Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Exiles – Poland »
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Articles de revues sur le sujet "Exiles – Poland"
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Shaidurov, Vladimir N., et Tadeush A. Novogrodski. « Authorities and Polish Exiles in the Siberia of the 19th century (Based on Epistolary Sources) ». Journal of Frontier Studies 7, no 1 (3 mars 2022) : 294–311. http://dx.doi.org/10.46539/jfs.v7i1.380.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The Polish movement of national liberation is one of the characteristic features of the history of the Russian Empire in the nineteenth century. Tsarism reacted harshly to the uprising in Poland in 1830–1831 and the January Uprising of 1863–64. Plenty of participants were exiled under police supervision to the inner provinces of European Russia and Siberia. Correspondence became the main channel of communication for the exiles and their loved ones. Additional rules were developed at the end of 1863 in order to strengthen control over the exiled Poles, which included perlustration of postal and telegraphic correspondence by the provincial and county authorities. The purpose of the study is to analyze the extracts and copies of the letters of Polish exiles which are preserved in the State Archive of the Novgorod region and deal with the Siberian theme. The detected documents contain information that makes it possible to reconstruct certain aspects of the daily life of Poles on the way to the exile location and in the new place of their residence, to describe the moods of the exiles and their attitudes towards the events of national and local significance as well as to present individual plots of family history. The article is intended for those interested in genealogy, the history of Polonia in Russia, perlustration in the Russian Empire and the daily life of exiles.
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Gadamska-Serafin, Renata. « Norwid and the exiles to Siberia ». Studia Norwidiana 37 English Version (2020) : 61–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.18290/sn.2019.37-4en.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The exiles to Siberia had a profound influence on Norwid’s consciousness already in his middle school years (i.e. in the 1830s) as the next wave (following the one after the failure of the November Uprising) began at that time. The subject of exile and martyrdom was often discussed by Norwid in conversations and correspondence with his friends. Even among the poet’s close and distant relatives, there were many people who were affected by the deportation to the East (Józef Hornowski, the Kleczkowski family, Konstanty Jarnowski). The list of Norwid’s friends who were deported to Syberia is horribly long: Karol Baliński, Maksymilian Jatowt (pseud. Jakub Gordon), Agaton Giller, Karol Ruprecht, Stefan Dobrycz, Andrzej Deskur, Bronisław Zaleski, Antoni and Michał Zaleski, Anna Modzelewska and her brother, Aleksander Hercen, Piotr Ławrow. There were also some occasional meetings with the exiled or their families (Aniela Witkiewiczówna, Aleksander Czekanowski). Norwid attentively listened to oral accounts of those who returned, he also read publications on Siberian themes published from the early 1950s (among others, by Giller, Gordon, B. Zaleski). In his speeches and letters he repeatedly drew attention to the necessity of commemorating the “Siberian exiles” and providing them with support – both spiritual and material – as well as establishing the Siberian Society, “where all single sufferings and conquest would come to balance”. Providing the exiled with state protection and enabling them to return to their homeland became even one of the points of Norwid’s project for the political and social principles of future Poland.
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Ivanov, A. A. « Siberian Diary of Benedict Dybovsky ». Bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series History 34 (2020) : 112–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2222-9124.2020.34.112.
Texte intégralRésumé :
A review of the collection of memoirs of Benedict Dybovsky, which recreated the events of his stay in Siberian exile after the suppression of the January 1863 uprising in Poland. The author describes in detail his “involuntary journey” from St. Petersburg to Transbaikalia, made as part of the stage party of Polish exiles, recreates paintings of hard labor and everyday life in the settlement. The pages of the diary also tell about the author's scientific research conducted by him in Dauria, the Far East and, of course, on the shores of Lake Baikal in 1864–1877.
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Chmielewski, Witold. « W trosce o polskość dzieci i młodzieży z okresu drugiej wojny światowej w Nowej Zelandii ». Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny 64, no 4 (254 (13 février 2020) : 272–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.8473.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The aim of the article is to present the issue of retaining the national identity among the youngest Polish exiles living in New Zealand. To present that issue, methods appropriate for the history of education were applied. The basis of the research were the materials stored in the Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London. As a result of the archival research, at the invitation of the Prime Minister Peter Fraser, a group of Polish children arrived in the settlement of Pahiatua in New Zealand. They were mainly orphans with their carers. The exiles were provided with good living conditions. School children were prepared to return to free Poland after the war, they attended Polish schools in the settlement and the older ones attended New Zealand schools run mainly by the Catholic Church. The moment Poland found itself under the Soviet influence and the power was taken by the communists, the exiles from Pahiatua did not want to return to the enslaved country. They decided to stay in the friendly New Zealand. In that situation, the issue of retaining their national identity arose, along with the need to provide them with education, profession and work. The concept of resisting the policy of depriving the young generation of their national identity was in the focus of the Polish authority in London. It was also a matter of great concern of the teachers and carers in the settlement of Pahaiatua. Many initiatives were taken which aimed at retaining the Polish identity among children and youth living in New Zealand, who gradually started work in the unknown environment. The conducted activities to retain the Polish identity bore positive results. The Polish identity wasretained not only by the exiles but also by their children and grandchildren, who, not knowing the language of their ancestors, cultivate national traditions and remember their roots. As a result of the presented deliberations, we may draw a conclusion that the conduct of the Polish authority in exile in the analysed issue was appropriate. In such a situation one should act similarly and always consistently.
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Shaidurov, Vladimir, et Danila Kosko. « Polish exiles through the eyes of contemporaries (based on memoirs of the second half of the 1860s - 1910s) ». OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2020, no 10-4 (1 octobre 2020) : 255–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202010statyi93.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article is devoted to the attitude of Russian society towards the participants in the uprising in the Kingdom of Poland of 1863-1864 in the territory of Western Siberia. Based on a wide range of sources, the author concludes that most of the representatives of Russian society in Siberia were positive about exiled Poles. Local residents gladly took them to the service, the administration also proceeded loyal to the participants in the January uprising. Separately, it is worth noting the representatives of Russian society who were in exile with the Poles. For the most part, these were participants in the populist movement, and, as a result, the intellectual part of Russian society. The Narodniks supported the Polish liberation movement, opposing the policy of tsarism in Poland.
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Yolkin, Anatolii. « Russian Women in Emigration in Poland during the 1920s – 1940s ». Journal of V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. Series : History, no 61 (27 juin 2022) : 202–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.26565/2220-7929-2022-61-09.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article examines the situation of Russian women-emigrants who found themselves on the territory of Poland in the 1920s – 1930s. Almost all categories of the population of the former Russian Empire were represented among the refugees in Poland. Among the ranks of the exiles there were also women who had to adapt to the difficult social conditions of their stay in the country. During the 1920s – 1930s, of the total number of emigrants (50-60 thousand people who stayed in the country) about 30 % were women and children. In 1919–1920, Poland was one of the centers of the anti-Bolshevik struggle. Therefore, the Russian emigrants gave their support to the Poles. For instance, Z. Gippius took part in the publication of the newspaper and the formation of Russian military units. After the end of the Soviet-Polish War, the soldiers and officers of these units were interned in camps. Among them were nurses, as well as women and children. The families of the internees were housed in common barracks, often women and children had to sleep on the floor. The Russian Red Cross Society, headed by L. I. Lyubimova, tried to provide the internees with food, clothing, medical care, and find work. By the mid-1920s, it became clear that the stay of exiles abroad could lasted for many years. Therefore, the main attention of the emigrant organizations were paid to cultural and educational activities. It was carried out through the Russian houses that appeared in Warsaw, Vilna and other cities. There women took an active part in the work of various circles, libraries, theater studios. In families, wives and mothers tried to maintain not only the home comfort, but also to educate children in the spirit of national traditions. So far as women in exile often had to support unemployed husbands or disabled people, they tried to find a job. But most of them could only hope for odd jobs in sewing workshops or trade.
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Leonczyk, Sergiusz. « ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES OF THE PEOPLES OF SIBERIA BY POLISH EXILES IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY ». Ural Historical Journal 71, no 2 (2021) : 154–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.30759/1728-9718-2021-2(71)-154-160.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article provides information on ethnographic studies of Siberian peoples published by Poles in the form of descriptions, notes and diaries in the second half of the 19th century. The ethnographic sketches of the exiled participants of the January Uprising in Poland (1863–1864), P. Argant, A. J. Kon, M. Hruszecki, and J. Koton, published in European languages are still little-studied. The author notes the special contribution of L. Nemojewski, who, while in exile, wrote dozens of essays and the book “Siberian Pictures”, which was published in Polish and English. L. Nemojewski was one of the first to present to the European reader the life of the Siberian peoples — and not only the indigenous, but also the Russian Siberians. Not all his descriptions are accurate, sometimes they are somewhat naive. Of particular value is one of the first detailed descriptions of the Khakasses. Nemojewski paid considerable attention to them, analysing not only their traditions, but also their psychology, folklore and religious beliefs. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of the study of published ethnographic observations of the exiled participants of the January Uprising in Poland in 1863–1864. All these essays, articles and books certainly fit into the trend of “ethnographic fiction” or “ludoznawstwa” popular in Poland in the second half of the 19th century.
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Kamaljanova, T. A., et B. N. Zhunussova. « THE HISTORICAL ASPECT OF THE POLISH DIASPORA FORMATION IN KAZAKHSTAN ». History of the Homeland 93, no 1 (5 mars 2021) : 118–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.51943/1814-6961_2021_1_118.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The article is devoted to one of the key topics of modern historiography - the history of the Polish diaspora formation in Kazakhstan. The process of formation of the multinational population of Kazakhstan was mainly associated with the socio-political events of the 19th-20th centuries, primarily with the resettlement and deportation of peoples. The territory of Kazakhstan, due to its sparsely population, was, according to many researchers, a “favorite” place of exile for “unwanted” peoples, among whom were representatives of ethnic Poles. Polish settlements on the territory of Kazakhstan began to appear in the middle of the 19th century. These were political exiles, participants in the national liberation movements in Poland in the middle of the 19th century, exiled to Kazakhstan (Siberia). Basically, they were all educated and wealthy people. In the context of a shortage of specialists in different directions in the republic, they made a great contribution to the development of science and education in pre-revolutionary Kazakhstan and continue to participate in the public life of modern Kazakhstan. The purpose of the article is to show the stages of formation and the factors that influenced the formation of the Polish diaspora in Kazakhstan.
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Semenov, E. V., et V. A. Pokatsky. « Polish Exiled Artist Jozef Berkman in Baikal Region in 60—70s of XIX Century ». Nauchnyi dialog 11, no 7 (1 octobre 2022) : 449–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2022-11-7-449-466.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The issue of the life and creative activity of the Polish exiled artist — a participant in the Polish uprising of 1863—1864 Jozef Berkman is considered. The relevance of the study is due to the fact that, despite the significant number of drawings and paintings by Y. Berkman, today the facts of his life are practically unknown both in hard labor in the Nerchinsk mining district and in a settlement in the Irkutsk province. It is noted that the information found in a number of sources regarding the life of the artist in hard labor and settlement is often unreliable. The novelty of the study is seen in the fact that a reconstruction of the period of the artist’s life in 1864—1877 in the Baikal region is presented in the article. The authors have identified and introduced into scientific circulation materials from domestic and foreign archives, portraits of Polish exiles, painted by the artist in Transbaikalia and currently stored in museums in Poland. The authors reviewed the scientific literature on the topic of the study, analyzed the memoirs of Polish political exiles who served hard labor together with Y. Berkman and described his artistic activities.
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Gmerek, Katarzyna. « Celtic Countries from the Perspective of Polish Romantics and Exiles ». Studia Celto-Slavica 5 (2010) : 71–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.54586/zlxx7422.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In this piece on the Polish Romantic travellers confronted with Celtic cultures and countries, I have tried to show the way they reacted and how their imaginations worked. Probably some of their reactions were not different to those of all other Celtophiles. The special role of the Czartoryskis’ cultural patronage needs to be highlighted. In the nineteenth century Poland, nobody ever attempted to gather so many books about Celtic history and culture again, even after the emergence of Celtic Studies as an academic discipline later in the nineteenth century. The predictable result was that, with time, knowledge of Celtic cultures diminished among the Polish writers. The literary revival in early twentieth century Ireland, associated with Yeats and his contemporaries, did not elicit widespread reaction from Polish librarians and academics. This failure to respond to new developments in Ireland is probably to be explained in terms of the economic and socio-political conditions in the divided Poland of that time. One of the many negative results of the partitions at the end of the eighteenth century was that a large number of important Polish writers moved abroad, as well as that their relations and impressions were affected by this emigration. Being a political émigré was not always helpful in so far as the exploration of new cultures was concerned, both from the point of view of the psychological trauma of being away from home and of various everyday constraints. Generally, it was personal interests and earlier studies, and not finances or place of living that influenced some Polish authors’ choice to write on Celtic themes.
Thèses sur le sujet "Exiles – Poland"
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Tendyra, Bernadeta Irena. « General Sikorski and the Polish government in exile 1939-43 : a study of Polish internal emigre politics in wartime ». Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 1999. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.367754.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The thesis, "General Sikorski and the Polish Government in Exile 1939-43: A Study of Polish Internal Émigré Politics in Wartime", seeks to examine the impact of Polish 'domestic' politics on wartime diplomacy in exile. Foreign policy naturally dominated the exile agenda, but this thesis considers the extent to which internal politics affected the Polish government's ability to pursue its wartime and post-war aims. The thesis considers whether internal divisions in exile and in the Polish resistance undermined national unity and diverted attention away from the war effort to the anticipated power-struggle after liberation. It assesses the degree to which domestic opposition hampered Sikorski's ability to achieve rapprochement with the USSR, the contribution his critics in the Polish army and wartime administration made to the collapse of his Soviet strategy and the extent to which Sikorski's policies failed because they constituted too blatant a contradiction of what the majority of Poles perceived as national traditions or national interests. It also considers whether his inability to impose his vision of post-war Poland on his compatriots destroyed the prospects of a new era of Polish- Soviet relations after liberation. Within this context, the thesis argues the impact of national history and tradition on exile foreign and 'domestic' policy. It assesses the consequences of key features of Polish interwar politics and society on politics in exile. It also examines the general nature of 'politics in exile', the interplay of Polish exile 'domestic' and foreign policy, and the nature and consequences of Sikorski's leadership. Sikorski came to power with a unique opportunity to unite the Poles in the fight for liberation. This thesis examines the impact on Polish history and the history of the Second World War of his failure to achieve this aim.
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Sosinski, Sandrine. « Les Polonais en Grande-Bretagne (1939 à 2009) : étude d’une identité, de l’exil à l’intégration ». Thesis, Paris 4, 2010. http://www.theses.fr/2010PA040086.
Texte intégralRésumé :
L’histoire moderne de la Pologne est marquée au sceau des migrations et de l’exil. Depuis les années 1830, il n’est pas une décennie au cours de laquelle des Polonais n’aient pas trouvé un refuge patriotique ou économique, en Grande-Bretagne, de façon transitoire ou définitive. Néanmoins, avant 1939, un nombre réduit de citoyens polonais réside en Grande-Bretagne. En mai 1940, la chute de la France, terre d’accueil provisoire, précipite l’arrivée de soldats polonais et du Gouvernement en exil de Pologne. La Conférence de Yalta en février 1945 ramènera les civils polonais sur les chemins de la diaspora, mais les quelque 160 000 Polonais sont pour la plupart nés dans la jeune Deuxième République de Pologne, indépendante de 1918 à 1939. Leurs origines socioculturelles sont variées. Néanmoins, quelles que soient leurs aspirations pour l’avenir, ils pensent presque tous les poursuivre dans une Pologne indépendante à l’issue de la Seconde Guerre mondiale. Le monde bipolaire de 1945 en décide autrement car leur patrie ne va recouvrer qu’une indépendance toute relativePoland’s modern history has been bearing the mark of migration and exile. Ever since the 1830s, every decade has seen Poles finding a patriotic or economic refuge in Great-Britain, temporarily or permanently. However, before 1939, a small number of Polish-born people lived in Britain. In May 1940, the fall of France that had been a provisional asylum, hastened the influx of Polish soldiers and of the Polish Government-in-Exile, while the outcomes of the Yalta Conference in February 1945 led the Polish civilians onto the way of diaspora again. Most of those 160,000 Poles were born into the infant Second Republic of Poland that was independent from 1918 to 1939. Their backgrounds were varied. Nevertheless, whatever their aspirations for the future might have been, most expected to pursue them in an independent Poland after WWII. The bipolar world of 1945 decreed otherwise, for their motherland only gained back a very relative independence
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MIKOLAJEWSKI, Lukasz. « Disenchanted Europeans : Polish émigré writers from Kultura and the postwar reformulations of the West ». Doctoral thesis, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/24604.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Examining Board: Professor Philipp Ther (Supervisor); Professor Anthony Molho, European University Institute; Professor Paweł Śpiewak, Warsaw University; Professor Larry Wolff, New York University.Defence date: 27 September 2012
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digital archive of EUI PhD theses
What are “Europe” and “the West”? How did the understandings of these notions change after World War II? In what way were they reconsidered and re-evaluated by the exiles from those European countries that, after 1945, found themselves in the Soviet sphere of influence? In the present study I offer answers to these questions by analyzing the literary responses to the political division of the continent made by two exiles associated with the Polish émigré periodical Kultura, Jerzy Stempowski and Andrzej Bobkowski. Analyzing these two writers’ autobiographical works, and placing them in the context of the debates on Europe’s crisis and the future of “Western civilization” that took place on the pages of the periodical in the 1940s and 1950s, I reconstruct the broader dilemmas and uncertainties shared among those Polish exiles who opposed the creation of communist states in Eastern Europe. In the thesis I show that the change of the political situation on the continent led to profound reassessments of the power relations, the cultural distances, and the centrality attributed by these Polish intellectuals to France in their earlier understanding of the notions such as “the West”, “Europe” and “civilization”. I also analyze how the contributors to Kultura from two different generations of the Polish intelligentsia reacted in their works to the new relevance of the United States, and to the Cold War reinventions of “the West”, its classical past, its internal divisions and its major “others”. I trace changes occurring in their émigré texts written over many years and in many places (among them France, Guatemala and Switzerland), finding significant omissions, silences and obliterations in their postwar reconsiderations of European colonialism, nationalism and antisemitism. Finally, I interpret autobiographical texts from Kultura – diaries, travelogues and essays – as literary attempts to counter-map the European space, or to subvert the older cultural images that played a significant role in the postwar division of the continent.
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Leigh-Valles, Alissa Z. « Lumen Obscurum : late illuminations of Aleksander Wat ». Thesis, 2021. https://hdl.handle.net/2144/42665.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The main aim of this dissertation is to provide an English-language edition of the poems written by Aleksander Wat in the last five years of his life (1962-1967), with annotations elucidating the complex literary, intellectual, historical and religious context and publication history of the poems, as well as an extensive biographical-critical essay examining the circumstances in which the poems arose - including political exile, physical pain, and philosophical doubt - and the triad of aesthetic, ethical and spiritual concerns that dominated the poet's final years. The essay also considers the problems of translation posed by Wat's poetry, the role in shaping his corpus and reputation played by Wat's widow Ola, the poet Czeslaw Milosz, and the art by Jan Lebenstein used for Wat's book covers. The essay proposes a broader intellectual framework for the understanding of Wat's life and work that draws on Kierkegaard and Jewish studies. The main body of the translations consists of poems of 1962-1967 that Wat published in his posthumous volume Ciemne Świecidło (Lumen Obscurum) and poems written in the same period but not included in the book, some of which were subsequently published in periodicals. The dissertation also includes a basic chronology of Wat's life and contemporary events and a list of the poems translated in the order in which they were composed, to the extent this can be determined from available sources.
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von, Guettner Darius. « Crusading in Medieval Europe : its idea, reception, and the experience in Poland (1102–1194). [Thesis abstract] ». 2007. http://repository.unimelb.edu.au/10187/2170.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This thesis examines the transmission of the idea of crusade to Poland and the subsequent Polish response to the idea of crusade in the twelfth century. It determines the key mechanisms by which the idea of crusade was transmitted to Poland and through an analysis of primary contemporary sources the thesis provides compelling evidence that the Polish elites were highly familiar with, and receptive to, the idea of crusade. Moreover, this thesis argues that the Poles were conscious participants in the crusades and undertook various crusading activities during the twelfth century. These findings are contrary to the established position in Polish historiography, and bring many sources to an English-speaking audience for the first time.Through an examination of narrative sources this thesis demonstrates that the Polish elites were enthusiastic supporters of the idea of crusade within a decade of the First Crusade. This thesis shows that under the leadership of the Piast dynasty the Poles engaged in Christian holy war (proto-crusading): the conquest of Pomerania (1102–1128), contributed armies to three theatres of the Second Crusade (1147–1148), and launched major expeditions against the Prussian apostates (1166 and 1192).
This thesis identifies the influence of the idea of crusade on the actions of the Piasts and in particular, Boleslaw III’s sons (the Piast Juniors), and the importance of family traditions. The thesis presents new propositions in regards to the crusades in Prussia and key Polish crusader participants: the involvement of the Polish crusader army under the command of Mieszko III in the Wendish Crusade (July–August 1147); previously unreported in English historiography, the first known example of crusading in Prussia led by Boleslaw IV (November–December 1147); and Henry of Sandomierz’s leadership of the Polish crusader contingent to the Holy Land (1147–1148).
Livres sur le sujet "Exiles – Poland"
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Marian, Wolański, dir. Poland and European integration : The ideas and movements of Polish exiles in the West, 1939-91. Houndmills, Basingstoke Hampshire : Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
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Jonkajtys-Luba, Grażyna. "--Was na to zdieś priwiezli, sztob wy podochli" : Kazachstan 1940-1946. 2e éd. Lublin : Norbertinum, 1999.
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Sergeevich, Romanov Petr, et Kongress poli͡a︡kov v. Rossii, dir. Sibirʹ v istorii i kulʹture polʹskogo naroda. Moskva : Ladomir, 2002.
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Nina, Smenda, et Smenda Janusz, dir. Unforgettable memories : Memoirs of Polish exiles in the Soviet Union, 1940-1942. Perth, Western Australia : Polish Siberian Group (WA), 1996.
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Hergt, Klaus. Exiled to Siberia : A Polish child's WWII journey. Cheboygan, Mich : Crescent Lake Pub., 2000.
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Hergt, Klaus. Exiled to Siberia : A Polish child's WWII journey. Cheboygan, Mich : Crescent Lake Pub., 2000.
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DŁugie drogi Syberii. 2e éd. Londyn : Oficyna Poetów i Malarzy, 1986.
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Jenczelewska-Stolarczyk, Grażyna. "Na bocznicy czekały na nas bydlęce wagony... " : Wspomnienia sybiraków. Wrocław : Oddział Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej - Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu, 2007.
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Od Hajnówki do Pahlawi : Wspomnienia. Paris : Spotkania, 1986.
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Korovchenko, Elena. Igumenskai︠a︡ shli︠a︡khta v Sibiri : Ssylʹnye za uchastie v vosstanii 1863 goda. Minsk : Medisont, 2018.
Trouver le texte intégralChapitres de livres sur le sujet "Exiles – Poland"
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Mason, Andrea. « Britain and the Polish Government-in-Exile, January 1944 to June 1945 ». Dans British Policy Towards Poland, 1944–1956, 15–64. Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94241-4_2.
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Baraniecka, Elżbieta. « Subversive Laughter : Sławomir Mrożek’s Theatre of the Absurd as a Mode of Resistance to Censorship in Socialist Poland ». Dans Censorship and Exile, 193–206. Göttingen : V&R Unipress, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.14220/9783737004268.193.
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Engel, David. « The Polish Government-in-Exile and the Erlich-Alter Affair ». Dans Jews in Eastern Poland and the USSR, 1939–46, 172–82. London : Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21789-2_10.
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Siewierski, Henryk. « Jewish Issues in the Polish Literature of Exile in the USSR ». Dans Jews in Eastern Poland and the USSR, 1939–46, 116–23. London : Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-21789-2_5.
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Pirie, Donald P. A. « Internal Exile in a Free Society ? New Poetry in Poland in the 1980s and Early 1990s ». Dans New Perspectives in Twentieth-Century Polish Literature, 201–29. London : Palgrave Macmillan UK, 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-12331-5_13.
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Erdal, Marta Bivand, Nils Petter Gleditsch et Stein Tønnesson. « An International Scholar with a Dramatic Life ». Dans Marek Thee : My Story, 1–7. Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-16905-2_1.
Texte intégralRésumé :
AbstractMarek Thee lived a dramatic life amidst some of the 20th century’s most tragic conflicts. This autobiography was written in the early 1990s. We meet him as a young leftist student in the Free City of Danzig (Gdańsk) before the Nazi takeover; as an advocate of the Jewish Zionist cause in Palestine during and after the Second World War; as a diplomat, foreign service official and scholar in the post-war Polish Republic; as a Polish representative on the Commission for Supervision and Control of the Geneva agreements on Indochina and Laos; as a foreign affairs analyst specializing on Asian affairs in Warsaw of the 1960s; and eventually, for the last 30 years of his life, as a peace researcher at the Peace Research Institute Oslo (PRIO) and the Norwegian Human Rights Institute, once again in exile from his native Poland.
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Sribnyak, Ihor. « The Ukrainian People's Republic Directorate – The State Centre of the Ukrainian People's Republic in Exile (1919–1926) : A Study of Military and Political Activity in Ukraine and Poland ». Dans Nationen und Grenzen, 189–210. Göttingen : V&R unipress, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.14220/9783737015073.189.
Texte intégral
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Marchlewicz, Krzysztof. « Emigracja bez znieczulenia. Londyńskie listy Ignacego Jackowskiego do Leonarda Niedźwieckiego ze zbiorów Biblioteki Kórnickiej ». Dans Życie prywatne Polaków w XIX wieku. „Prywatne światy zamknięte w listach”. Tom 7. Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego ; Instytut Historii i Stosunków Międzynarodowych UWM, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/8142-182-9.05.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This article is based on the letters written by the veteran of the Polish 1831 uprising and exile Ignacy Jackowski (1800–1873) to his fellow refugee Leonard Niedźwiecki (1811– 1892). Getting acquainted during their stay in London in early 1830s, they had been regularly writing to themselves after Niedźwiecki’s removal to France in 1839. Jackowski’s letters give a wide and different image of Polish Great Emigration in Britain. They are not only a chronicle of public events but they offer an opportunity to look into bright and dark sides of everyday’s life of the exiles. Jackowski is surprisingly straight and open in his writing. He records events and behaviours which many of his contemporaries prefered to ignore. His letters are now part of Niedźwiecki’s Papers in Biblioteka Kórnicka PAN, Kórnik, Poland.
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Lachman, Lilach. « Yeshurun, Avot (1904–1992) ». Dans Routledge Encyclopedia of Modernism. London : Routledge, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781135000356-rem2040-1.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Avot Yeshurun was a renowned Hebrew poet who remained split between two cities throughout his life: his childhood village Krasnistav and the city of Tel-Aviv, where he lived until his death. Born on Yom Kippur, 1904, in Neskhyzh in the Ukraine, Yechiel Perlmutter (his original name) grew up in Poland. At the end of the First World War , he experienced displacements and exiles, and by 1925 arrived in what was then Palestine. After the Second World War, he discovered that his whole family had been destroyed, and his world collapsed: ‘Hebrew literature will set the prayer’, he said, alluding not only to the breakage the Jewish people underwent but to the disaster that left its mark on the twentieth century and threw the entire lyrical tradition into question. The story of his name change (in 1948) from Yechiel Perlmutter to the Hebrew name Avot Yeshurun (literally: ‘the fathers will see’, but the poet paraphrased it as ‘for the fathers mirror in us’) is retold in his poetry and prose as a narrative of abandonment and betrayal, endowing him both with a subjectivity that is incomparable in Israeli modernism and with the authoritative speech of the witness.
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« Michael Polanyi ». Dans Brilliance in Exile, 105–11. Central European University Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.7829/j.ctv2vdbvm7.18.
Texte intégralActes de conférences sur le sujet "Exiles – Poland"
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Majzel, Anna, Magdalena Byczkowska et Janusz Soboń. « Cooperation science-business as an opportunity for development and competitiveness of the enterprise and economy ». Dans 11th International Scientific Conference „Business and Management 2020“. VGTU Technika, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/bm.2020.610.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The aim of the article is to present the essence of cooperation between science and business and to identify the gap that exists in this area in Poland. To this end, as a research method, a comparative analysis of the literature on the subject was used. As a starting point, it was assumed that cooperation between science and business is the domain of developed countries' economies, and Poland, like other post-socialist countries, is still learning how to create and maintain such cooperation. The international comparison presented in the text (Germany as a model of conducting joint scientific-business projects; Poland and the Czech Republic as countries building such links) allows to show the existing gap in this area and indicate the postulates of creating activity in this area both for entrepreneurs and business-related institutions, which should be used by participants of modern economic markets.
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Gril, Domen, et Primož Pevcin. « European Economic Integration : Assessing Benefits from State Size Perspective ». Dans Values, Competencies and Changes in Organizations. University of Maribor Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.18690/978-961-286-442-2.20.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This empirical paper focuses on the analysis of economic benefits of European integration processes. A gap exists on the research that addresses the specific benefits of states involved in the economic integration processes. Thus, paper focuses on the analysis of benefits Slovenia has from European economic integration, and benchmark analysis is performed, taking Poland as example. This context serves for the comparison of effects and benefits of economic integration concerning smaller and larger states. Namely, there is an assumption that economic integration should have different state-specific effects, where state size is one of the attributes that significantly channels these effects. The results show that Slovenia benefited much more entering the single market in comparison to Poland. This suggests that single market might serve as an economic shelter for smaller states, and thus generates relatively larger benefits for them in comparison to larger states.
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Johnston, M. E. « Extremely Thick Multi-year Ice Still Exists, but Will it Last ? » Dans SNAME 8th International Conference and Exhibition on Performance of Ships and Structures in Ice. SNAME, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.5957/icetech-2008-150.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Reports of Climate Change, decreasing ice concentration, overall thinning of the polar cap and longer periods of open water could give the designers of ships and structures, and their operators, a false sense of security about the amount of dangerous ice, and the likelihood of encountering it. And that could have serious repercussions for everyone involved, including those who live in the Arctic. Contrary to what one might expect, the lengthening summers may actually increase the hazard that multi-year ice poses for ships and structures. Why? Because the absence of first-year ice increases the ease with which multi-year ice moves through the Arctic, and the period during which it is mobile. Take, for example, the spring of 2007, when the ice bridge that usually forms in Nares Strait, blocking the outflow of thick multi-year ice from the Lincoln Sea, failed to form. As a result, old ice streamed out of the Lincoln Sea throughout the winter – pushing the floes in front of it further and further south (Figure 1-a). Two of those floes were instrumented in Nares Strait during the summer of 2006 (Figure 1-b). One of them, Floe 5, had spent 10 months migrating south, arriving off the coast of Newfoundland in the spring of 2007. That floe, along with many others, conspired to make ice conditions off Newfoundland the worst seen in 10 to 15 years (Figure 1-c). The absence of an ice bridge across Nares Strait was one of the factors lead to the unusual amount of old ice off the coast of Newfoundland that spring. Perhaps the decreased extent of first-year ice will allow multi-year ice to move more freely, you say, but surely the longer summer and extended open water season will result in a net decrease in the thickness and strength of these multi-year ice floes? The past three years of measurements on multi-year ice are used to answer that question, starting with the topic: does very thick multi-year ice still exist?. The more than 300 drill hole measurements made on 15 multi-year ice floes in Nares Strait (2006 and 2007 seasons) and the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago (2007 and 2008) show that multi-year ice in excess of 15 m thick commonly occurs in both regions. Comparison of our measurements to past thickness measurements on multi-year ice in the Beaufort Sea (Dickins, 1989; Kovacs, 1983; Wright et al., 1984) shows good agreement in the thickness distributions of multi-year ice Arcticwide. Given Climate Change and its effect on the polar pack, are the drill hole measurements from the 1980s still representative of ice in the Beaufort Sea? The three years of on-ice measurements are also used to describe the changes that multi-year ice undergoes during its summer melt/migration period. The temperature, salinity and strength profiles of a multi-year ice hummock visited in May, June and July reveal that rapid changes occur in the uppermost 4.5 m of ice during the summer melt period (Figure 2). Results from more than 400 borehole jack tests on multi-year ice are used to demonstrate the direct relation between the temperature of multi-year ice and its strength. These kinds of on-ice measurements provide insight into the dramatic changes that have been observed in the Beaufort Sea multi-year pack ice in recent years – ships operating in the Beaufort Sea continue to report back about the decayed state of the ice cover. Ship-based and satellite observations both indicate that large areas of the multi-year pack ice seem to be rapidly disappearing. Some of those observations are discussed in the guide Understanding and Identifying Old Ice in Summer, which is discussed in Johnston and Timco (2008). The results discussed here complement that work.
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Ibsen, Morten, Michael K. Durkin et Richard I. Laming. « Chirped Moiré Fibre Gratings Operating on two Wavelength-Channels for use as Dual Channel Dispersion Compensators ». Dans Bragg Gratings, Photosensitivity, and Poling in Glass Fibers and Waveguides. Washington, D.C. : Optica Publishing Group, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/bgppf.1997.btua.6.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Dispersion compensation is necessary in order to allow high data rate transmission through the installed standard fibre links. Several dispersion compensation techniques exists, including dispersion compensating fibre, phase conjugation and chirped fibre gratings. Of these, chirped fibre gratings offer many advantages including compactness, low-loss and low nonlinearity. Recent error-free 10 Gbit/s and 40 Gbit/s transmission experiments at 1.55 μm over 109 km of standard fibre together with the possibility of simultaneous compensation of 2nd and 3rd order dispersion confirm the potential of this solution [1,2,3].
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Canning, J., M. L. von Bibra et A. Roberts. « Mode Profile Modification of H Beam-Implanted Waveguides Using UV Processing ». Dans Bragg Gratings, Photosensitivity, and Poling in Glass Fibers and Waveguides. Washington, D.C. : Optica Publishing Group, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/bgppf.1997.jma.6.
Texte intégralRésumé :
UV photosensitivity in planar waveguides has primarily concentrated on the generation of sufficient oxygen-deficient centres using germanosilicate glass. There exists a wide range of methods fo fabricating such glasses, all with varying degrees of photosensitivity. Empirically, in planar waveguide at least, the degree of photosensitivity seems to be closely related to the defect induced losses such a increased Rayleigh scattering. For example, waveguides fabricated using flame hydrolysis exhibit very low propagation losses indicating a high level of purity of the glass. Consequently, this material requires sensitisation with hydrogen in order to achieve sizeable index changes with uv irradiation [1]. On the other hand, recent developments have allowed the demonstration of ultra-strong Bragg gratings in unsensitised PECVD-based glass [2], although at the expense of significantly higher propagation losses. A somewhat more impressive demonstration of photosensitivity has been the demonstration of direct waveguide writing with a mercury lamp in organically-derived glass using sol-gel methods [3]. By incorporating organic components into the glass silica polymer matrix, index change is achieved through polymerization of the organic ends which is a substantially different mechanism to that relying upon oxygen deficient centre absorptions. Low propagation losses, whilst maintaining a large photosensitivity, have been achieved this way. In addition to these materials, strong uv photosensitivity has also been observed in ion beam implanted material, mainly with Si2+ and Ge3+ implanted germanosilicate glass [4,5] although some work has been reported on changes in the uv spectra of H+ implanted germanosilicate waveguides [6].
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Peechanatt, Jino, Bjarte O. Kvamme, Ove T. Gudmestad et Yaaseen A. Amith. « Heat Loss of Heated Deck Elements in Cross-Flow Wind ». Dans ASME 2017 36th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/omae2017-61588.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In recent years, there has been unprecedented interest shown in the Arctic region by the industry, as it has become increasingly accessible for oil and gas exploration, shipping, and tourism. The decrease in ice extent in the Arctic has renewed the interest in the Northern Sea route, necessitating further research to evaluate the adequacy of the equipment and appliances used on vessels traversing in polar waters. The introduction of the Polar Code by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) attempts to mitigate some of the risks endangering the vessels in Polar waters. The Polar Code is scheduled to take effect on 01.01.2017, and applies to all vessels traversing in polar waters. One of the requirements in the Polar Code is that means shall be provided to remove or prevent accretion of snow and/or ice from escape routes, embarkation areas and access points. Even though, prior to the formulation of Polar Code, the requirement for de-icing the deck surfaces on vessels already exists, the suitability of the equipment currently in use is debatable. Large amounts of energy is required to maintain an ice-free surface, which is not desirable economically or environmentally, due to the substantial increase in fuel consumption. In this study, a heated deck element manufactured by GMC Maritime AS is subjected to cross flow wind of 5 m/s, 10 m/s and 15 m/s at various sub-zero temperatures in GMC Maritime AS’s climate laboratory in Stavanger, Norway. The deck element is rated to 1400 W / m2, and is one of the designs provided by GMC Maritime AS. The power consumption of the deck element is measured and compared to theoretical heat loss calculations. Large discrepancies between the measured power consumption and the theoretical heat loss were discovered, indicating the need for further studies on the matter. As part of SARex Spitzbergen 2016, a search and rescue exercise conducted off North Spitzbergen, heated deck elements on board the Norwegian Coast Guard Vessel KV Svalbard were studied and are discussed in this paper. The heating elements in the deck elements were designed to specifications at the time of commissioning, but proves insufficient when the vessel is in transit or exposed to slight winds, allowing snow and ice to accumulate on the surface. Finally, suggestions for a more energy efficient design of deck elements are made, as the current designs are found to have potential for improvement, especially due to the lack of insulation between the deck elements and the hull of the vessel.
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Mełges, Hubert. « Urban expansion and rural spatial chaos in the fringe area ». Dans Virtual City and Territory. Barcelona : Centre de Política de Sòl i Valoracions, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.5821/ctv.8075.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Due to the constant increase in human population, man, citizen of the planet Earth, faces many momentous questions and challenges. First of all, they concern problems of accommodation, sustenance, proper health care, education, leisure, transport, development of technical infrastructure, etc.
It seems, however, that the pace of progress and the accumulation of new challenges related to the needs of modernising and developing towns significantly exceed the existing capabilities of planning processes and work. Newer and newer investment projects always seem to be one step ahead of these possibilities.
It is also noted that despite the great progress of civilization, life in cities does not become easier, but, on the contrary, more and more difficult. Therefore, city dwellers either fully or partially run away from them, seeking an opportunity to live in hitherto rural areas close to nature. Above all a tempting target for city dwellers have become villages surrounding these cities. As a result of this complex process, the nearest villages become the suburbs of cities with detached houses, in a sense blocking the development of these cities. Thus, existing rural areas cease to be such areas, losing the title of host sites.
All of this is a kind of a trap as simultaneously these phenomena become unrestrained and generate spatial chaos. The more so that the chaos also affects interpersonal relationships, the quality of which is influenced by cultural differences as well as lifestyle. Nowadays the problem exists in most Polish cities, but observation in this article is limited to Cracow and Lesser Poland only.
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Chang, I., et C. T. Sun. « Analysis of Domain Switching Zone Near a Crack Tip in Piezoceramics ». Dans ASME 1999 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece1999-0529.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract In this paper, a finite element program in conjunction with domain switching criterion was developed to analyze domain wall switching and its effect on the near tip stress field in piezoelectric materials containing a crack. Domain switching zones in the vicinity of the crack tip corresponding to various combined electric and mechanical loads were obtained. It is found that the size, shape and mode (90° or 180° switching) of domain switching zone near the crack tip depend on the direction as well as magnitude of the applied electric field. For a positive electric field (same as the poling direction), 90° domain switching occurs behind the crack tip, and the zone increases as the applied positive electric field increases. If the applied electric field is negative, then a 180° domain switching zone appears ahead of the crack tip while a 90° domain switching zone exists behind the tip. Moreover, the stress field near the crack tip is found to be significantly affected by the domain switching.
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CZYŻEWSKI, Bazyli, Sebastian STĘPIEŃ et Jan POLCYN. « PAYMENTS FOR PUBLIC GOODS UNDER THE COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY VERSUS MARKET FAILURES ». Dans RURAL DEVELOPMENT. Aleksandras Stulginskis University, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.15544/rd.2017.008.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In the reality of the marketplace, a situation often arises where an economic surplus (rent) achieved by agricultural producers is partly taken over by related non-agricultural sectors. In this sense the category of economic rent embraces market failures related to such factors as price flexibility, and thus represents an effect of the misallocation of resources in the agricultural sector. The question therefore arises of whether there exists a developmental model of agriculture in which such market failures would be reduced. Apparently the only coherent response to this need is action taken under the paradigm of sustainable agriculture. This type of model for the sector’s functioning is supported by the objectives of the European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), including through support for the supply of public goods in rural areas. This article addresses the question of whether CAP payments for public goods are a desirable systemic solution serving to reduce market failures. It is hypothesised that the financing of activity relating to the supply of public goods lessens the negative impact of the “market treadmill”, since it reduces the unexpected outflows of economic surplus away from farms, caused by agricultural prices. To verify the hypothesis, a panel regression analysis was performed on three sets: the EU-15 countries, the EU-12 countries, and – within Poland – subsectors of farms from six standard output classes. The analysis covered the years 2004–2012. The results of the computations provided confirmation of the hypothesis. It may be stated that an increase in the level of payments for public goods, as a percentage of total subsidies to agriculture, leads on average to a reduction in the drainage of economic rents through prices. It was also found that the financing of public goods under the CAP is more effective in reducing market failures in the EU-15 countries than in the EU-12.
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Morales, José L., Alfredo Vllorla et Carlos A. Palacios T. « Effect of Asphaltene Deposition on the Internal Corrosion in Transmission Lines ». Dans 1996 1st International Pipeline Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ipc1996-1832.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Crude oil from Norte de Monagas field, in Venezuela, contains large amounts of asphaltenes, some of them are very unstable with tendency to precipitate. Because of liquid is carried over from the separation process in the flow stations, asphaltenes are also present in the gas gathering and transmission lines, precipitating on inner wall of pipelines. The gas gathering and transmission lines contain gas with high partial pressures of CO2, some H2S and are water saturated; therefore inhibitors are used to control the internal corrosion. There is uncertainty on how inhibitors perform in the presence of asphaltene deposition. To protect the pipelines from external corrosion, cathodic protection is used. Since asphaltenes have polar properties, there exists an uncertainty on whether it enhances asphaltene precipitation and deposition. The purpose of this paper to describe the causes that enhance asphaltene deposition on gas and some of the preliminary result from an ongoing research project carried out by Intevep and Corpoven.
Rapports d'organisations sur le sujet "Exiles – Poland"
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Splitter, Gary A., Menachem Banai et Jerome S. Harms. Brucella second messenger coordinates stages of infection. United States Department of Agriculture, janvier 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/2011.7699864.bard.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Aim 1: To determine levels of this second messenger in: a) B. melitensiscyclic-dimericguanosinemonophosphate-regulating mutants (BMEI1448, BMEI1453, and BMEI1520), and b) B. melitensis16M (wild type) and mutant infections of macrophages and immune competent mice. (US lab primary) Aim 2: To determine proteomic differences between Brucelladeletion mutants BMEI1453 (high cyclic-dimericguanosinemonophosphate, chronic persistent state) and BMEI1520 (low cyclicdimericguanosinemonophosphate, acute virulent state) compared to wild type B. melitensisto identify the role of this second messenger in establishing the two polar states of brucellosis. (US lab primary with synergistic assistance from the Israel lab Aim 3: Determine the level of Brucellacyclic-dimericguanosinemonophosphate and transcriptional expression from naturally infected placenta. (Israel lab primary with synergistic assistance from the US lab). B. Background Brucellaspecies are Gram-negative, facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens that cause brucellosis, the most prevalent zoonosis worldwide. Brucellosis is characterized by increased abortion, weak offspring, and decreased milk production in animals. Humans are infected with Brucellaby consuming contaminated milk products or via inhalation of aerosolized bacteria from occupational hazards. Chronic human infections can result in complications such as liver damage, orchitis, endocarditis, and arthritis. Brucellaspp. have the ability to infect both professional and non-professional phagocytes. Because of this, Brucellaencounter varied environments both throughout the body and within a cell and must adapt accordingly. To date, few virulence factors have been identified in B. melitensisand even less is known about how these virulence factors are regulated. Subsequently, little is known about how Brucellaadapt to its rapidly changing environments, and how it alternates between acute and chronic virulence. Our studies suggest that decreased concentrations of cyclic dimericguanosinemonophosphate (c-di-GMP) lead to an acute virulent state and increased concentrations of c-di-GMP lead to persistent, chronic state of B. melitensisin a mouse model of infection. We hypothesize that B. melitensisuses c-di-GMP to transition from the chronic state of an infected host to the acute, virulent stage of infection in the placenta where the bacteria prepare to infect a new host. Studies on environmental pathogens such as Vibrio choleraeand Pseudomonas aeruginosasupport a mechanism where changes in c-di-GMP levels cause the bacterium to alternate between virulent and chronic states. Little work exists on understanding the role of c-di-GMP in dangerous intracellular pathogens, like Brucellathat is a frequent pathogen in Israeli domestic animals and U.S. elk and bison. Brucellamust carefully regulate virulence factors during infection of a host to ensure proper expression at appropriate times in response to host cues. Recently, the novel secondary signaling molecule c-di-GMP has been identified as a major component of bacterial regulation and we have identified c-di-GMP as an important signaling factor in B. melitensishost adaptation. C. Major conclusions, solutions, achievements 1. The B. melitensis1453 deletion mutant has increased c-di-GMP, while the 1520 deletion mutant has decreased c-di-GMP. 2. Both mutants grow similarly in in vitro cultures; however, the 1453 mutant has a microcolony phenotype both in vitro and in vivo 3. The 1453 mutant has increased crystal violet staining suggesting biofilm formation. 4. Scanning electron microscopy revealed an abnormal coccus appearance with in increased cell area. 5. Proteomic analysis revealed the 1453 mutant possessed increased production of proteins involved in cell wall processes, cell division, and the Type IV secretion system, and a decrease in proteins involved in amino acid transport/metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, fatty acid production, and iron acquisition suggesting less preparedness for intracellular survival. 6. RNAseq analysis of bone marrow derived macrophages infected with the mutants revealed the host immune response is greatly reduced with the 1453 mutant infection. These findings support that microlocalization of proteins involved in c-di-GMP homeostasis serve a second messenger to B. melitensisregulating functions of the bacteria during infection of the host.