low pressure magmatic evolution. Experiments in the pressure range 0.1 to 50 MPa satisfactorily reproduce conditions in the shallow magmatic systems and lead to petrological models and magma storage depths in agreement with geophysical data. Experiments at higher pressures demonstrate transitions in magma fractionation mechanisms in the feeding system that can explain the range of erupted compositions, but call into question the compositions of parental magmas

Les colonnes pyroclastiques se forment lors d'éruptions volcaniques explosives au cours desquelles un mélange de gaz et de particules est éjecté à grande vitesse depuis un évent et peut conduire à la formation de panaches convectifs. La stabilité de ces colonnes dépend de divers paramètres qui peuvent varier au cours du temps et causer l'effondrement partiel ou total du mélange pyroclastique. Ces effondrements donnent naissance à des fontaines éruptives à l'origine de courants de densité pyroclastiques (CDPs). L'objectif de cette thèse est double : étudier (1) les mécanismes de sédimentation des particules dans le panache et la partie diluée des CDPs et (2) les mécanismes d'émergence des CDPs dans les zones d'impacts des fontaines. La méthode choisie est l'approche expérimentale.Une première série d'expériences consiste à mettre en suspension des particules de taille variant de 49 à 467,5 µm dans un dispositif cylindrique et à mesurer la concentration locale de particules de chaque mélange. Pour cela, deux approches indépendantes ont été utilisées et ont donné des résultats similaires : une méthode acoustique et l'utilisation des capteurs de pression. Ces expériences mettent en lumière deux mécanismes de sédimentation des particules : la sédimentation améliorée et la sédimentation retardée. Dans les suspensions de petites particules (78 µm), la vitesse de sédimentation augmente avec la concentration locale de particules en raison de la formation de « clusters » qui chutent à une vitesse quatre fois supérieure à la vitesse terminale de sédimentation des particules individuelles (sédimentation améliorée). En revanche, dans les suspensions de plus grandes particules (467,5 µm), la vitesse de sédimentation diminue avec l'augmentation de la concentration de particules malgré la présence de « clusters » et elle est 30 % inférieure à la vitesse de chutes des particules individuelles (sédimentation retardée). Ces résultats suggèrent que les mécanismes de sédimentation en présence de « clusters » et se produisant dans les panaches où la partie diluée des courants de densité pyroclastiques devraient être pris en compte dans les modèles utilisés pour simuler ces phénomènes volcaniques afin de mieux prédire les caractéristiques des dépôts.Une seconde série d'expériences consiste à simuler une fontaine pyroclastique en relâchant dans un chenal des particules de tailles comprises entre 29 et 269 µm et à une hauteur de 3,27 m. Les résultats montrent que les mélanges dilués (1,6 - 4,4 vol.%) en chute libre s'accumulent dans la zone d'impact pour former des écoulements granulaires concentrés (~ 45 - 48 vol.%) dont la pression de fluide interstitiel compense presque totalement le poids des particules pour des tailles < 76 µm. De plus, la pression de fluide maximale mesurée à l'impact, la distance de parcours des écoulements et l'étirement horizontal des dépôts augmentent avec la diminution de taille des particules. En considérant le dimensionnement des expériences, ces résultats indiquent qu'une pression de fluide interstitielle élevée dans les courants de densité pyroclastiques concentrés peut être générée dans la zone d'impact des fontaines pyroclastiques en effondrement. La petite taille des particules, qui cause une faible perméabilité et un long temps de diffusion de la pression de pore, peut être l'un des facteurs principaux qui causent les longues distances parcourues par les écoulements
Pyroclastic columns form during explosive volcanic eruptions in which a mixture of gases and particles is ejected at high speed from a vent and can lead to the formation of convective plumes. The stability of these columns depends on various parameters that can vary over time and cause partial or total collapse of the pyroclastic mixture. These collapses give rise to eruptive fountains, forming density currents called pyroclastic density currents (PDCs). The objective of this thesis is twofold: to study (1) the mechanisms of particle sedimentation in the plume and the dilute part of PDCs, and (2) the mechanisms of PDC emergence in the impact zones of the fountains. The chosen method is the experimental approach.A first series of experiments involves suspending particles ranging in size from 49 to 467.5 µm in a cylindrical device and measuring the local particle concentration for each mixture. For this purpose, two independent approaches were used and provided similar results: an acoustic method and the use of pressure sensors. These experiments highlight two mechanisms of particle sedimentation: enhanced sedimentation and delayed sedimentation. In suspensions of small particles (78 µm), the sedimentation rate increases with the local particle concentration due to the formation of « clusters » that fall at a speed four times higher than the terminal settling velocity of individual particles (enhanced sedimentation). However, in suspensions of larger particles (467.5 µm), the sedimentation rate decreases with increasing particle concentration, despite the presence of « clusters » and it is 30 % lower than the settling speed of individual particles (delayed sedimentation). These results suggest that the sedimentation mechanisms in the presence of « clusters » occurring in plumes or the dilute part of PDC should be considered in models used to simulate these volcanic phenomena to better predict deposit characteristics.A second series of experiments simulates a pyroclastic fountain by releasing particles of sizes ranging from 29 and 269 µm into a channel at a height of 3.27 meters. The results show that dilute mixtures (1.6 - 4.4 vol.%) in free fall accumulate in the impact zone to form concentrated granular flows (~ 45 - 48 vol.%) whose interstitial fluid pressure nearly compensates for the weight of particles for sizes < 76 µm. Furthermore, the maximum fluid pressure measured at the impact, the flow travel distance, and the horizontal stretching of deposits increase with decreasing particle size. Considering the experiment dimensions, these results indicate that a high interstitial fluid pressure can be generated in the impact zone of collapsing pyroclastic fountains. The small particle size, causing low permeability and a long pressure diffusion time, may be one of the main factors leading to the long runout distances covered by the flows

Les écoulements pyroclastiques sont des mélanges à haute température de gaz et de particules volcaniques qui peuvent se propager sur de très grandes distances. Cette forte « mobilité » est souvent attribuée à leur capacité à se fluidiser, c’est-à-dire à générer et conserver une forte pression interstitielle de gaz qui réduit les forces de friction interne. L’objectif principal de cette thèse est de comprendre comment les irrégularités des terrains sur lesquelles se propagent les écoulements pyroclastiques peuvent favoriser leur fluidisation. Une première série d’expériences de laboratoire a consisté à générer des écoulements de particules fines (diamètre de 45-90 μm) sur des substrats de différentes rugosités. Les résultats montrent que la distance de parcours des écoulements augmente avec la rugosité, allant jusqu’à doubler par rapport à la distance de parcours sur fond lisse. Des analyses de vidéos haute vitesse et des mesures de pression interstitielle d’air à la base des écoulements montrent que la tête (partie antérieure) des écoulements qui se propagent sur un substrat rugueux s’auto-fluidisent en conséquence de la sédimentation des particules dans les interstices du substrat, chassant l’air qui remonte et percole dans l’écoulement. Ce mécanisme d’auto-fluidisation est efficace pour toutes les inclinaisons étudiées (0-30°), suggérant qu’il est susceptible de se produire tout au long de la mise en place d’un écoulement pyroclastique. Une seconde étude a consisté à faire chuter des lits de particules dans une colonne statique. Les résultats montrent que même pour une hauteur de relâchement relativement faible (20 cm), le mélange peut entièrement s’auto-fluidiser durant sa chute. Quand les particules sont suffisamment fines (<100 μm) la pression interstitielle dans le dépôt diffuse pendant plusieurs secondes, la durée de cette diffusion augmentant avec l’augmentation de l’épaisseur du lit et la diminution de taille des particules. Les temps de diffusions les plus longs sont observés avec un matériau provenant d’un dépôt d’écoulement pyroclastique (~30 s pour des lits de 28.5 cm d’épaisseur). Ces résultats suggèrent que les écoulements pyroclastiques qui se propagent sur des terrains accidentés peuvent s’auto-fluidiser et conserver une faible friction au cours de leur mise en place
Pyroclastic flows are hot mixtures of gas and particles that can propagate over large distances. This high “mobility” is often attributed to their ability to be fluidized, that is, to generate and retain high gas pore pressure that reduces internal friction forces. The main objective of this thesis is to understand how irregularities of substrates on which pyroclastic flows propagate can enhance their fluidization. A first set of laboratory experiments consisted of the generation of fine-grained flows (diameter of 45-90 μm) on substrate of various roughness. Results show that the flow runout distance increases with the substrate roughness, and is up to twice the runout on a smooth substrate. High speed video analyses and air pore pressure measurements at the flow base show that the flow head propagating over a rough substrate can auto-fluidize because of particles sedimentation into the substrate interstices, which forces the air to escape upward and percolate through the flow. This auto-fluidization mechanism is efficient at all inclinations investigated (0-30°), suggesting that it could occur during the whole emplacement of a pyroclastic flow. A second study consisted of the vertical release of beds of particles in a static column. Results show that the granular mixture can be fully fluidized, even when collapsing from a relatively low height (20 cm). When particles are fine enough (<100 μm), pore pressure in the deposit diffuses for several seconds, the diffusion duration increasing with increasing bed thickness and decreasing particle size. The longest diffusion durations are observed for pyroclastic flow deposit materials (~30 s for 28.5 cm thick beds). These results suggest that pyroclastic flows propagating on irregular terrains can auto-fluidize and preserve low internal friction during their emplacement

Although numerous hazard models exist to assess possible ash fallout from explosive volcanic eruptions around the world, these models frequently neglect to consider ash aggregation or use a simple percent proxy to represent aggregation, without considering the varying processes at work throughout the volcanic flow. Eruption dynamics are sensitive to ash aggregation, and ash aggregates are commonly found in eruptive deposits, yet few experiments have been conducted on aggregation phenomena using natural materials. In this work, experiments were developed to produce both probabilistic and process-based relationships for the efficiency of ash aggregation with respect particle size, collision kinetic energy, atmospheric water vapor and residence time. A synthetic ash proxy, ballotini, and ash from the 2006 eruption of Tungurahua, Ecuador, and the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, WA, were examined for their aggregation potential. Two aggregation regimes, wet and dry, were identified based on their potential for aggregation. The wet flow regime occurs when particles are circulated in high relative humidity environments long enough to develop a water layer with a thickness that exceeds the particle roughness scale. Hydrodynamic forces control aggregation in the wet flow regime. The dry flow regime includes particles in low relative humidity environments as well as those that circulate too briefly in high humidity environments to fully develop a water layer. Electrostatic forces control aggregation in the dry flow regime. Aggregation efficiency in both regimes was dominantly controlled by collision kinetic energy; however, this effect is significantly dampened in the wet flow regime. Equations governing the relationships between aggregation efficiency, collision kinetic energy and the related forcings in the wet or dry flow regimes have been developed for implementation into large-scale numerical volcanic models. The results of this experimental work have been developed into a probability distribution that has been integrated and incorporated into a multifluid numerical model. The numerical simulation was tested on a range of explosive depths and overpressure estimates from the 1790 eruption of Kilauea volcano, HI. The model output was compared to field data collected on the deposit thickness moving away from the source and the distribution, including both size and density, of aggregates. The mass fraction of ash removed from the eruption column in the form of aggregates was also calculated to examine how efficiently aggregation processes remove ash throughout the eruption. Cumulatively, the work presented here furthers our understanding of aggregation processes and the role they play in volcanic eruptions.

Lava flows are common at volcanoes around the world and on other terrestrial planets, but their behavior is not fully understood. In Hawai`i, advances in remote sensing are offering new insights into lava flow emplacement. In this dissertation, I develop new techniques using satellite-based synthetic aperature radar, aerial photographs, and airborne lidar to produce three-dimensional high-resolution maps of lava flows from data collected before, during, and after emplacement. These new datasets highlight complex lava channel networks within these flows, which are not incorporated into current predictive or probabilistic lava flow models yet may affect flow behavior. I investigate the origin and influence of these channel networks through morphologic analysis of underlying topography, network topology, and flow morphology and volume. Channel network geometries range from distributary systems dominated by flow branching around local obstacles to tributary systems constricted by topography. I find that flow branching occurs where the flow thins over steeper slopes and that the degree of flow branching, network connectivity, and longevity of flow segments all influence the final flow morphology. Furthermore, because channel networks govern the distribution of lava supply within a flow, changes in the channel topology can dramatically alter the effective volumetric flux in any one branch, which affects both flow length and advance rate. Specifically, branching will slow and shorten flows, while merging can accelerate and lengthen them. To test these observations from historic eruptions and morphologic analysis, I use analogue experiments to simulate the interaction of a lava flow with a topographic obstacle and determine the conditions under which the flow branches and the effects of the bifurcation on flow advance rate. These experiments support the earlier results but also demonstrate the importance of flow dynamics and obstacle morphology on governing when flows may overtop obstacles. Consideration of channel networks is thus important for predicting lava flow behavior and mitigating flow hazards with diversion barriers. One video of Kilauea lava flow activity from 2003-2010 accompanies this dissertation as a supplemental file. This dissertation includes both previously published and unpublished co-authored material.

The purpose of this PhD thesis is to evaluate the volcanic risk associated with San Miguel Volcano, one of the most active volcanoes of El Salvador, through assessing volcanic hazard, that is, identify how a volcanic system (i.e., an active volcano or volcanic area) has behaved in the past and then use this information to infer how it may behave in the future. This task requires a compilation of all existing geological and geophysical information concerning the eruption style of the volcanic system in question, its eruptive recurrence, the structural constraints on the opening of new vents, and the characteristics and potential extent of its main hazards. The next step is to draw up eruption scenarios and hazard maps using the information gathered of the previous stage, which will constitute the basis for estimating exposure and vulnerability analysis, the third objective of this study. We followed a probabilistic methodology to conduct the volcanic hazard assessment and scenario simulations. Probabilistic models are widely used in volcanic hazard assessment due to: (1) the lack of precise knowledge of the physical processes governing the dynamics of most volcanic hazards; (2) the difficulties in getting complete parameterisation sets for each phenomena; (3) the normally short time and computational costs; and (4) the acceptable results that probabilistic models provide. Thus, probabilistic or stochastic volcanic hazard analyses provide probabilistic outcomes that reflect the degree of uncertainty in the simulation. We conducted the first systematic and comprehensive long-term hazard assessment for San Miguel using available geological data, past eruption records, stratigraphic information, and volcano-structural data, as well as new information gathered from fieldwork. We obtain a susceptibility map of the volcano and highlighted the areas with the greatest likelihood of hosting future eruptive vents. We conducted two temporal analyses, one with a forecasting time window of two years using information on volcanic activity over the past 430 years (historical period), and another with a forecasting window of six months, with information from the past 16 years (monitoring period). Then we calculated the most likely scenarios for each specific time windows. Secondly, we simulated: (1) the five most likely scenarios (ashfall scenarios, shortmedium extent, and VEI 1-2); (2) other probable scenarios related to lava flows, both according to its historical record; (3) other possible scenarios related to PDCs with similar characteristics to those that occurred during its geological history; and (4) the most hazardous scenario (ashfall, lava flow, PDC) also deduced from its geological record. We also constructed a qualitative integrated volcanic hazard map through the combination of the simulated scenarios. Finally, we made an exposure analysis of San Miguel volcano area, considering population distribution, land use, as well as the distribution of the main infrastructures of the area. Moreover, we estimated a Vulnerability Index for the hazardous areas based on the characterization of the construction materials of walls and roofs of stocks. We constructed different exposure maps for 1) Population, 2) land use, 3) road network, 4) schools, and 5) health centers. For private houses and public infrastructures, we made an estimation of the Vulnerability Index in a village where lahars are frequent. This study was developed with the aim of improving land use and the already existing emergency plans, and pretends to be the starting point for the collaboration and coordination between scientists, the national observatory (OA-MARN), and the civil protection agency of San Miguel municipality, thus helping to strength this cooperation to face future volcanic crises related to San Miguel volcano.

Des mélanges de gaz et de particules sont présents dans divers environnements géophysiques. De tels mélanges chauds sont générés par des éruptions volcaniques explosives et comprennent des écoulements de conduit, des jets et des panaches, ainsi que des courants de densité pyroclastiques. La concentration de particules dans ces mélanges volcaniques peut varier fortement, allant de concentrations élevées (>50 % en volume) dans les écoulements denses fluidisés à des concentrations très faibles dans les suspensions diluées dans lesquelles les particules sont mises en suspension par la phase gazeuse turbulente. Une limite de concentration inférieure à ~% en volume dans les suspensions diluées a été suggérée par des études récentes, car des concentrations plus élevées nécessiteraient une énergie cinétique turbulente excessive. L'objectif principal de cette thèse est d'étudier expérimentalement le comportement d'un écoulement d'air turbulent dans un cylindre avec des concentrations de particules croissantes, pour différents nombres de Reynolds et en utilisant différents types de particules. Les nombres de Reynolds des mélanges gaz-particules dans les expériences atteignaient ~106. Une première série d'expériences a été menée avec des billes de verre de différentes tailles allant de 75-80 μm jusqu'à 2 mm, pour un total de huit tailles de particules. Au-dessus d'un seuil de concentration moyenne de 0.5-3 % en volume, qui augmentait avec le nombre de Reynolds, le comportement de l'écoulement a montré une transition d'une suspension homogène de particules (sous la concentration maximale) vers une séparation en une partie basale dense et une partie supérieure diluée contenant la concentration maximale des particules. Ce seuil de concentration a été détecté à l'aide de mesures de pression et d'une méthode impliquant une sphère dont la densité était légèrement inférieure à la densité apparente des particules et qui pouvait donc flotter au-dessus de la partie basale dense, si celle-ci était présente. Des vidéos à haute vitesse ont révélé que l'apparition de la concentration maximale de particules coïncidait avec l'émergence d’amas de particules dans la partie turbulente diluée. Dans une deuxième partie de la thèse, les expériences ont été répétées pour cinq gammes de tailles de particules de céramique et elles ont révélé le même comportement général que pour les billes de verre. Pour les deux types de particules, une concentration maximale a pu être détectée pour presque toutes les tailles de particules et a montré une augmentation avec le nombre de Reynolds à la puissance 1/5 (billes de verre) ou 0.4 (billes de céramique). Compte tenu du nombre de Reynolds des particules, la concentration maximale des particules augmente ensuite jusqu'à la puissance de 1/6 pour les particules de céramique et de verre. Ces résultats ouvrent de nouvelles perspectives sur la structure des mélanges gaz-particules volcaniques et ils fournissent également des contraintes pour les données d'entrée et de sortie des simulations numériques et pour les observations géophysiques
Mixtures consisting of gas and particles can be found in various geophysical environments. Hot mixtures are generated by explosive volcanic eruptions and include conduit flows, jets and buoyant plumes, and pyroclastic density currents. The particle concentration within these volcanic mixtures can vary highly, from high concentrations (>50 vol. %) in dense fluidized flows to very low concentrations in dilute suspensions in which the particles are suspended by the turbulent gas phase. A concentration limit of less than ~1 vol. % in dilute suspensions was suggested by recent studies, as higher concentrations would require excessive turbulent kinetic energy. The main objective of this thesis was to investigate experimentally the behavior of a turbulent air flow in a pipe with increasing particle concentrations, for different Reynolds numbers and using different types of particles. The Reynolds numbers of the gas-particle mixtures in the experiments were up to ~106. A first set of experiments was conducted with glass beads of varying sizes from 75-80 μm up to 2 mm, for eight particle size ranges in total. Above a bulk concentration threshold of ~0.5-3 vol. %, which increased with the Reynolds number, the flow behavior changed from a homogeneous suspension of particles (below the maximum concentration) to a separation into a dense basal part and an upper dilute part carrying the maximum concentration of particles. This concentration threshold was detected with pressure measurements and a method that involved a ball of a slightly lower density than the bulk density of the particles, which could thus float over the dense basal part, if present. High-speed videos revealed that the occurrence of the maximum particle concentration coincided with the emergence of particle clusters in the dilute turbulent part. In a second part of the thesis, the experiments were repeated for five ceramic particle size ranges and they yielded the same general behavior as for the glass beads. For both types of particles, a maximum concentration could be detected for almost all particle size ranges and showed an increase with the mixture Reynolds number to the power 1/5 (glass beads) or 0.4 (ceramic beads). Considering the particle Reynolds number the maximum particle concentration then increase to the power 1/6 for both ceramic and glass particles. These results give new insights about the structure of volcanic gas-particle mixtures and they also provide constraints for input and output data of numerical simulations and for geophysical observations

Sur les volcans actifs, les anomalies positives de potentiels electriques spontanes (ps) sont spatialement correlees avec les zones siege d'une convection hydrothermale. De plus, les amplitudes de ces anomalies peuvent varier temporellement lors de certaines crises eruptives. Dans le but de caracteriser la generation des ps dans ce contexte, des mesures de differences de potentiels electriques et de temperatures sont effectuees selon l'axe vertical d'une colonne cylindrique de materiau poreux siege d'une convection biphasique (vapeur-eau liquide). En etat stationnaire, ou la repartition des debits de vapeur et d'eau est approchee par bilan thermique, des gradients de potentiels positifs dans le sens du transfert sont mesures. Leur generation est essentiellement liee a la phase vapeur ascendante par effet d'electrofiltration. Ainsi, leur ampleur est fonction des vitesses de cette phase vapeur qui sont contraintes par la permeabilite du milieu et par les conditions de pression. L'etude des etats transitoires met en evidence la cinetique et l'ampleur des augmentations des gradients de potentiels lors d'un accroissement rapide et notable des debits de vapeur. Cette etude experimentale, couplee a la prospection ps detaillee d'une fissure activge de l'etna (sicile), souligne l'interet de la methode en tant qu'outil de caracterisation de l'etat thermique d'un volcan actif et en surveillance de l'activite eruptive. Tout transfert de magma (apport thermique et volumique) devrait etre detecte par des mesures ps de surface si le flux de chaleur convectif associe est significativement modifie

Monogenetic volcanism is characterized by a large diversity of eruptive styles, morphologies and deposits. Monogenetic landforms are the result of a complex merging of internal (magma composition, vesiculation) and external (geological setting, fracturation, hydrogeology, substrate stratigraphy, etc) parameters that govern the physics of the eruptions. Changes in these parameters may cause variations in the eruption style several times during the course of such short-lived volcanoes. Monogenetic volcanoes may form in any type of geological environment with scoria cones being the most common volcano type and hydrovolcanic tuff rings, tuff cones, and maars as the second in abundance. These small-volume volcanoes are generally the result of short-lived eruptions but the activity in a monogenetic volcanic field might exceed the total life of composite volcanoes. The attention of this work was focused on the relation between monogenetic volcanic landforms and the external variables that influenced the dynamics of the eruptions (i.e. magmatism vs phreatomagmatism) through a multidisciplinary perspective, in marine and continental geological settings under which monogenetic volcanism may develop. Different case studies representative of this type of activity and of these different environments have been considered. The first one corresponds to the La Crosa De Sant Dalmai volcano (Garrotxa Volcanic Field, southern sector of the Catalan Volcanic Zone), a roughly circular asymmetrical maar-diatreme volcano, which is one of the most characteristic volcanic edifices of this continental monogenetic volcanic field and the largest Quaternary volcanic crater on the Iberian Peninsula. This edifice is an example of monogenetic landform, mostly composed of phreatomagmatic deposits with subordinate Strombolian phases, constructed on a mixed basement made of hard Paleozoic granites and schists rocks and soft Plio-Quaternary deposits. Here, I reconstructed the hydrogeological conditions of the substrate and the implication for the eruptive dynamics. As a second case study, I carried out detailed stratigraphic and sedimentological studies of the succession of El Golfo tuff cone (Lanzarote, Canary Islands). The main objective of the work was to describe in detail the structure and association of facies of this edifice and use this information to infer changes in eruption style and depositional processes. Another type of eruption was studied in the same archipelago at El Hierro, an island essentially characterized by basaltic volcanism with both Strombolian and Hawaiian activity. Here I reported the stratigraphic, lithological, sedimentological and petrographic characteristics of a felsic hydrovolcanic episode in order to discuss, transport/depositional mechanisms, dynamics, relative age and implications for hazard assessment on the island. Finally, the same type of methodology was applied at Deception Island (Southern Shetland Archipelago, Antarctica), determining the lithological and sedimentological characteristics, and clasts distribution (isopach and isopleth maps) of the eruption of 1970. This information was, then, used to determine depositional processes, eruption style and physical parameters (i.e. plume height, erupted volume, VEI) of the eruption in order to compare this episode with the previous 1967 episode, and to deduce their implications to conduct hazard assessment at the island. Each work represents a diverse aspect of hydrovolcanism and the results obtained helped to better understand the eruptive behavior of this type of volcanoes, which is a fundamental task in order to understand the possible future hazards associated with this type of volcanism. The results obtained can be applied to monogenetic volcanic fields worldwide and are, therefore, useful to reconstruct the evolution of a certain volcanic fields, through the study of single monogenetic volcanoes, and to evaluate the possible volcanic hazards, as similar eruptions represent a serious threat, which is often underestimated. A more systematic study is, thus, needed in order to understand the role of shallow-level conditions in the formation of specific volcano types in such complex volcanic fields.
El vulcanismo monogenético se caracteriza por una gran diversidad de estilos eruptivos, morfologías y depósitos. Los tipos de edificios que se forman son el resultado de una compleja combinación de parámetros que rigen la física de la erupción. La atención de este trabajo se centra en la relación entre los edificios volcánicos monogenéticos y las variables externas que influyen en la dinámica de las erupciones (es decir, magmatismo vs freatomagmatismo) a través de un punto de vista multidisciplinar, en ambientes continentales y marinos en los que el vulcanismo puede desarrollar. Diferentes estudios, representativos de este tipo de actividad en diferentes entornos geográficos y geológicos, se han llevado a cabo. El primer ejemplo corresponde al volcán de La Crosa de Sant Dalmai (Campo Volcánico de La Garrotxa) donde se han reconstruido las condiciones hidrogeológicas del sustrato y la implicación para la dinámica eruptiva. Como segundo caso de estudio, se ha realizado una estratigrafía de detalle del cono de toba de El Golfo (Lanzarote, Islas Canarias), donde se han estudiado los mecanismos de emplazamiento de los depósitos para inferir cambios en la interacción magma/agua. Otro tipo de erupción se ha investigado en el mismo archipiélago, en la Isla de El Hierro, determinando las características físicas de un episodio félsico de origen hidrovolcánico ocurrido en una isla que se caracteriza esencialmente por el vulcanismo basáltico tanto Estromboliano como Hawaiiano. Por último, este mismo tipo de metodología se ha aplicado a la Isla Decepción (archipiélago de las Shetland del Sur, Antártida), estableciendo los parámetros físicos de la erupción del 1970 con el fin de comparar este episodio con el evento anterior del 1967, y deducir sus consecuencias para llevar a cabo la evaluación de peligrosidad en la isla. Los resultados obtenidos pueden ser aplicados a campos volcánicos monogenéticos en todo el mundo y, por tanto, son útiles para reconstruir la evolución de ciertos campos volcánicos, a través del estudio de volcanes monogenéticos individuales, para evaluar los posibles riesgos volcánicos, teniendo en cuenta como erupciones similares representan una grave amenaza, que es a menudo subestimada.

The main focus of this work is to build 3-D FEM models with structural complexities in order to simulate volcanic systems in a more realistic way. We use Rabaul as an example to show the application of the methods and strategies proposed to an active volcano. Rabaul caldera is a volcanic system whose dynamics still need to be understood to effectively predict the behavior of future eruptions. In comparison to the simplified analytic models used so far, more realistic models, such as Finite Elements Models (FEMs), are needed to more accurately explain recent deformation and understand the magmatic system. By inverting InSAR data collected between 2007 and 2010 (using linear inversions based on FEMs), we investigate the sources of surface displacement and provide insights about the actual shallow magmatic system. FEMs are numerical models that let us include realistic features such as topography and mechanical heterogeneities. We provide strategies to use geophysical and geological information to build complex 3-D parts and assemble them into 3-D models. We then compare the effects of different material properties configurations and of different source shapes on the deformational signal and on the strength source estimates (fluid flux or pressure). Ultimately, we provide a strategy for performing a linear inversion based on an array of FEM sources that allows us to identify a distribution of flux of fluid (or change in pressure) over a volume, without imposing an a-priori source shape and depth. We use Rabaul as an example to show the 3-D model’s validity and applicability to active volcanic areas. The methodology is based on generating a library of forward numerical displacement solutions, where each entry is the displacement generated by injecting a mass of fluid of known density and bulk modulus into a source of the array. The sources are simulated as fluid-filled cavities that can accept a specified flux of magma. As the array of sources is an intrinsic geometric aspect of all forward models and the sources are activated one at a time, the domain only needs to be discretized once. This strategy precludes the need for remeshing for each activated source and greatly reduces computational requirements. By using an array of sources, we are not investigating the geometric and pressure parameters of a simplified, unique source with a regular shape. Instead, we are investigating a distribution of flux of fluids over a volume of potential sources responsible for the pressure changes in the medium as dictated by the data. The results allow us to image the complex shape of the deformation source without having to use any a-priori or simplified sources. This takes source modeling a step towards more realistic source models. The application of the methodology to Rabaul shows a shallow magmatic system under the caldera made of two interconnected lobes located at the two opposite sides of the caldera. These lobes are suggested to be the feeding reservoirs of the ongoing Tavuvur volcano eruption, on the eastern side, and of the past Vulcan volcano eruptions, on the western side. The interconnection and spatial distribution of sources find correspondence in the petrography of the products described in literature and in the dynamics of the single and twin eruptions that characterize the caldera. The good results obtained from the application of the method show that the proposed linear inversion based on the FEM array of sources can be considered suitable for generating models of the magmatic system. It can be easily applied to any volcano, because it accounts for volcano deformation without having to specify the shape of the deformation source prior to inversion.
El objetivo principal de este trabajo es la construcción de modelos de elementos finitos (FEMs) 3-D con complejidades estructurales con el fin de simular sistemas volcánicos de manera más realista. Como ejemplo de aplicación se ha escogido la caldera de Rabaul, un sistema volcánico cuya dinámica no se comprende por completo. Invirtiendo los datos de InSAR recogidos durante los años 2007-2010, investigamos las fuentes de desplazamiento de la superficie y proporcionamos claves de relevancia sobre el sistema magmático superficial real. Incluyendo características realistas, como la topografía y heterogeneidades mecánicas, usamos las informaciones geofísicas y geológicas para construir modelos de FEMs complejos en 3D. En última instancia, proporcionamos una estrategia para llevar a cabo una inversión lineal basada en una matriz de fuentes que nos permite identificar una distribución de flujo de fluido a través de un volumen de posibles fuentes responsables de los cambios de presión en el medio según lo dictado por los datos, sin imponer a priori una forma de fuente específica y su profundidad. Los resultados permiten generar imágenes de la forma compleja de la fuente que da lugar a la deformación, en el espacio y en el tiempo, sin tener que utilizar ninguna fuente con una forma excesivamente simplificada a priori. Esto lleva el modelado de fuentes un paso adelante hacia modelos más realistas. En el caso de Rabaul, la aplicación de la metodología discutida anteriormente, muestra un sistema magmático superficial formado por dos lóbulos interconectados localizados bajo la caldera y en posiciones diametralmente opuestas. La interconexión y la distribución espacial de las fuentes encuentran correspondencia en la petrología de los productos descritos en literatura y en la dinámica de las erupciones que caracterizan la caldera. Los resultados obtenidos mediante la aplicación del método son satisfactorios y demuestran que la inversión lineal basada en la matriz de fuentes de FE propuesta puede ser considerada adecuada para generar modelos de sistemas magmáticos. Se puede aplicar fácilmente a cualquier volcán, ya que tiene en cuenta la deformación del edificio sin tener que especificar la forma de la fuente de deformación antes de la inversión.

The observational data recorded by the monitoring networks during El Hierro 2011-2012 volcanic unrest and eruption, allowed us to conduct a study of the volcanic eruptive phenomena with that wide view. The lack of previous instrumental data describing such a process in the Canaries gave us the invaluable chance of analyzing for the first time, novel geophysical signals registered before, during and after an eruptive event, allowing the study of evidence of the energy involved in the emplacement and migration of magma through the lithosphere. The aim of this PhD Thesis is to make a comprehensive revision of the physics of this eruptive process and its causes, through the analysis and processing of geophysical data which has been recorded since the time of the first instrumental record to exist in the area, to the present. Three main aspects are considered, focusing on the eruptive phenomenon of El Hierro at different temporal and spatial scales, going from the general to the specific. The first aspect is the study of the potential relation between the regional geodynamics and the eruptive event of El Hierro 2011–2012. This potential relation, through the analysis of long-time series of geophysical observational data, has not been studied before. Highly reliable seismic and geodetic data acquired from 1996 to 2014 is analyzed, covering: from the North Atlantic Ridge to the West, to the Azores-Gibraltar boundary to the North (including the NW African margin) and the Canary Islands. A joint regional- and local scale analysis based on this data enabled the identification of early signs of anomalous tectonic activity from 2003 onwards, the intensity of which increased in2007,accelerating three months before the onset of the volcanic eruption on El Hierro in October 2011. The second aspect is the study of the precursory signals recorded during the El Hierro volcanic episode (19 July to 10 October, 2011), and their correct interpretation when only limited data is available. The seismic and deformation data corresponding to the pre-eruptive unrest is reanalyzed using novel methods, taking into account new information about the internal structure of the island. Results indicate that important changes in the medium properties and in the magmatic mechanism occurred throughout the process, identifying different phases with distinct types of fracturing. A triggered shear seismicity is observed on pre-existent faults caused by the magma pressure on the structure underneath the island, and the crossing of the Moho discontinuity. The third aspect is the detailed study of the type and geometry of the irreversible mechanism, acting during the final phase of the unrest episode (6-10 October, 2011) and during the first days of tremor (10-15 October, 2011) recording on the seismic monitoring stations. Application of time varying fractal analysis to the seismic data and the characterization of the seismicity pattern and the strain and the stress rates, allows the identification of different stages in the source mechanism, and to infer the geometry of the path used by the magma and associated fluids to reach the Earth’s surface.
El análisis de datos geofísicos y geodésicos en un amplia área que comprende al oeste la Dorsal Oceánica Atlántica, al norte la falla Azores-Gibraltar y el Sur de Iberia y al sur el NW de Marruecos y las Islas Canarias, nos ha permitido realizar un estudio entre la posible relación entre magmatismo y actividad tectónica. En concreto el estudiar su posible influencia en el desencadenamiento de la última erupción ocurrida en la isla de El Hierro en 2011. La ausencia de datos instrumentales previos que describen tal proceso en Canarias, nos dio la oportunidad de analizar por primera vez las señales geofísicas registradas antes, durante y después de un evento eruptivo, permitiendo el estudio de la actividad al emplazamiento y migración del magma a través de la litosfera. El objetivo de esta tesis doctoral es hacer una revisión integral de la física de este proceso eruptivo y sus causas, a través del análisis y procesamiento de datos geofísicos que se han registrado desde la época del primer registro instrumental existente en el área, el presente. Se consideran tres aspectos principales, centrados en el fenómeno eruptivo de El Hierro en diferentes escalas temporales y espaciales, pasando de lo general a lo específico. El primer aspecto es el estudio de la posible relación entre la geodinámica regional y el evento eruptivo de El Hierro 2011-2012. Se analizan los datos sísmicos y geodésicos adquiridos de 1996 a 2014, que abarcan desde el Atlántico Norte hasta el Oeste, hasta la frontera Azores-Gibraltar al Norte (incluido el margen NW-África) y Canarias. Un análisis conjunto permitió identificar signos tempranos de actividad tectónica anómala a partir de 2003, cuya intensidad aumentó en 2007, acelerándose tres meses antes del inicio de la erupción volcánica en El Hierro en octubre de 2011. El segundo aspecto es el estudio del periodo de unrest (10 Julio-10 Octubre). Los resultados muestran en El Hierro evidencias de: inyección de magma bajo la corteza, sobrepresurización, fracturación hidráulica (inicialmente de fluídos ricos en gas), migración hacia el Sur, superación del Moho desencadenando sismicidad inducida en fallas preexistentes y migración hacia la superficie, probablemente en condiciones de irreversibilidad. El tercer aspecto estudiado los las condiciones finales de ascenso de magma a la superficie y de establecimiento de la erupción (6 Octubre-15 Octubre), mostrando cambios en la geometría asociados al establecimiento del edificio volcánico, así como cambios en la composición del magma en los primeros días de la erupción.

Monogenetic volcanism represents the most common volcano type on Earth. The distribution of it depends in each case on their regional and local tectonic controls. The great variety of eruptive styles, edifice morphologies, and deposits shown by monogenetic volcanoes is the result of a complex combination of internal (magma composition, gas content, magma rheology, magma volume, etc.) and external (regional and local stress fields. stratigraphic and rheological contrasts of substrate rock, hydrogeology, etc.) parameters during magma transport from the source region to the surface. The present PhD Thesis focuses on the geological and structural controls of monogenetic volcanism. It pays particular attention to the uppermost part of the lithosphere and its role to determine the distribution of eruptive vents and eruptive styles. We have selected La Garrotxa Volcanic Field (GVFj as a case study. This Quaternary volcanic field is located in the Northeast of the Iberian Peninsula and includes more than SO well-preserved volcanoes. It covers an area of 600 km2, between the cities of Olot and Girona and belongs to the Catalan Volcanic Zone, one of the alkaline volcanic provinces of the European Rift System. The GVF is still poorly known and has become an ideal place for the application of the multidisciplinary studies, including geophysical methods, geological fieldwork and geomorphological and structural analyses, which constitute this PhD Thesis. The first work was carried out at the Northern sector of the GVF. This study was mainly based on the application of gravimetry and self-potential techniques, in order to identify the main tectonic structures of the volcanic area at depth. A second work was performed in order to obtain a much better detail of the shallower structures and to relate the subsurface geology to the feeding system of these monogenetic volcanoes. In this case, we applied the electrical resistivity tomography method, comparing the new data with the self-potential results. A third work was carried out at the Southern sector of the GVF, at La Crosa de Sant Dalmai volcano (10 km SW of Girona), one of the biggest maar-diatreme edifices of the Iberian Peninsula. Here, several geophysical techniques were applied, including gravimetry, magnetometry, self-potential and electrical resistivity tomography. A model of the uppermost part of the diatreme was obtained, determining the internal structure and its origin. The results obtained with the application of these geophysical methods in this volcanic field suggest that electrical resistivity tomography is a useful tool for the study the internal structures of different types of monogenetic landforms. In this way we present a short work that illustrates different examples of internal structures of monogenetic volcanic cones from GVF. Furthermore, combining the results from these geophysical studies with the geological informations obtained by fieldwork, we performed the first volcanic stratigraphy map of the GVF. Finally, we also led a detailed volcano-structural analysis of the whole volcanic field, including geostatistical distribution of faults, fissures and vents, morpho structural lineaments identified by remote sensing, a morphometrical analysis of the volcanic cones and craters, location of regional seismic events recorded in the area (since 1978), and mantle derived gases in springs and water wells, as a guide to identify active faults and open fractures and to define the structural controls of this volcanism. The results obtained from all these studies have permitted understanding how magma was transported into the lithosphere and erupted at the surface, and represent an essential tool for a correct volcanic hazard assessment of the GVF. Furthermore, the methodologies described in this PhD Thesis establish general guidelines to study active monogenetic volcanic fields and we hope that it will contribute to improve their understanding.
La present Tesi Doctoral es centra en els controls geològics i estructurals del vulcanisme monogenètic. S'ha posat especial atenció a la part més superficial de la litosfera i en el paper que juga aquesta zona en determinar la distribució de punts emissors i estils eruptius. S'ha seleccionat com a cas estudi el Camp Volcànic de la Garrotxa (GVF) (NE d'lberia). Aquest és encara poc conegut i ha esdevingut un lloc ideal per l'aplicació d'estudis multidlsciplinaris com els treballs que constitueixen aquesta Tesi Doctoral, integrant mètodes geofísics. treballs de camp, ¡ anàlisis geomorfològics i estructurals. Els primers dos treballs s'han portat a terme al sector Nord del GVF. Aquests estudis s'han basat en l'aplicació de diverses tècniques geofísiques, identificant així les estructures tectòniques principals I obtenint una informació detallada del basament. El tercer treball també s'ha realitzat a partir d'un estudi multigeofísic. En aquest cas al sector Sud del GVF, concretament al volcà de la Crosa de Sant Dalmai. Els resultats han permès la realització d'un model de la part superior de la diatrema, determinant la seva estructura interna i origen. Els resultats obtingut suggereixen que la tomografia elèctrica resulta una eina eficaç per l'estudi dels diferents tipus d'edificis monogenètics. D'aquesta manera es presenta un treball breu amb diferents exemples de l'estructura dels cons volcànics de la zona. Combinant aquests resultats amb informació geològica de camp, s'ha realitzat la primera cartografia vulcanoestratigràfica del GVF. Finalment, s'ha fet un anàlisi volcanoestructural de tot el camp volcànic, el qual Inclou la distribució geoestadística de falles, fissures i punts emissors, identificació morfo-estructural de lineacions, anàlisi morfomètric dels cons i cràters, localització de la sismicitat registrada de la zona i gasos derivats del mantell en surgències i pous, com a guia per identificar falles actives o fractures obertes, amb l'objectiu de definir els controls estructurals d'aquest vulcanisme. Tot els resultats obtinguts han permès entendre el transport del magma des de la litosfera fins la superfície, i representen un eina essencial per una correcta avaluació de la perillositat volcànica al GVF. Tanmateix, les metodologies descrites estableixen una pauta general per l'estudi dels camps monogenètics actius.

Monitoring the elastic properties of the subsurface is of a special interest to mitigate the associated risk with natural and artificial hazards. In the last decade, coda-wave interferometry has become an excellent tool to characterize the subsurface in a large variety of environments. Additionally, coda-wave interferometry applied to the ever-present seismic ambient noise enables a continuous retrieval of virtual-source responses that allows monitoring structural and mechanical changes of media. Throughout this thesis, we perform a comprehensive study of seismic noise interferometry employing all the currently used methodologies to observe lag-time changes: Time evolution of waveform similarity, waveform stretching and moving window cross-spectrum technique. Furthermore, we introduce some improvements in order to increase the temporal accuracy and sensitivity of said methodologies to detect tiny medium changes. In particular, we carry out the study in two scenarios with very di fferent tectonic settings: the 2011 El Hierro eruption and the Reykjanes geothermal system (RGS). We compute the phase auto- and cross-correlation (PCC) of 1.5 years of continuous seismic noise records of all available seismic stations in both cases. The PCC provides an accurate and amplitude-unbiased measure of coherence between two seismic traces and allows obtaining detailed daily seismic response of media. In the case of the 2011 El Hierro volcanic eruption, through the analysis of waveform similarity time series of auto-correlations we clearly identify different pre-eruptive phases, as well as the end of the main magmatic emission and three magmatic intrusions that occurred in 2012. We use probabilistic sensitivity kernels to locate the places of the highest dynamics, providing that the ected areas correspond to the magmatic accumulation zone and the extinct volcanic area of Tiñor. In this study, we also introduce the change point analysis approach in order to automatically detect significant changes in time series. The second scenario consists in studying stress changes and potential deformations of the subsurface caused by geothermal well operations at RGS. For that purpose, we retrieve and analyse time series of waveform similarity values and seismic velocity variations. However, the continuous production over a large area and various injection wells make challenging the detection of time-lag changes in the coda. To tackle this issue, we decompose the similarity time series into the time-frequency domain through the S- transform, which allows us to discriminate fluctuations associated to injection and production rate drops. Furthermore, we observe a slow seismic velocity decrease in the reservoir due to the water deficit as well as seasonal variations associated with the energy production demand.
El monitoreo de las propiedades elásticas del subsuelo es de especial interés para mitigar el riesgo asociado con peligros naturales y artificiales. En la última década, la interferometría de ondas de coda (coda-wave interferometry) se ha convertido en una excelente herramienta para caracterizar el subsuelo en una gran variedad de escenarios. Además, esa metodología aplicada al ruido sísmico ambiental, el cual está siempre presente en los registros sísmicos, permite calcular de forma continua las respuestas sísmicas del medio (o funciones de Green) y así monitorear los cambios estructurales y mecánicos de los medios. En esta tesis, hemos realizado un estudio exhaustivo de la interferometría de ruido sísmico empleando todas las metodologías utilizadas actualmente para observar cambios temporales: similitud de la forma de onda, estiramiento de la forma de onda (stretching) y la técnica de moving window cross-spectrum. Además, introducimos algunas mejoras para aumentar la precisión temporal y la sensibilidad de dichas metodologías para detectar pequeños cambios en el medio. En particular, hemos llevado a cabo el estudio en dos escenarios con marcos tectónicos muy diferentes: la erupción de El Hierro de 2011 y el sistema geotérmico de Reykjanes (RGS). Calculamos auto-correlaciones y correlaciones cruzadas de fase (phase cross-correlation) de 1,5 años de registros continuos de ruido sísmico de todas las estaciones sísmicas disponibles en ambos casos. La PCC proporciona una medida precisa de la coherencia entre dos trazas sísmicas la cual no está condicionada por la amplitud de dichas trazas. De esta forma, hemos obtenido una detallada y diaria respuesta sísmica del medio. En el caso de la erupción volcánica de El Hierro de 2011, a través del análisis de la evolución temporal de las similitudes de forma de onda de auto-correlaciones, identificamos las diferentes fases pre-eruptivas de la erupción, así como el final de la emisión magmática y las tres intrusiones magmáticas ocurridas en 2012. Utilizamos sensitivity kernels para localizar los lugares de mayor dinamismo durante la crisis volcánica. Resultando que las áreas más afectadas son la zona de acumulación magmática alrededor del volcán Tanganasoga y al área volcánica extinta de Tiñor. En este estudio, presentamos el change-point analysis para detectar automáticamente cambios significativos en las series de tiempo y así poder automatizar su búsqueda con un bajo coste computacional. La segunda parte de la tesis consiste en estudiar cambios de esfuerzos y posibles deformaciones del subsuelo causadas por las operaciones de los pozos geotérmicos en RGS. Con este fin, calculamos y analizamos las series temporales de los valores de similitud de forma de onda y variaciones de velocidad sísmica. Sin embargo, la producción de energía se produce de forma continua y hay varios pozos de inyección de fluidos distribuidos por la zona de estudio, esta perturbación continuada del medio dificulta la detección de cambios temporales en la coda. Por ello, abordamos el estudio descomponiendo las series de tiempo de similitud en el dominio de tiempo-frecuencia a través de la transformada S. Esto nos permite discriminar las fluctuaciones en la coda que están asociadas a las variaciones bruscas que se producen en la actividad de la planta geotérmica. Por otro lado, observamos una disminución lenta de la velocidad sísmica en el reservorio debido al déficit de agua que está causando el sistema geotérmico. Por último, observamos variaciones estacionales en el subsuelo que acompañan a la demanda de producción de energía de la población islandesa.

The explosive events in Teide Pico Viejo (TPV) complex in Tenerife Island (Spain) have traditionally been restricted to the subplinian eruption of Montaña Blanca, which occurred about 2000 years ago. A recent revision of the stratigraphy of TPV shows that phonolitic explosive activity has been significant during the Holocene, with several distinct episodes related to eruptions ranging from Strombolian to sub-plinian. Using field, mineralogical and geochemical stratigraphic correlations, we have identified 11 phonolitic explosive eruptions related to the satellite domes present all around TPV complex. One of the most representative eruptions is that of El Boqueron (5,660 yBP), a dome that generated an explosive event of VEI 3 with a minimum volume of 4-6x107 m3 and produced a plume with a height of up to 9km above sea level (MER 6.9-8.2x105 kg/s, during 9-15 h). The occurrence of these explosive events in the recent eruptive record of TPV is of major importance in evaluating the risk imposed by the volcanic complex on Tenerife. These eruptions have generated a wide range of direct hazards, such as fallout, emplacement of pyroclastic density currents, debris flows, lahars, and rock avalanches, which could occur again in case of a renewal of volcanic activity. The results obtained in our study are relevant to define realistic and precise eruptive scenarios for TPV and to assess its associated hazard, a necessary step in the evaluation and mitigations of volcanic risk in Tenerife
El complejo volcánico Teide Pico Viejo (TPV) es un stratovolcano situado en la isla de Tenerife, Islas Canarias, y ha sido considerado por la UNESCO el sistema volcánico activo más peligroso en Europa. Los eventos explosivos en el complejo TPV se han limitado tradicionalmente a la erupción subplinian de Montaña Blanca, que ocurrió hace unos 2000 años. Una reciente revisión de la estratigrafía muestra que la actividad explosiva fonolítica asociada a TPV ha sido significativa durante el Holoceno, presentado distintos episodios relacionados con erupciones que varían en tamaño de estromboliano a sub-pliniano. A través de las correlaciones estratigráficas obtenidas mediante observaciones de campo y datos de mineralógicos y geoquímicos, se han identificado 11 erupciones explosivas fonolítica relacionados con los domos satélite presentes en todo complejo TPV. Una de las erupciones más representativa es El Boquerón (5660 YBP), un domo que generó un evento explosivo de VEI 3 con un volumen mínimo de 4-6x107 m3 y produjo una columna con una altura de hasta 9 kilometros sobre el nivel del mar ( MER 6.9-8.2x105 kg / s, durante 9-15 h). La ocurrencia de estos eventos explosivos en el reciente registro eruptivo del complejo TPV es de gran importancia para evaluar el riesgo impuesto por el complejo volcánico en Tenerife. Estas erupciones han generado una amplia gama de amenazas directas, como los depósitos de caida, emplazamiento de las corrientes piroclásticas densidad, flujo de derrubios, lahares y avalanchas de roca, lo que podría ocurrir de nuevo en caso de renovación de la actividad volcánica. Los resultados obtenidos en nuestro estudio son relevantes para definir escenarios eruptivos realista y precisos para el complejo TPV y para evaluar su riesgo asociado, un paso necesario en la evaluación y mitigación del riesgo volcánico en Tenerife

El volcanismo oligo-mioceno del Sulcis, SO de Cerdeña (Italia) presenta la particularidad de contener rocas peralcalinas y alcalinas de un ambiente geodinámico anorogénico posterior a la actividad orogénica relacionada con la subducción de una placa oceánica durante la migración antihoraria del bloque Sardo-Corso y la sincrónica creación de la cuenca Liguro-Provençal. La geocronología 40Ar/39Ar (feldespatos), marca el final de la actividad magmática calcoalcalina a 16.18±0.04 Ma (Burdigaliense) y el inicio del episodio anorogénico a 15.96±0.04 Ma (Langhiniense inferior). La duración del evento peralcalino fue de 350 ka según edades U-Pb en zircones. El volcanismo del Sulcis está relacionado con una caldera elíptica de 30x20 km con su eje mayor de dirección NE-SO, de tipo depresión volcano-tectónica de apertura gradual, relacionada con esfuerzos transcurrentes senestrales a través de lineamientos tectónicos regionales paralelos a la Fosa Sarda. Un modelamiento geológico 3D en el Entroterra Sulcitano permitió calcular 21 km3 de flujos ignimbríticos eruptados en un período de ~1.5 Ma. Se estima que el volumen eruptivo en todo el SO de Cerdeña se aproxima a 100 km3, constituyendo una de las mayores calderas del Mediterráneo Occidental. Importantes mineralizaciones de Mn (Fe-Ba) de origen volcánico-hidrotermal están controladas estructuralmente por la intersección de fallas radiales con el sistema de anillos de la caldera. Una cartografía detallada en San Pietro, Sant’Antioco y el Entroterra Sulcitano, permitió dividir una secuencia de ~1300 m de rocas ígneas dómicas, lávicas y piroclásticas en 7 series volcánicas con 25 unidades y 42 subunidades compuestas por andesitas, traquiandesitas, riolitas, comenditas y pantelleritas. Importantes evidencias de vulcanismo submarino se presentan en la Isla de San Pietro en un ambiente marcado por actividad magmático-hidrotermal al final de la serie riolítica media (MRH) y la serie comendítica inferior (LCO). Esta actividad tectono-magmático-hidrotermal es más importante en San Pietro, entre Macchione y Cala Fico, a lo largo de una falla E-O radial a la caldera, con un depósito tipo SEDEX proximal intercalado entre las unidades de Montagna di Capo Rosso y Matzaccara, compuesto por óxidos de Mn, jaspes y ocres que corresponden con el primer sistema mineralizado genéticamente relacionado con el colapso de la caldera, cambio en las condiciones locales del nivel del mar, reactivación de fallas que limitan horst y grabens y circulación de fluidos de origen magmáticos y marino. Este sistema hidrotermal está activo en la parte superior de la serie MRH durante ~10 ka. Un segundo sistema hidrotermal se produce con la erupción de las primeras unidades comendíticas de la serie LCO, también en un ambiente con influencia marina y mineralizaciones de Mn-Fe de tipo hidrotermal-epigenético que ocurren ~220 ka después del primer evento. Mineralizaciones menores de Mn suceden durante la erupción de la unidad Monte Ulmus en San Pietro y Sant’Antioco, y en las unidades Punta Mingosa y Post-Calasetta, principalmente asociados con zonas de blisters donde precipitan óxidos de Fe y se produce argilización y silicificación intensa. Los blisters en las unidades superiores de la secuencia indican un período de desgasificación importante de la cámara magmática en los estadios terminales del magmatismo del Sulcis. La geoquímica isotópica de elementos radiogénicos (Sr-Nd-Pb) muestra que la cuña mantélica implicada en la generación de rocas andesíticas y riolíticas del ambiente orogénico tienen mezcla de componentes DMM+EM1, mientras que los magmas peralcalinos y los previos (MRH) presentan una fuerte señal del componente EM2. El estudio comparado de elementos traza y radiogénicos (87Sr/86Sr vs. Zr/Nb) muestra un enriquecimiento en la isotopía de Sr a medida que los magmas peralcalinos evolucionan por cristalización fraccionada, esto permite trazar los aportes de magmas menos evolucionados que llegan sucesivamente, mostrando una señal mantélica de mayor profundidad, desencadenado las erupciones.
The Oligo-Miocene volcanism from SW Sardinia (Italy) presents peralkaline and alkaline rocks of an anorogenic geodynamic environment erupted after the orogenic magmatism. 40Ar/39Ar geochronology marks the end of the calc-alkaline magmatic activity at 16.18±0.04 Ma and the beginning of the anorogenic episode at 15.96±0.04 Ma. The Sulcis volcanism related to a 30x20 km piecemeal elliptical caldera with a NE-SW direction major axis was formed in a sinistral transtensional regimen. A 3D modeling on Sulcis Mainland provides 21 km3 of ignimbrite flows erupted in ~1.5 Ma (in all likelihood 100 km3 for the whole caldera). Significant Mn mineralizations of volcanic-hydrothermal origin are controlled by the intersection of radial faults with the caldera ring system. Detailed mapping in Sulcis region shows a sequence of ~1300 m (domes, lavas and pyroclastic flows) in 7 volcanic series (25 units and 42 subunits from andesites to peralkaline rhyolites). On San Pietro Island, evidence of submarine volcanism is shown in an environment marked by magmatic-hydrothermal activity at the end of the middle rhyolitic (MRH) and the lower comenditic (LCO) series. This tectonic-magmatic-hydrothermal activity is more important between Macchione and Cala Fico area, along a radial E-W fault, with respect to the caldera ring. In this context, there is a vent-proximal Sedex type deposit with Mn oxides, jaspers and ochres. This deposit corresponds to the first mineralized system genetically related to the caldera collapse, along with changes in sea level local conditions, faults reactivation limiting horst and grabens, and fluids circulation of magmatic and marine origin. This hydrothermal system is active on top of the MRH series for ~10 ka. A second event is produced by the eruption of the first comenditic units in the LCO series, also in a marine-influenced and hydrothermal-epigenetic Mn-Fe mineralization environment, ~220 ka after the first event. Minor hydrothermal mineralizations occur during the eruption of the Monte Ulmus unit in San Pietro and Sant'Antioco. The Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes show a magma generation starting by DMM+EM1 that evolves to an EM2 component at MRH and peralkaline rocks. The 87Sr/86Sr vs. Zr/Nb relation shows radiogenic Sr isotopes enrichment as peralkaline magmas evolve by fractional crystallization.

Volcanoes are a key component of the Earth system, with volcanic activity reaching from deep in the Earth’s mantle and extending to interactions with volcanic gases and the atmosphere. Volatile trace metals degas from volcanic eruptions and at fumaroles, but their behaviour is poorly understood. I designed and built a benchtop fumarole, from which I degassed a silicate melt with trace metals, to simulate the volatilization and sublimation of trace metals from volcanic gases. I collected sublimates along a temperature gradient to examine the behaviour of the trace metals. The experimental sublimates were analysed for their chemical composition and phase identification. Lithium, Cu, As, Rb, Mo, Ag, Cd, Cs, W, Pt, Tl, Pb and Bi were found to be volatile and sublimed in elevated concentrations at various temperatures between 250-600°C. Compared to natural fumarole studies, similar volatile behaviour is seen for Cu, As, Ag and Tl. Variability between the experimental and natural fumarole sublimates is proposed to be from a lack of ligands in the experiments. Ligands can complex with trace metals, to transport and sublime mineralogical phases. Given the importance of ligands to metal complexation, I proceeded to examine the importance of chloride as a ligand in volatile transport and sublimation of trace metals. I degassed a silicate melt with trace metals and variable concentrations of Cl-, up to 2 wt% Cl-, in air. Sublimates produced from these experiments were analysed for mineralogical and chemical information. Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy helped to determine that silica polymorphs occur at all temperatures and that halite forms below 600°C. Additional phases, including hydrated phases transporting Mo, Cu and Pb also formed as sublimates. These hydrated phases are suggested to be hydrated post-experiment or are Cl--bearing analogues. The addition of Cl- to the experiments increases the concentration of Li, Rb, Cs, Ag, Cr, Cu, Mo and W in the sublimates compared to Cl-free experiments and Cl-bearing phases are likely hosts of volatile trace metals. Volcanic gases in nature do not have the oxygen fugacity of air and contain considerable S. To conduct sublimation experiments at various lower oxygen fugacities and with S as it is a redox sensitive ligand, I adapted my original benchtop fumarole design to a gas-mixing furnace, in which I degassed silicate melts containing S, Cl and trace metals. Substantial loss of S and Zn, Sn, As, Bi, Pb and Cd occurred from the starting material melt in the most reduced experiment at 4.6 log units below the FMQ buffer. This loss corresponded to increased concentrations of the same elements in the sublimates of the same experiment. These trace elements are likely hosted as sulfide minerals, as the fO2 conditions are in the sulfide stability field. This agrees with thermodynamic calculations that determine that sulfides should be stable in similar conditions to this experiment. Chlorides are sublimed in experiments from ~200-650°C and are likely subliming as a NaCl-KCl-FeCl3 solid solution. Halite is calculated to form at all temperatures in the experiments, based on modelling. These chlorides are probably hosting Cu, Cd, Bi, Li, Rb and Ag in the experiments. In nature, if these metals are in soluble salts, when leached they provide a source of metals to the environment where they are deposited. Overall, I demonstrated that trace metal behaviour in the sublimates from volcanic gases will be affected by available ligands and the oxygen fugacity of the melt and the gas. Chlorides are a likely phase to host trace metals and are ubiquitous in experiments, even with variable melt compositions, fO2 conditions and across a wide temperature range.
Graduate

Enhanced knowledge of pre- and syn-eruptive processes is vital to deal with the increasing threat imposed to population and infrastructure by volcanoes that have been active historically and may potentially erupt in future. For many years, most of this knowledge was received from experiments on analogue materials and/or numerical models. In order to increase their significance and applicability for the “real” case, the natural complexity may not be oversimplified and the input parameters must be reliable and realistic. In the light of this, a close connection of field and laboratory work is essential. Volcanic eruptions may be phreatic, phreatomagmatic or magmatic, the latter scenario of which was addressed in this study. Rising magma is subject to decreasing lithostatic pressure. As a direct consequence, volatiles become increasingly oversaturated and bubbles will nucleate and grow depending on initial volatile content and melt viscosity. Both factors directly influence the diffusivity that limits the rate of bubble growth. Increasing amounts of bubbles increase the buoyancy difference to the surrounding rocks and lead to an acceleration of the rising melt-bubble mixture. Beside these limiting factors, the overpressure in the gas bubbles greatly depends on the magma’s ascent speed as it controls the residence time to conditions favourable to degassing (a combination of lithostatic pressure and magma temperature) and the time of overpressure reduction due to degassing. Volcanic eruptions occur when the bubbly melt can no longer withstand the exerted stress that derives from the overlying weight (lithostatic pressure), the expanding gas bubbles (internal gas overpressure) and different ascent velocities in the conduit (velocity profile). The melt will be fragmented and the gas-pyroclast mixture will be erupted. This study has combined close investigation of the deposits of the 1990-1995 eruption of Unzen volcano, Japan and detailed laboratory investigations on samples of this eruption and other volcanoes. The field work intended to reveal the density distribution of samples from within the eruptive products. Although all samples already underwent one eruption, their physical state (e.g. crystallinity, porosity) mostly remained close to sub-surface pre-eruption conditions due to their high viscosity and accordingly allowed their usage for the analysis of the fragmentation behaviour. In that purpose, rapid decompression experiments that simulate volcanic eruptions triggered by internal gas overpressure have been performed at 850 °C to evaluate fragmentation threshold and fragmentation efficiency. Laboratory investigations of that kind are one approach to bridge the gap between observational field volcanology and risk assessment as they reveal information on what can not be investigated closely but what is essential to know for realistic eruption models and the adjacent hazard mitigation. Changing the experimental conditions and close investigation of the artificial products reveals the influence of physical properties on the fragmentation behaviour. The density distribution inside a dome and the upper part of the conduit is crucial to the eruptive style of an explosive volcano. This information cannot be collected during an ongoing eruption but is important for future hazard assessment via modelling conduit flow and dome collapse/explosion behaviour. Therefore, the percentage of the mass fractions of all rock types in the primary and secondary volcanic deposits must be evaluated. For this purpose and at the lowest logistic effort, field-based density measurements have been performed on Unzen volcano, Japan. The resultant density distribution was found to be generally bimodal at constant peak values but changing peak ratios. The most abundant rock types at Unzen exhibited an open porosity of 8 and 20 vol.%, respectively. The porosity was found to be arranged in layers of cm- to dm-scale that were oriented subparallel to flow direction, i.e. subvertical within the conduit and flank-parallel within the dome lobes. The achieved results allowed for an internal picture of the dome during the last eruption of Unzen volcano. The evaluated picture of the density distribution within the uppermost parts of the conduit and the dome itself allowed for insights into and a better understanding of magma ascent and degassing conditions at Unzen volcano during its last eruption. Knowledge of the density distribution is additionally required to draw conclusions from the results of laboratory investigations on the fragmentation behaviour to the monitored behaviour of Unzen volcano during its last eruption. In the laboratory, the fragmentation behaviour upon rapid decompression has been investigated in a modified fragmentation bomb (Spieler et al., 2004). At 850 °C, initial overpressure conditions as high as 50 MPa have been applied to sample cylinders (25 mm diameter, 60 mm length) drilled from natural samples. In a first step, the minimum overpressure required to cause complete sample fragmentation (= fragmentation threshold, ΔPfr) has been evaluated. Results from samples of several volcanoes (Unzen, Montserrat, Stromboli, and Mt. St. Helens) showed that ΔPfr mainly depended on open porosity and permeability of the specific sample as these parameters were controlling pressure build-up and loss. The experiments further revealed that sample fragmentation was not the result of a single process but the result of a combination of simultaneously occurring processes as indicated by Alidibirov et al. (2000). The degree of influence of a single process to the fragmentation behaviour was found to be porosity-dependent. Further experiments at initial pressure conditions above ΔPfr and close investigation of the artificially generated pyroclasts allowed evaluating the fragmentation efficiency upon changing physical properties of the used samples. The efficiency of sample size reduction was investigated by grain-size analysis (dry sieving for particles bigger than 0.25 mm and wet laser refraction for particles smaller than 0.25 mm) and surface area measurements (by Argon adsorption). Results of experiments with samples of different porosities at different initial pressure values showed that the efficiency of fragmentation increased with increasing energy. The energy available for fragmentation was estimated from the open porosity and the applied pressure. A series of abrasion experiments was performed to shed light on the grain size reduction due to particle-particle interaction during mass movements. The degree of abrasion was found to be primarily depending on porosity and experimental duration. The results showed that abrasion may change the density distribution of block-and-ash flows (BAF) by preferentially abrading porous clasts. However, during the short drying interval prior to the analysis of the experimental pyroclasts, abrasion-induced grain-size reduction only played a minor role and was assumed to be negligible.
Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Munich (LMU)
Published
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