Thèses sur le sujet « Environmental policie »

A gestão dos resíduos sólidos é um grande desafio que as administrações municipais enfrentam, que exige a concepção e implementação de um programa de gestão integrada dos resíduos, baseado em critérios ambientais, sanitários e económicos claramente definidos. O presente trabalho tem como objectivo a identificação dos constrangimentos com que lidam os serviços municipais de saneamento e a apresentação de alternativas para a Gestão de Resíduos Sólidos no Concelho da Praia – Cabo Verde, bem como uma proposta de gestão de RSU considerado viavel para o municipio. Partiu-se do pressuposto que a implementação de processos adequados de recolha, acondicionamento, transporte, deposição final dos Resíduos Sólidos Urbanos, pode constituir uma via para minimizar os impactos negativos sobre o ambiente no município e que o envolvimento de todos os actores e acima de tudo do munícipe, pode viabilizar o melhoramento da Gestão de Resíduos Sólidos. A pesquisa caracteriza-se como exploratória e discritiva; esploratória por se pretender dar uma visão do processo de Gestão de Resíduos Sólidos no município e se propor investigar processos alternativos ao mesmo. Descritiva porque será estudado e caracterizado o nível de atendimento que os serviços municipais prestam e as atitudes e comportamentos da população. Para efectivar a pesquisa foram realizadas: uma pesquisa documental e bibliográfica; entrevistas a responsáveis e técnicos de diferentes serviços; trabalhos de campo. Os resultados apontam para a necessidade de implementação de um programa que: i) permita o conhecimento e a caracterização minuciosa dos tipos de resíduos e quantidades geradas no município; ii) garanta a recolha, transporte e deposição adequada dos resíduos; iii) inclua uma vertente de sensibilização e educação ambiental; ABSTRACT: The management of solid residues is a big challenge that municipal administrations face, it requires the conception and implementation of na integrated program of management of residues, based on clear defined environmental, sanitary and economical criteria. The present work has as main goal the identificationof constraints that sanitations municipal services deal with, and the presentation of alternatives for solid residues management in Praia region – Cape Verd, as well as a proposal of Urban Solid Residues considered sustainable for the municipality. It was supported based on the presupposed that the implementation of appropriate process of gathering, conditioning, conveyance, final deposition of Urban solid residues, can constitute a way to minimize negative impacts on the municipal environment and the involvement of all actors and above all of every townsman, can turn feasible the improvementof solid residues management.The research is characterized as explorative and descriptive; explorative because it claims to give a vision of the solid residues management process in the municipality, and it intends to investigate alternative process of the that one.Descriptive because it will be studied and characterized the level of treatment that the minicipal services offer and the population`s attitude.To turn real this research it was realized: a documental and biographical research; interviews to responsable and technicians of defferent services, work in the field.The results pointed to a necessity of implementation of a program that: i) allows the knowledge and the precise characterization of types of residues and generated quantity in the municipality; ii) warranty the gathering, transportation and appropriate deposition of residues; iii) include a slope of sensibility and environmental education.

Se la "consapevolezza" richiede una migliore considerazione della biodiversità e una trasformazione delle pratiche, si pone per tutti gli attori, anche se in modi molto diversi, la questione di sapere quale biodiversità proteggere e come agire in modo appropriato. Questa tesi esamina i legami tra le trasformazioni nella conoscenza della biodiversità e la valutazione delle sue proprietà significative, basandosi sullo studio della compensazione delle perdite di biodiversità. Osservando il lavoro dell'IPBES durante una sessione plenaria nel 2018, analizziamo prima i negoziati e le implicazioni percepite della conoscenza della biodiversità globale. Poi, le trasformazioni causate dalle compensazioni sono studiate concentrandosi sul loro emergere a livello globale, prendendo poi come caso di studio l'attuazione di queste politiche in Colombia. A tal fine, dieci mesi di lavoro sul campo sono stati condotti nel paese nel 2018-2019, compresi diversi mesi di etnografia all'interno della sua autorità ambientale nazionale — ANLA, incaricata di autorizzare i progetti. Invece di analizzare se le compensazioni possono effettivamente mantenere la loro promessa di rendere compatibili conservazione e sviluppo, questa ricerca articola la sociologia morale francese e la sociologia pragmatica per fare un passo indietro e guardare alla molteplicità di effetti contraddittori che lo sviluppo di questa politica produce, e alle lotte degli attori per darle un senso e determinare un modo coerente di orientare le loro indagini e azioni. Attraverso il suo carattere multisituato, questa tesi mostra non solo le riconfigurazioni multiple della nozione di biodiversità e delle sue componenti causate da valutazioni globali, compensazioni di biodiversità e valutazioni di impatto, ma anche l'attualizzazione dell'etica ambientale nelle pratiche attraverso le valutazioni, e la loro inseparabilità da una rete di valutazioni di conoscenze, istituzioni, politiche, procedure e attori. Questo lavoro contribuisce anche alla comprensione delle scale e della loro elaborazione come luoghi di contestazione, mostrando il loro ruolo chiave nella valutazione dell'impatto e più in generale nella definizione e articolazione dei problemi e delle soluzioni riguardanti la crisi della biodiversità. Questa tesi mostra infine come, mentre le compensazioni sono considerate scientifiche o tecniche e basate su convenzioni stabilizzate, gli attori si interrogano costantemente sul posto e lo spazio che il "politico", cioè la possibilità di andare oltre il linguaggio egemonico della valutazione, può, deve o prende nei processi in cui si intrecciano fatti e valutazioni.
While 'awareness' calls for a greater consideration of biodiversity and a transformation of practices, the question arises for all actors, albeit in very different ways, as to what is this biodiversity that should be protected and how to act appropriately. This thesis examines the links between transformations of knowledge about biodiversity and the valuation of its meaningful properties, by drawing on the study of biodiversity offsets. The observation of the IPBES work during a plenary in 2018 allows first the analysis of the negotiations and perceived implications of global biodiversity knowledge. Then, the transformations caused by biodiversity offsets are studied by focusing on their emergence at a global level and then by taking as a case study the implementation of these policies in Colombia. For this purpose, a ten-month fieldwork has been carried out in the country in 2018-2019, including several months of ethnography within its national environmental authority — the ANLA, in charge of the licensing of projects. Instead of analysing whether offsets can actually fulfil their promises, which consist in compatibilizing conservation and development, this research articulates moral sociology with French pragmatic sociology to take a step back by looking at the multiplicity of contradictory effects that the development of this policy produces, and the struggles of actors to make sense of it and determine a coherent way to orient their inquiries and actions. Through its multi-sited character, this research shows not only the multiple reconfigurations of the notion of biodiversity and its components caused by global assessments, biodiversity offsets and impact evaluations, but also the actualization of environmental ethics in practices through valuations, and their inseparability from a web of valuations of knowledges, institutions, politics, procedures and actors. This work also contributes to understanding scales and scale-making as sites of contestation by showing their key role in the valuation of impacts and more largely in defining and articulating problems and solutions with regard to the biodiversity crisis. This thesis finally demonstrates how, while offsets are considered scientific or technical and based on stabilized conventions, actors constantly questioned the place and space that the ‘political’, that is the possibility of overcoming the hegemonic language of evaluation, may, should, or take in the processes in which facts and valuations are woven.
Si la "prise de conscience" appelle à une meilleure prise en compte de la biodiversité et à une transformation des pratiques, la question se pose pour tous les acteurs, bien que de manières très différentes, de savoir quelle est cette biodiversité à protéger et comment agir de manière appropriée. Cette thèse examine les liens entre les transformations des connaissances sur la biodiversité et la valuation de ses propriétés signifiantes, en s’appuyant sur l’étude des compensations pour pertes de biodiversité. L'observation des travaux de l'IPBES lors d'une plénière en 2018 permet d’abord d'analyser les négociations et les implications perçues des connaissances sur la biodiversité mondiale. Ensuite, les transformations provoquées par les compensations sont étudiées en se focalisant sur leur émergence au niveau mondial, puis en prenant comme cas d'étude la mise en œuvre de ces politiques en Colombie. Dans ce but, un travail de terrain de dix mois a été réalisé dans le pays en 2018-2019, dont plusieurs mois d'ethnographie au sein de son autorité environnementale nationale - l'ANLA, en charge de l'autorisation des projets. Au lieu d'analyser si les compensations peuvent effectivement tenir leurs promesses, qui consistent à compatibiliser conservation et développement, cette recherche articule sociologie morale et sociologie pragmatique française pour prendre du recul en s'intéressant à la multiplicité des effets contradictoires que produit le développement de cette politique, et aux luttes des acteurs pour lui donner du sens et déterminer une manière cohérente d'orienter leurs enquêtes et leurs actions. Par son caractère multisitué, cette thèse montre non seulement les multiples reconfigurations de la notion de biodiversité et de ses composantes provoquées par les évaluations globales, les compensations de biodiversité et les évaluations d'impact, mais aussi l'actualisation de l'éthique environnementale dans les pratiques à travers les valuations, et leur inséparabilité d'un réseau de valuations des savoirs, des institutions, des politiques, des procédures et des acteurs. Ce travail contribue également à la compréhension des échelles et leur élaboration comme lieux de contestation, en montrant leur rôle clé dans l'évaluation des impacts et plus largement dans la définition et l'articulation des problèmes et des solutions concernant la crise de la biodiversité. Cette thèse montre finalement comment, alors que les compensations sont considérées comme scientifiques ou techniques et fondées sur des conventions stabilisées, les acteurs remettent constamment en question la place et l'espace que le "politique", c'est-à-dire la possibilité de dépasser le langage hégémonique de l'évaluation, peut, devrait ou prend dans les processus dans lesquels faits et valuations s’entremêlent.
Si bien la "concienciación" exige una mayor consideración de la biodiversidad y una transformación de las prácticas, todos los actores se preguntan, aunque de forma muy diferente, qué es esa biodiversidad que hay que proteger y cómo actuar adecuadamente. Esta tesis examina los vínculos entre las transformaciones del conocimiento sobre la biodiversidad y la valuación de sus propiedades significativas, basándose en el estudio de las compensaciones por pérdida de biodiversidad. La observación de los trabajos de la IPBES durante una sesión plenaria en 2018 permite, primeramente, analizar las negociaciones y las implicaciones percibidas del conocimiento de la biodiversidad mundial. A continuación, se estudian las transformaciones provocadas por las compensaciones, centrándose en su surgimiento a nivel mundial y luego tomando como caso de estudio la implementación de estas políticas en Colombia. Para este propósito, se ha realizado un trabajo de campo de diez meses en el país en 2018-2019, incluyendo varios meses de etnografía dentro de su autoridad ambiental nacional — la ANLA, encargada del licenciamiento de proyectos. En lugar de analizar si las compensaciones pueden realmente cumplir sus promesas, que consisten en compatibilizar la conservación y el desarrollo, esta investigación articula la sociología moral con la sociología pragmática francesa para dar un paso atrás observando la multiplicidad de efectos contradictorios que produce el desarrollo de esta política, y las luchas de los actores para darle sentido y determinar una forma coherente de orientar sus indagaciones y acciones. A través de su carácter multisituado, esta investigación evidencia no sólo las múltiples reconfiguraciones de la noción de biodiversidad y sus componentes provocadas por las evaluaciones globales, las compensaciones y las evaluaciones de impacto, sino también la actualización de la ética ambiental en las prácticas a través de las valuaciones, y su inseparabilidad de un entramado de valuaciones de saberes, instituciones, políticas, procedimientos y actores. Este trabajo también contribuye a la comprensión de las escalas y su elaboración como lugares de impugnación, mostrando su papel clave en las valuaciones de impactos y, en mayor medida, en la definición y articulación de los problemas y las soluciones con respecto a la crisis de la biodiversidad. Por último, esta tesis demuestra cómo, mientras las compensaciones se consideran científicas o técnicas y se basan en convenciones estabilizadas, los actores cuestionan constantemente el lugar y el espacio que lo "político", es decir la posibilidad de superar el lenguaje hegemónico de la evaluación, puede, debe o toma en los procesos en los que se tejen hechos y valuaciones.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2000.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 137-155).
Governments have two apparently conflicting roles to play: promoter of economic development and protector of environmental quality. Economic development interests tend to have priority on most government agenda in developing countries, creating obstacles to the implementation of environmental protection policies. This trend can be reversed by introducing environmental protection concerns into the mainstream development agenda by decentralizing environmental policy implementation to development-oriented agencies. Government agencies often fail to implement environmental policies mainly because they lack political support, they have insufficient financial resources, they have not developed adequate institutional capacity, and they tend to overlook the importance of cooperation at the local level. However, the Bahia State government in Northeast Brazil was able to overcome all four of these obstacles in establishing environmentally protected areas (APAs) by introducing them into the mainstream development agenda, which was chiefly oriented toward tourism development. At the state level, a large number of APAs were created, primarily as the result of the decentralization of administrative authority among several state agencies, including development-oriented agencies linked to tourism development. This decentralization generated an apparently unintentional system of incentives for state agencies to implement APAs. The increased inter-agency competition for political control of protected areas improved the institutional capacity of each agency, and generated funds and political support at the state and local levels for APA implementation, overcoming the four obstacles. State agencies' actions were supervised by an independent oversight body, the state environmental council (CEPRAM), which had the power to interfere in the establishment of APAs and block development projects related to them. At the local level, seven case studies show that the involvement of state development agencies, and the local expectation of economic benefits from tourism, were important factors in preventing the usual local resistance to the establishment of APAs. In this context, three points determined the intensity of local political, financial, and institutional support for enforcing APA guidelines. First, APAs created as means of curbing already existent environmental problems caused by tourism or urban development mustered more local support than APAs created as environmental safeguards for public infrastructure projects. Second, APAs contained within a single municipality received more local support than APAs involving multiple municipalities. Third, the involvement of local actors at the early stages of the APA creation fostered local support for enforcement. From the lessons at the story at the state level, additional incentives to local institutions by a central authority linked to a politically independent system of checks-and-balances might improve implementation at the local level. The decentralization of environmental policy implementation to a range of development agencies can be an alternative to mainstreaming environmental concerns in the development agenda and achieving environmental protection goals. However, to make decentralization work, as my study in Bahia showed, central authorities should offer institutional incentives to decentralized agencies to ensure increased attention to environmental protection objectives in the development process; and at the same time, an independent body with oversight authority for both developmental and environmental actions should be in place to prevent development agencies from neglecting environmental concerns.
by José Antônio Puppim de Oliveira.
Ph.D.

La hipòtesi estableix que a la llum de l'escàndol d'emissions de Volkswagen, una creença comuna que s'ha format és que la captura regulatòria en el control i establiment d'estàndards d'emissions ha portat a una menor reducció de la contaminació i una menor innovació ambiental en els motors de combustió de gasolina i dièsel. Els resultats indiquen que sota un monopoli multiproducte, la captura regulatòria només condueix a més emissions i menys esforç d'innovació. El contrari és cert en la competència d'oligopolis. Per tant, el que estableix la hipòtesi és fals. El segon assaig estudia el poder de mercat en el mercat de l'aigua de Califòrnia. Els resultats d'aquest estudi indiquen que sota els supòsits de el model de Cournot, el poder de mercat en aquest mercat d'aigües poc profundes és limitat. Les proves de robustesa demostren el mateix resultat. El tercer i últim assaig de la tesi ofereix una comparació de dos instruments de política, com els estàndards d'emissió i els impostos a l'adquisició, en presència d'empreses d'oligopoli multiproducte per al mercat de l'automòbil. Els resultats indiquen que els estàndards d'emissió ofereixen més incentius a la innovació que els impostos a les adquisicions. Els consumidors estan millor amb les normes d'emissió si no es distribueixen els ingressos fiscals. Altrament, preferirien els impostos sobre l'adquisició. A més, els fabricants estarien millor amb l'impost a les adquisicions.
Esta disertación comprende tres ensayos relacionados con las políticas ambientales en los mercados internacionales. Dos ensayos consisten en el análisis de modelos teóricos (específicamente para las políticas ambientales en la industria automotriz), y uno en el análisis de modelos teóricos y empíricos (específicamente para el mercado del agua). industria del automóvil. La hipótesis establece que a la luz del escándalo de emisiones de Volkswagen, una creencia común que se ha formado es que la captura regulatoria en el control y establecimiento de estándares de emisiones ha llevado a una menor reducción de la contaminación y una menor innovación ambiental en los motores de combustión de gasolina y diésel. Los resultados indican que bajo un monopolio multiproducto, la captura regulatoria solo conduce a más emisiones y menos esfuerzo de innovación. Lo contrario es cierto en la competencia de oligopolios. Por tanto, lo que establece la hipótesis es falso. El segundo ensayo estudia el poder de mercado en el mercado del agua de California. Los resultados de este estudio indican que bajo los supuestos del modelo de Cournot, el poder de mercado en este mercado de aguas poco profundas es limitado. Las pruebas de robustez demuestran el mismo resultado. El tercer y último ensayo de la tesis ofrece una comparación de dos instrumentos de política, como los estándares de emisión y los impuestos a la adquisición, en presencia de empresas de oligopolio multiproducto para el mercado del automóvil. Los resultados indican que los estándares de emisión ofrecen mayores incentivos a la innovación que los impuestos a las adquisiciones. Los consumidores están mejor bajo los estándares de emisiones si los ingresos fiscales no se redistribuyen. De lo contrario, preferirían un impuesto a las adquisiciones. Además, los fabricantes estarían mejor con los impuestos a las adquisiciones.
This dissertation comprises three essays related to environmental policies in the international markets. Two essays consist of the analysis of theoretical models (specifically for the environmental policies in the automobile industry), and one in the analysis of both theoretical and empirical models, (specifically for the water market). automobile industry. The hypothesis states that in the light of the Volkswagen emissions scandal, a common belief that has formed is that regulatory capture in the control and setting of emission standards has led to lower pollution abatement and less environmental innovation in gasoline and diesel combustion engines. The results indicate that under a multiproduct monopoly regulatory capture only leads to more emissions and less innovation effort. The opposite is true under oligopoly competition. Thus, what hypothesis states is false. The second essay studies the market power in Californian's water market. The results of this study indicate that under the assumptions of the Cournot model, market power in this thin water market is limited. The robustness tests prove the same result. The third and final essay of the thesis provides a comparison of two policy instruments such as emission standards and acquisition taxes in the presence of Counot model with with n firms and vertically differentiated products for the automobile market. The results indicate that emission standards offer greater innovation incentives than do acquisition taxes. Consumers are better off under emission standards if tax revenues are not redistributed. Otherwise, they prefer an acquisition tax. Also, manufacturers are better off under acquisition taxes.

In the first chapter, "Does the Stage of Development Matter for Infrastructure Payoffs?”, I consider infrastructure as a channel for economic development. I address the question of whether the impact of infrastructure varies according to the stage of development of a country. I answer this question through an innovative methodology exploiting the information included in papers that provide estimates of infrastructure payoffs. I use a logit model whose dependent variable indicates whether these estimates are positively significant. To account for the variation of this dependent variable, I consider the sample characteristics of estimates. One of these characteristics is the stage of development of the countries included in the samples. Specifically, I use the weight of each of four income categories in the sample as an explanatory variable.

The second chapter, "Climate Change Mitigation in the Presence of Technology Spillovers", explores the implications of an increase in clean technology spillovers between developed and developing countries. I build a 2-stage 2-country game of abatements in which players are linked with technology spillovers. The two countries are asymmetric in their technology endowment. Country 1 - the developed country - is the only one able to invest in technology that lowers abatement costs. Country 2 - the developing country - captures only part of the technology provided by country 1.

The third chapter, "Threshold Effects in Self-Enforcing International Environmental Agreements" is co-written with Renaud Foucart. In this chapter, we address the stability of self-enforcing International Environmental Agreements (IEAs) with the presence of a threshold of irreversible climate change. Climate scientists recognize the existence of human-induced abrupt climate changes that are likely to occur when the climate system crosses some threshold. We show that taking into account these threshold effects - when identified with enough accuracy - allows for the existence of more ambitious agreements than those predicted by the traditional literature on IEAs. When considering abrupt irreversible damage, the contribution of any country that helps prevent the world from such a catastrophe is very large. Consequently, a high number of signatories that could potentially prevent the climate system from crossing the threshold could form a self-enforcing agreement.
Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

This thesis provides a comparative analysis of the environmental values present in Ghana’s and Senegal’s coastal regions, and the implications that those have for the surrounding environment. The countries approaches to urban farming, mining and oil and gas extraction, fishing, marine debris and municipal waste management are assessed in order to reach a greater understanding of these environmental issues. In undertaking this thesis, I attempted to draw a correlation between the handling of these issues and how people perceive their environment. Through the comparison of environmental degradation and the level of effort to achieve a more sustainable developmental framework in both countries, I draw examples from successes in Senegal’s coastal management framework to recommend appropriate environmental policy for the Greater Accra Region.

This thesis consists of four essays. The first essay looks at pollution taxation under capital mobility, and analyzes the role of pre-commitment by countries to their pollution tax rate. A polluting firm sells its product in two countries, and can locate and produce in a single country or in both countries. Due to the discrete-choice nature of the firm's location problem, the countries' welfare functions are discontinuous in their pollution tax rate. We show that when the countries cannot pre-commit to their pollution tax, the firm can still engender tax competition between them by strategically locating in both the countries. Moreover, pre-commitment pollution taxation may not be welfare improving for the countries, although it always makes the firm better off.
The second essay studies the effect of liberalization on corruption. Corruptible inspectors enforce an environmental regulation on firms, and are monitored by an honest regulator. Liberalization not only increases the variety of goods and the marginal utility of accepting a bribe, but also puts pressure on the regulator to curb corruption. The interaction of these two effects can cause corruption to initially increase with liberalization, and then decrease beyond a threshold. Moreover, equilibrium corruption is lower when the regulator is able to pre-commit to her monitoring frequency.
The third essay analyzes optimal labeling (information revelation) procedures for hidden attributes of credence goods. Consumers are heterogeneous in their preference for the hidden attribute, and producers can either self-label their products, or have them certified by a third party. The government can impose self or third-party labeling requirements on either the "green" or the "brown" producers. When corrupt producers can affix spurious labels, the government needs to monitor them. A mandatory self-labeling policy is shown to generally dominate mandatory third-party labeling.
The fourth essay develops formulas for computing the economy-wide energy intensity decline rate by aggregating sectoral energy efficiency improvements, and sectoral shifts in economic activities. The formulas are used to (i) construct plausible scenarios for the global rate of energy intensity decline, and (ii) show the restraining role of the "electricity generation" sector on the energy intensity decline rate.

The ways in which countries’ environmental performances are assessed are many, and the amount of variables examined to make such assessments is even greater. In the process of managing current and future environmental problems, policy is one of the main tools utilized by states. Motivated by its high position on indexes that measure environmental performance and gender equality respectively, this essay contains a case study where Sweden’s environmental policies are analysed from an ecofeminist perspective – a theoretical stance that highlights the importance of incorporating feminism, ecology and situated knowledge in policy and practice. Such an assessment is performed with an idea analysis and an ecofeminist ideal type, with the aim to provide an alternative view on the qualities of and success in environmental policy. The findings show that all policy categories incorporate the components that the ecofeminist ideal type consists of. However, the level of incorporation differs with regard to how many policies in each category that do so. Thus, there are several policies that ecofeminist theory would suggest need further consideration, while the result also illustrates that an ecofeminist perspective is relevant and useable in the formulation of environmental policy. Key words: environmental policy, ecofeminism, idea analysis, Sweden, environment, policy, feminism, case study.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2012.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 97-105).
This thesis aids in the development of a framework in which to conduct global benefit-cost assessments of aviation policies. Current policy analysis tools, such as the aviation environmental portfolio management tool (APMT), only consider climate and air quality impacts derived from aircraft emissions within the US. In addition, only landing and takeoff (LTO) emissions are considered. Barrett et al., however, has shown that aircraft cruise emissions have a significant impact on ground-level air quality. Given the time-scale and atmospheric lifetimes of species derived from aircraft emissions at these higher altitudes, a global framework for assessment is required. This thesis specifically investigates the global as well as regional implementation of an ultra-low sulfur jet fuel (ULSJ). The expected result from this policy is a reduction in aircraft SOx emissions, which in turn would reduce the atmospheric burden of primary and secondary sulfate aerosols. Sulfate aerosols have both climate and air quality impacts as they reflect incoming solar radiation (and thus provide atmospheric cooling) and are a type of ground-level pollutant that have generally been correlated to premature mortalities resulting from cardiopulmonary disease and lung cancer. Benefit-cost techniques are applied in this analysis. The framework developed within this thesis includes the ability to calculate expected avoided premature mortalities outside of the US. In addition, a monetization approach is used in which different values of statistical lives (VSLs) are applied depending on the country in which a premature mortality occurs. Also, the economic impact of increased fuel processing to reduce the FSC is estimated. This analysis is performed using Monte Carlo techniques to capture uncertainty, and a global sensitivity analysis (GSA) is utilized to determine the primary sources of uncertainty. The benefit-cost analysis results show that for US and global implementation, there is -80% chance of ULSJ implementation having a not cost beneficial outcome when climate, air quality, and economic impacts are included. On average, however, the air quality benefits do exceed the climate disbenefits. In addition, the GSA reveals that the largest contributor to the uncertainty in this analysis is the assumed US VSL distribution, where approximately 60% of the variance in the final output distribution can be attributed to this uncertainty. In addition, a fast policy tool approach is investigated using sensitivity values calculated from an adjoint model built-in to the global chemical transport model (GCTM) used for the atmospheric modeling within this analysis. From this fast policy tool, first order estimates of the impact of ULSJ on premature mortality are calculated.
by Christopher K. Gilmore.
S.M.

The purpose of this thesis is see if national policies regarding aimed at combating climate change could work even if international ones, such as the Kyoto Protocol, are considered to fail. The question was if environmental policies could be included as an explanatory variable for the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC). The environmental polices of interest were the market-based instrument, environmental taxes.   First, the hypothesis whether or not Sweden fit the EKC theory is tested, and this proves to be the case when looking at the years 1800-1996. Second, a hypothesis was tested to see if environmental taxes can help decreasing carbon emission intensity further once a country has reached its turning point. Comparing Sweden to six other countries from the European Union show that this is the case, although environmental taxes must be one of many tools and cannot work alone.   The study shows that the role of taxes were significant, thus showing their importance for the work on climate change. It is also observed that national policies do work, while regional, or international, ones are harder to conduct. The importance of national policies is enhanced since they will be guiding countries when deciding whether or not to commit to international policies.

Al mercat globalitzat d’avui en dia la falta de coneixement sobre la distribució dels impactes entre els estats dificulta el disseny de polítiques efectives per la reducció, a escala global, de la degradació ambiental. L'objectiu d’aquesta tesi consisteix en la combinació de models macroeconòmics amb l’optimització multi-objectiu per facilitar la quantificació de càrregues ambientals, la distribució equitativa de responsabilitats i el disseny de polítiques públiques eficaces i sostenibles. Per aquest motiu aquí es proposen mètodes quantitatius basats en models input-output ampliats al medi ambient per estudiar la contribució de les nacions a les pressions ambientals globals, mitjançant l’estudi del cicle de vida dels productes que es consumeixen mundialment; les càrregues ambientals relacionades amb el comerç i l'equitat amb que es distribueixen els impactes. Els resultats poden ajudar a dissenyar polítiques eficaces per assegurar una justa assignació de responsabilitats. A més a més, aquesta tesi proposa un enfocament d'optimització multi-objectiu sistemàtic per minimitzar els impactes ambientals i, simultàniament, maximitzar la producció d’una economia. El model de programació lineal bi-criteri identifica els sectors clau que contribueixen significativament a l'impacte ambiental i que presenten una baixa producció econòmica. Els resultats mostren que amb les tecnologies existents i mitjançant un control adequat de la demanda dels sectors, els impactes ambientals es podrien reduir en major proporció que la producció econòmica. D’altra banda, aquesta tesi proposa un mètode basat en programació lineal per facilitar la presa de decisions en estudis ambientals de forma inversa. És a dir, donat un conjunt de solucions, aquest mètode obté els límits inferiors i superiors dels intervals dins dels quals els pesos de cada indicadors han de caure, de forma que l'alternativa seleccionada sigui òptima. D'aquesta manera, les persones encarregades de prendre decisions no estan obligades a proporcionar els pesos amb antelació, el que podria donar lloc a resultats esbiaixats.
En el mercado globalizado actual, la falta de conocimiento sobre cómo se distribuyen los impactos entre las naciones dificulta el diseño de políticas efectivas para la reducción, a escala global, de la degradación ambiental. El objetivo de esta tesis es combinar modelos macroeconómicos y optimización multiobjetivo para facilitar la cuantificación de cargas ambientales, la distribución equitativa de responsabilidades, y el diseño de políticas públicas eficaces que mejoren la sostenibilidad. Para ello, en esta tesis se proponen métodos cuantitativos basados en modelos input-output extendidos al medio ambiente para estudiar la contribución de las naciones a la presión ambiental global mediante el análisis del ciclo de vida de los productos que se consumen mundialmente, las cargas ambientales relacionadas con el comercio, y la equidad con que se distribuyen los impactos. Los hallazgos pueden ayudar a diseñar políticas eficaces para asegurar una asignación justa de responsabilidades. Además esta tesis propone un enfoque de optimización multiobjetivo sistemático para minimizar simultáneamente los impactos ambientales y maximizar la producción de una economía. El modelo de programación lineal bicriterio identifica los sectores clave que contribuyen significativamente al impacto y presentan una baja producción económica. Los resultados muestran que con las tecnologías existentes y controlando adecuadamente la demanda de ciertos sectores, los impactos ambientales podrían disminuir en mayor proporción que la producción económica. Además, esta tesis propone un método basado en programación lineal para facilitar la toma de decisiones ambientales mediante un análisis inverso. Es decir, dado un conjunto de soluciones, el método desarrollado busca los límites inferior y superior de los intervalos dentro de los cuales los pesos de cada indicador deben caer para que la alternativa seleccionada sea la óptima. De este modo, las personas encargadas de tomar decisiones no están obligadas a proporcionar los pesos de antemano, lo que podría conducir a resultados sesgados.
In today’s globalized market, the lack of knowledge about how the impacts distribute among nations hinders the design of effective policies for reducing the environmental degradation at a global scale. The aim of this thesis is to combine macroeconomic models with multi-objective optimization to facilitate the quantification of environmental loads, the fair allocation of responsibilities, and the design of effective public policies aiming at sustainability. To these end here we propose quantitative methods based on environmentally extended input-output models to study the contribution of nations to the global environmental pressures by examining the life cycle of products consumed worldwide; the trade-embodied environmental loads; and the equity with which impacts are distributed. Findings may help to design effective policies ensuring a fair allocation of responsibilities. This thesis also proposes a systematic multi-objective optimization approach for simultaneously minimizing the environmental impacts and maximizing the output of an economy. The bi-criteria linear programming model identifies key sectors with significant impact contribution and low output. Results show that, with the existing technologies, the environmental impacts could be lowered in higher proportion than the economic output by controlling adequately the demand of sectors. Moreover, this thesis proposes a method based on linear-programming to facilitate decision-making in environmental studies in an inverse manner. That is, given a set of solutions, this method finds the lower and upper limits of the intervals within which the weights to be attached to the indicators must fall, so that the selected alternative becomes optimal. Thereby, decision makers are not required to provide weights beforehand that could lead to biased results.

This thesis examines the effects of different environmental policies on renewable energy technology innovation. Previous empirical and theoretical studies done on the field of environmental and innovation economics agree that the presence of environmental regulations positively affect innovation. This paper uses patent applications to the EPO in order to measure the effectiveness of the different policy measures to induce innovation in renewable energy technologies. Patent data from 20 European countries was used for the period 1977-2013. The empirical model was estimated using the Poisson fixed-effects model. The results indicate that tax measures are necessary for renewable energy innovation but is unlikely that taxes alone are sufficient to induce innovation without other policy support to tackle the market inefficiencies. The price of electricity and the growth of the electricity consumption were also found to be significant determinants of innovation to renewable energy technologies, suggesting that the conditions of the energy market play an important role in energy innovation.

Introduction Chapter 1. Sustainable development and its relationship with the environment 1.1 The concept of sustainable development and its historical development 1.2 The scope of sustainable development 1.3 Strategy, aims, objectives and criticisms of sustainable development 1.4 Relationship between sustainable development and environment Chapter 2. Comprehensive study of economic mechanisms and methods of modern sustainable environmental development in Azerbaijan 2.1. Economic methods in the regulation of sustainable environmental development in Azerbaijan 2.2. Programs and projects implemented by international organizations to ensure environmental development in the Republic of Azerbaijan 2.3. Systematic analysis of sustainable environmental development management Chapter 3. Evaluation of green economy and projects in terms of sustainable development in Azerbaijan 3.1 Green economy analysis in Azerbaijan 3.2 State mechanism of regulation of sustainable ecological development and development perspectives 3.3 Evaluation of projects designed to promote sustainable and economic Development in Azerbaijan 3.3.1 Socio-Economic Development of the Republic of Azerbaijan 2004-2018 State Project 3.3.2 Azerbaijan 2020: Looking Forward Development Project 3.3.3 State Project of Social and Economic Development of Regions in Azerbaijan 2019-2023

Introduction Chapter 1. Sustainable development and its relationship with the environment 1.1 The concept of sustainable development and its historical development 1.2 The scope of sustainable development 1.3 Strategy, aims, objectives and criticisms of sustainable development 1.4 Relationship between sustainable development and environment Chapter 2. Comprehensive study of economic mechanisms and methods of modern sustainable environmental development in Azerbaijan 2.1. Economic methods in the regulation of sustainable environmental development in Azerbaijan 2.2. Programs and projects implemented by international organizations to ensure environmental development in the Republic of Azerbaijan 2.3. Systematic analysis of sustainable environmental development management Chapter 3. Evaluation of green economy and projects in terms of sustainable development in Azerbaijan 3.1 Green economy analysis in Azerbaijan 3.2 State mechanism of regulation of sustainable ecological development and development perspectives 3.3 Evaluation of projects designed to promote sustainable and economic Development in Azerbaijan 3.3.1 Socio-Economic Development of the Republic of Azerbaijan 2004-2018 State Project 3.3.2 Azerbaijan 2020: Looking Forward Development Project 3.3.3 State Project of Social and Economic Development of Regions in Azerbaijan 2019-2023

The runtime environments provided by application-level virtual machines such as the Java Virtual Machine or the .NET Common Language Runtime are attractive for Internet application providers because the applications can be deployed on any platform that supports the target virtual machine. With Internet applications, organisations as well as end users face the risk of viruses, trojans, and denial of service attacks. Virtual machine providers are aware of these Internet security risks and provide, for example, runtime monitoring of untrusted code and access control to sensitive resources. Our work addresses two important security issues in runtime environments. The first issue concerns resource or release control. While many virtual machines provide runtime access control to resources, they do not provide any means of limiting the use of a resource once access is granted; they do not provide so-called resource control. We have addressed the issue of resource control in the example of the Java Virtual Machine. In contrast to others’ work, our solution builds on an enhancement to the existing security architecture. We demonstrate that resource control permissions for Java-mediated resources can be integrated into the regular Java security architecture, thus leading to a clean design and a single external security policy. The second issue that we address is the usabilityhttps://www.diva-portal.org/liu/webform/form.jsp DiVA Web Form and security of the setup of security policies for runtime environments. Access control decisions are based on external configuration files, the security policy, which must be set up by the end user. This set-up is security-critical but also complicated and errorprone for a lay end user and supportive, usable tools are so far missing. After one of our usability studies signalled that offline editing of the configuration file is inefficient and difficult for end users, we conducted a usability study of personal firewalls to identify usable ways of setting up a security policy at runtime. An analysis of general user help techniques together with the results from the two previous studies resulted in a proposal of design guidelines for applications that need to set up a security policy. Our guidelines have been used for the design and implementation of the tool JPerM that sets the Java security policy at runtime. JPerM evaluated positively in a usability study and supports the validity of our design guidelines.

Sustainability of the aviation industry, as any other industry, depends on the elasticity of demand for the product and profitability through minimising operating costs and hence assessing and understanding the interdependency and effects of environmentally optimised solutions and emission mitigation policies, is paramount. The contribution to knowledge, from this research, is the development and application of assessment methodologies to better understand the effects that future potential environmental taxation may have on the adaptation of optimised “greener” operations and novel technologies. These studies are undertaken using a Techno-economic Environmental Risk Assessment approach (TERA). The first methodology introduced to assess optimised operation methods (based on operating cost analysis), demonstrated that carbon taxation has limited effect if applied in isolation. Increasing it to extreme levels, apart from resulting in an increase in operational costs and raising governmental revenues, may not necessarily result in influencing an airline operator’s operational strategy to move to greener solutions. Instead, an application of a taxation level, commensurate to global standards, coupled with an improved air traffic management system, would allow aircraft to fly closer to their design efficiency and hence aid in reducing the environmental impact. The second methodology introduced (based on an operating and investment cost analysis) allows the assessment of the economic viability of a new technology in comparison to a conventional technology, when considered in terms of relative increase in acquisition price and maintenance costs, for various emission taxation and fuel price scenarios. A study undertaken as a ‘proof of concept’, comparing a Counter Rotating Open Rotor (CROR) aircraft with a conventional aircraft, indicates that at a current fuel price and no carbon taxation, despite being demonstrated as a highly fuel efficient technology, a relative increase in acquisition price and maintenance costs in comparison to the conventional aircraft, could render the CROR technology, economically unviable. The work further demonstrates that for the CROR technology to be economically beneficial, a simultaneous introduction of emission taxes may be required. The study shows that in order to achieve lower environmental impact, the implementation of taxation with the introduction of greener technologies will evidently increase the cost of civil aviation operation. This research subsequently identifies the following questions, more of a ‘political and socio-economic nature’, to consider as part of further work.  If taxes above the global industry standards are introduced for the aviation industry, and they are higher in comparison to those applied on some other carbon intensive sectors, will it raise questions on equity of treatment?  If taxation is introduced, airline operators and the ticket price paying passengers being amongst the key stakeholders in the aviation industry, will such high pricing as demonstrated be practical for long term sustenance?  Will policies be driven by the fact that they will be aimed as a trade-off between achieving global sustenance of the industry and achieving environmental gain?  Will high taxation as demonstrated, have global acceptance or will it have to be compromised, based on the growth potential or GDP of a country/ region?

This thesis examines the environmental damages done by humans, such as plastic pollution, harmful energy production, and habitat destruction, and the things we are doing to correct them. It analyzes the costs and benefits government policies such as the ban of plastic products, along with creative innovations such as a sea vacuum and a cannon that shoots fish. Are we doing enough to heal the damage we have caused? Furthermore, can we change our behaviors to prevent more damage in the future?

This research analyzes three contributing factors, perception, knowledge, and affordability, in order to estimate the likelihood of state cooperation on effective regulatory policies for transboundary environmental problems. The correlative hypothesis in this research postulates that states are more likely to support environmental regulatory policies when the issue is perceived by policymakers as serious, substantiated by a high level of knowledge, and affordable for the state. Regulatory policies for transboundary environmental issues require policymakers to act in foresight, employ precautionary measures, and cooperate. Cooperation implies that states will coordinate their policies and eschew their dominant strategy of independent decision making. However, this research contends that states decide to cooperate because they perceive the strategic interaction to be beneficial. Thus, the theory of cooperation in this research is consistent with realist assumptions of rational egoism.

This thesis proposes a typing discipline to control the migration of code in a distributed, mobile environment. Our approach is to express security policies as types, to characterise security faults as typing errors, and to use a type system to statically enforce a given security policy. We prove a type safety result that ensures that well-typed programs do not violate the prescribed security policy. We start by analysing a simple, yet non-trivial, approach to control the access to resources in a concurrent language (the $\pi-$calculus). In the concurrent framework we study the control of actions at program level and, in a finer-grained scenario, at resource level. Moving into a distributed, concurrent platform (using the D$\pi$-calculus as the underlying language), we analyse the impact of code mobility in the verification of security. In a first stage, we control mobility by specifying security policies at site level, and by considering only the source site, the target site, and the action to be executed, as the relevant information to decide if an action should be performed. This approach revealed some vulnerabilities, namely that a site cannot control by itself its own security: it always need to trust in third-parties. Aiming at overcoming this undesired lacuna, as well as simplifying the writing and maintenance of security policies, we introduce the concepts of groups, a cluster of sites that share the same security polices, and of path to account for the sequence of sites visited by migrating code. We define security at group level, avoiding the replication of polices by the sites that are members of the same group. Granting privileges to migrating paths allows for a site to precisely select the action that it grants permission to be executed (without needing to depend on third-parties). Our major result is that, recalling Milners motto, well-typed programs do not go wrong, in the sense that, if a network has no typing error, then it does not incur in a security fault.

The history of urban policing paints an evolutionary picture describing the various forces that impinged on society's earliest efforts at public policing and led to numerous reforms culminating in what has been termed the professional model of policing. The dynamics of an ever-changing urban society continued to present new challenges to policing and have driven police administrators and politicians to seek new methods of responding to society's criminal element.

Since the 1970s multiple research efforts around the world have focused on identifying potential environmental, economic, and social impacts of development. It is well understood that local project assessment approaches fail to identify, or worse quantify, indirect or cumulative effects, when they do not provide an appropriate baseline framework to understand the local and the regional environment as a connected entity. A conceptual approach based on several environmental assessment and spatial analysis tools suggests that we need to consider multi-scale methods that can help describe the different processes that occur within a region. This would help project managers and researchers to better evaluate ongoing regional policies by retrieving a wide characterization of the application and impacts of policies within the whole geographical spectrum. Within each policy assessment, these methods could evolve into a framework for environmental management practices at both local and regional scales that could be updated with new information through time. We analyze two regional policy case studies: poverty targeting in Sri Lanka, and payments for ecosystem services in Costa Rica.

There has been ongoing global concern on environmental issues and which is supposed to have moved down into smaller institutions and areas through local agenda 2l. Environmental issues are associated not only with care for the environment but also sustainable development. Various universities are beginning to strive for sustainable development and care for the environment. Some universities are therefore integrating care for the environment in their curricula and in their daily operations on campus. The greening of higher educational institutions as models is important as they are the seat for research and training of undergraduates who will become future leaders and policymakers and caretakers of the environment. It is therefore important for undergraduates to be exposed to greening processes in operations, research and curricula whilst still on campus. This study examines the process of formulating a policy and applies that to forming an environmental policy. The study involved a comparative analysis of environmental policies of various tertiary educational institutions from different countries. The study focused on how many universities in South Africa have environmental policies and how the universities which have environmental policies went about their formulation process. The study further examines the duration of the formulation process and the constraints encountered by universities. The study then reviews strategies on how the environmental policy is being implemented and how effective the implementation process is practically and the constraints these institutions face. The findings of the study reveal that few universities ill South Africa have an environmental policy. The universities are making efforts in their implementation process however, not all the principles found in the policies are being implemented effectively as there are no environmental management systems in place and there are no measurable objectives and targets set for proper evaluation of the success or failure of the policy.

Biofuels started to raise interest almost 40 years ago, when the Arab oil embargo pushed oil prices up and therefore spurred the research towards new forms of energy. Nevertheless, biofuel production has not really taken off until recently, when the combination of high oil prices, concern about greenhouse gas emissions, and the progressive reduction of oil reserves induced many countries across the world to implement policies encouraging biofuels production. At the beginning of the 2000s, biofuels were seen as a panacea for energy security (domestic energy source, highly reliable), economic stability (energy price stability, rural development, employment generation, reduce supply-demand gap for agricultural commodities), and for environment protection (better waste utilization, GHG emissions reduction), especially after the drawing up of the Kyoto protocol, according to which signatory countries had to reduce their GHG emissions by about 5% from their 1990 levels, by 2012. Biofuels are currently produced from agricultural commodities, therefore their repercussions on the agricultural and food sector might be substantial. In this framework it is clear that the responsibility that big countries (those able to affect world prices) have is substantial. Countries like the US, Brazil, and the EU have been encouraging biofuel production in recent years and ended up artificially creating a new market for agricultural commodities without fully understanding, a priori, the possible negative consequences of such decision. They decided to subsidize renewables because of the increased pressure by the public opinion towards greenhouse gas emissions reduction, reduce dependency on oil imports, and the need to meet the targets set by both the Kyoto protocol. Biofuel expansion took place not only in a controversial manner, without coordination at international level, but also in a critical historical moment. The past two decades have been characterized by a strong increase in world food demand, mainly due to economic expansion in emerging economies like China, India, Brazil, and some South East Asian countries. The strong increase in demand faces an agricultural supply that in the short period is inevitably inelastic, which results in higher prices and higher volatility (due to reduced stocks). Much of the initial enthusiasm towards biofuels has been declining in the last few years. First of all, biofuel expansion has increased the demand for many agricultural commodities, which, in a framework of increasing food demand in the world, triggered a sharp increase in agricultural prices with strong negative implications for poor people especially in developing countries. Many doubts have also been raised concerning the real effectiveness of biofuels in reducing GHG emissions. Emission-computing methodologies are not always accurate and sometimes are difficult to put in practice. Agriculture intensification and land use changes, both consequences of biofuel expansion, are two of the factors more likely to have increased GHG emissions rather than reduced. Furthermore, biofuel policies have been designed and implemented by countries on an individual basis, without the coordination at international level that would have been needed to avoid the numerous side-effects that biofuels have been having on international food markets and on the environment. My doctorate research analyzes all aspects of the biofuel sector at world level with special emphasis on its sustainability under an economic, environmental, and ethical point of view. The research starts with a description of what biofuels are and in which sub-categories they can be divided. Then, it provides a review of biofuel policies around the world and data on production, prices and trade. The work also provides figures on production, prices and trade of the main agricultural commodities used for biofuel production and the evolution of cropped and forest areas worldwide in the last twenty years. Main biofuel producers are the US, Brazil and the EU. In the first two countries is ethanol the main biofuel produced (obtained from corn in the US and from sugarcane in Brazil), while in the EU the leasing biofuel is biodiesel (from vegetable oils). In 2011, 51.8% of Brazilian sugarcane production and 42.2% of US corn production were used to produce ethanol. Areas cropped with sugarcane and corn, in the two countries were 4.2 and 15.5 million hectares in 2011, which correspond to 1.5% and 16% of total agricultural area respectively. By 2021 ethanol production will absorb almost 61% of Brazilian sugarcane production and 57% of US corn production, ceteris paribus. In 2021 the amount of land needed to grow all sugarcane needed to produce ethanol in Brazil will be more than 8 million hectares, almost equal to the entire current sugarcane area in the South American country. In the US the area that will be needed to cultivate corn for ethanol production will grow to slightly less than 20 million hectares, equal to 53% of current corn area in the US and 20% of current total agricultural area. These data highlight the different impact sugarcane- and corn-based ethanol have on agricultural production. Brazilian and American ethanol production was 22.9 and 52.8 million m3 in 2011 respectively, implying an “ethanol yield” of 5.5 m3/hectare for sugarcane ethanol and of 3.4 m3/hectare for corn-ethanol. This means that producing ethanol from sugarcane is more efficient and less consuming in terms of land than corn-ethanol. Considering also biodiesel, the amount of land needed to crop biofuel feedstocks, in Brazil and the US grows to 3 and 18.4% of total agricultural land. These areas are forecasted to increase to 6.3 and 23% by 2021, implying an increasing competition for land. In 2011 the EU used 5.4 million tons of domestically produced rapeseed oil and at least 3.9 million tons of imported palm oil to make biodiesel. The amount of land needed to grow rapeseed within the Union and oil palm in third countries (mainly Indonesia and Malaysia) was 5.2 and 1.3 million hectares respectively. The area needed to crop rapeseed for biodiesel production, in the EU, was equal to 5.2% of total agriculture area. Assuming that the percentage of rapeseed oil on total vegetable oil production in the EU will remain the same of 2011 and that the share of it employed in the food sector will also remain unchanged, it is possible to forecast that, in 2021, the EU will need 6.6 million tons of rapeseed oil and at least 10 million tons of palm oil from third countries to meet its consumption targets. This means that at least 3.4 million hectares of land, in South East Asia will be needed to produce palm oil destined to the EU. The core of the thesis is the analysis of the sustainability of biofuels on one hand, and of biofuels’ implications on food production on the other. The sustainability of biofuel production is analyzed through a literature review and re-interpretation of the existing literature on the topic, encompassing effects of mass biofuel production on the environment, GHG emissions, land use changes, water availability, and implications for developing countries. One of the most important aspects of biofuel sustainability is their effects on agricultural production and agricultural prices. The empirical part of this thesis employs econometric tools to assess the degree of integration between energy and agricultural markets in the main biofuel producing countries and price transmission elasticity between international and EU agricultural markets before and after the last reform of the CAP. In the US and in Brazil energy and agricultural prices move together in the long-run and the influence of oil prices has been growing over time. This means that policy-makers, in the future, will have to pay great attention to the mutual influence energy and agricultural policies can have on each other. In Europe this close relationship between energy and agricultural prices was not detected, however European agricultural markets have been influenced by biofuel policies in the US, and to a lesser extent Brazil, indirectly, through their effects on international commodity prices. What emerges from this work is that biofuels, in the current political, economic demographic, situation are, for many aspects, not sustainable. Side-effects of biofuel production are many and often even difficult to quantify. Solutions provided are often utopic or, even if good in theory, very difficult to implement. Biofuel production has been having negative effects on food production and prices, biodiversity and social welfare in the last decade, inside and outside the countries of production. The “original sin” was the initial lack of coordination between policies issued unilaterally by different countries, something that now seems extremely difficult to fix. Governments should, as it has been recently suggested by the United Nations, consider the option of modifying their biofuel programs because of their negative consequences on food security in many low-income countries. Also the promotion and implementation of biofuel policies in developing countries should be avoided as a measure for fostering development. It is very unlikely that rural poor will benefit from policies subsidizing the biofuel sector since most of the land in developing countries is owned by big multinational companies or by foreign states (land grabbing). The development of the biofuel sector would also increase food prices even in countries where such increase has been marginal so far because of scarce price transmission from the world market. Poor people living in urban areas would be worse off by higher food prices as well as small farmers who, in developing countries, are often net-purchasers of food. It has been suggested by many scholars and international organizations that, in order to become sustainable, biofuel production should shift from first-generation to second-generation technologies (those that allow the use of non-food crops or wastes for biofuel production). This will not be easy to achieve. Current second-generation biofuel production is still very small and will not grow substantially unless major investments are made by governments and, under the right conditions, private companies. Moreover it is not governments nor policy-makers who decides whether is profitable to put marginal land under cultivation and to crop non-food biofuel crops on it. Farmers are those making such decisions and they will not do it unless it is profitable. Current record-high agricultural commodity prices raise many doubts on the fact that farmers will shift from food to non-food crops without substantial government subsidies. An increase in subsidies to the agricultural sector, even just for energy crops, is unlikely to happen anytime soon because of the financial and economic crisis that hit many countries around the world and because of pressure by the WTO and other international organizations to reduce the degree of protection. In case it will be decided to keep subsidizing biofuels, new polices will have to be designed and implemented at world level, needing a very high degree of coordination between countries and flexibility, which is difficult to imagine can be reached in the short or even the medium term. An emblematic case, in this sense, is GHG emission accounting mechanisms that currently are based on life-cycle assessment analysis and that are often incomplete (i.e. limited to a single country or region) or unable to take all factors into account (i.e. indirect land-use changes). Research, in the next years, will have to focus on two main topics. On one hand second- and third-generation techniques for biofuel production will have to be refined and made economically (but also environmentally and socially) viable, possibly together with progressive reduction in the support in favor of first-generation biofuels. On the other hand, a better definition of the methodologies to assess the environmental, economic and social impacts of biofuel production will be crucial in order to correctly evaluate the sustainability of biofuel programs. In particular, the development of reliable methodologies to assess the environmental impact of biofuel production is very important since, in the future, subsidies could be calculated in a way to reward the production of biofuels able to provide (proved) positive externalities to the environment as well as increase social welfare.
Di biocarburanti si iniziò a parlare circa 40 anni fa, in concomitanza con la crisi petrolifera determinata dall’embargo da parte dei paesi OPEC. Il conseguente forte aumento del prezzo del petrolio stimolò infatti la ricerca nel campo delle forme di energia alternative. La produzione di biocarburanti è tuttavia decollata solo di recente, grazie all’azione combinata di molteplici fattori: elevate quotazioni del petrolio, necessità di contenere le emissioni di gas serra e la riduzione delle scorte di combustibili fossili; tutte cose che hanno indotto molti paesi a mettere a punto programmi volti allo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti. All’inizio degli anni 2000 i biocarburanti venivano considerati la soluzione ideale per risolvere i problemi dell’approvvigionamento energetico, della stabilità economica (stabilizzazione dei prezzi dell’energia, sviluppo rurale, creazione di posti di lavoro, aumento della domanda di materie prime agricole) e della protezione dell’ambiente (utilizzazione più efficiente dei rifiuti e riduzione delle emissioni di gas serra). Un impulso decisivo allo sviluppo delle politiche fu dato dalla stipula del Protocollo di Kyoto nel quale i paesi firmatari si impegnavano a ridurre le proprie emissioni di gas serra del 5% rispetto ai livelli del 1990 entro il 2012. Al momento attuale i biocarburanti vengono in larga parte prodotti a partire da materie prime agricole, quindi le ripercussioni della loro produzione sul settore agricolo possono essere rilevanti. In tale àmbito appare chiara la forte responsabilità, in termini di effetti sui mercati agricoli mondiali, che hanno i paesi che più di tutti hanno sovvenzionato il settore: Stati Uniti, Brasile e Unione Europea. Tali paesi, tramite le loro politiche, hanno creato un nuovo mercato di sbocco per molte materie prime agricole, senza capire a fondo, a priori, le conseguenze di tale azione. Le principali motivazioni addotte dai decisori politici per giustificare le sovvenzioni al settore dei biocarburanti furono la necessità di ottemperare ai dettami del Protocollo di Kyoto, aumentare l’indipendenza energetica, creare nuovi posti di lavoro, migliorare il reddito degli agricoltori e stabilizzare i prezzi dell’energia. L’espansione del settore dei biofuel è avvenuta non solamente in maniera quantomeno controversa, senza coordinazione a livello internazionale, ma anche in un momento storico molto delicato. Gli ultimi venti anni sono stati infatti caratterizzati da un grande aumento della domanda mondiale di cibo, soprattutto a causa della forte crescita economica dei cosiddetti paesi emergenti: Cina, India, Brasile e paesi del Sud-Est asiatico. Il forte aumento della domanda si scontra contro un’offerta di materie prime agricole giocoforza rigida nel breve termine, cosa che genera forti aumenti di prezzo e della volatilità delle quotazioni (soprattutto a causa del forte ridimensionamento delle scorte). Negli ultimi anni gran parte dell’entusiasmo iniziale nei confronti dei biocarburanti è andato scemando. Per prima cosa l’espansione del settore dei combustibili “verdi” ha aumentato la domanda per molte materie prime agricole che, in un contesto contraddistinto da un forte aumento della domanda mondiale, ha generato un sensibile aumento dei prezzi alimentari, con ripercussioni particolarmente negative per le fasce più povere della popolazione, soprattutto nei paesi meno sviluppati. Anche l’effettiva efficacia dei biocarburanti nel ridurre le emissioni di gas serra è stata fortemente messa in dubbio. Le metodologie utilizzare per il conteggio delle emissioni non sono sempre accurate o di facile attuazione. L’intensivizzazione dei processi agricoli e i cambiamenti d’uso dei suoli, entrambi conseguenza dell’aumento della produzione agricola, sono due fattori che molto probabilmente hanno causato un aumento delle emissioni di gas serra invece che una diminuzione. Inoltre, le politiche a favore del settore delle energie rinnovabili sono state progettate e messe in pratica in maniera spesso unilaterale da parte dei vari paesi, senza quella coordinazione a livello internazionale che sarebbe stata essenziale a evitare le conseguenze negative sui mercati agricoli e sull’ambiente. La mia ricerca di dottorato analizza tutti gli aspetti del settore dei biocarburanti a livello mondiale con particolare attenzione a quelli della sostenibilità: economica, ambientale e sociale. La ricerca inizia con una descrizione delle varie tipologie di biocarburanti attualmente prodotti a livello mondiale e prosegue con una rassegna delle politiche a favore dei biocarburanti nei principali paesi. In séguito vengono analizzate le produzioni, i prezzi e il commercio internazionale di biocarburanti e delle materie prime dalle quali sono ottenuti. I principali paesi produttori di biocarburanti sono gli Stati Uniti, il Brasile e l’Unione Europea. Nei primi due viene prodotto principalmente etanolo (a partire dal mais negli Stati Uniti e dalla canna da zucchero in Brasile), mentre nell’Unione Europea è il biodiesel il biocarburante di riferimento (prodotto a partire da oli vegetali). Nel 2011, il 51,8% della produzione brasiliana di canna da zucchero e il 42,2% di quella statunitense di mais sono state usate per produrre etanolo. Le superfici necessarie, nei due paesi, per la coltivazione della materia prima per la produzione del biocarburante sono state pari a 4,2 e 15,5 milioni di ettari, che rappresentano l’1,5 e il 16% della superficie agricola totale dei due paesi. Nel 2021, ceteris paribus, la produzione di etanolo assorbirà circa il 61% della produzione brasiliana di canna da zucchero e il 57% di quella statunitense di mais. Sempre nel 2021, in Brasile, le superfici necessarie per coltivare canna da zucchero destinata la settore dell’etanolo raggiungeranno gli 8 milioni di ettari, pari a tutta l’area attualmente coltivata a canna da zucchero nel paese sudamericano. Negli Stati Uniti le superfici necessarie a coltivare il granturco per la produzione di etanolo cresceranno fino a sfiorare i 20 milioni di ettari, un’estensione pari al 53% dell’area attualmente investita a mais e al 20% della superficie agricola totale del 2011. Da questi dati è possibile osservare la forte differenza, in termini di impatto sulle produzioni agricole, tra la produzione di etanolo brasiliana (imperniata sulla canna da zucchero) e quella statunitense (basata sul mais). La produzione brasiliana e statunitense di etanolo, nel 2011, è stata rispettivamente di 22,9 e 52,8 milioni di metri cubi, implicando una “resa” in etanolo di 5,5 e 3,4 metri cubi a ettaro. Ciò significa che la produzione di etanolo a partire dalla canna da zucchero è più efficiente in termini di superfici necessarie alla coltivazione della materia prima. Tenendo in considerazione anche il biodiesel, in rapida espansione in entrambi i paesi (dove viene ottenuto a partire dall’olio di soia), l’incidenza percentuale delle superfici utilizzate per coltivare la materia prima per la produzione di biocarburanti (etanolo e biodiesel) cresce fino a raggiungere il 3% del totale della superficie agricola in Brasile e il 18,4% negli Stati Uniti. Tali percentuali sono destinate a raggiungere il 6,3 e il 23% entro il 2021. Nel 2011 l’Unione Europea ha impiegato 5,4 milioni di tonnellate di olio di colza (prodotto all’interno dell’Unione) e almeno 3,9 milioni di olio di palma (importato da Indonesia e Malesia) per produrre biodiesel. Le superfice necessaria, all’interno dell’UE, per la coltivazione della colza usata nel settore dei biocarburanti è stata di 5,2 milioni di ettari nel 2011, mentre quella impiegata per la produzione di olio di palma nei paesi terzi di almeno 1,3 milioni di ettari. Sempre nel 2011, il 5,2% della superficie agricola totale dell’Unione è stato utilizzato per la coltivazione di colza da destinare alla produzione di biocarburanti. Assumendo che la percentuale di olio di colza impiegata nel settore alimentare nell’Unione Europea rimarrà la stessa anche negli anni a venire, è possibile prevedere che, nel 2021, l’UE avrà bisogno di 6,6 milioni di tonnellate di olio di colza e di almeno 10 milioni di tonnellate di olio di palma (importato da paesi terzi) per raggiungere i suoi obiettivi di consumo in materia di biodiesel. Ciò implica che almeno 3,4 milioni di ettari di terreni, presumibilmente in Indonesia e Malesia, saranno necessari per produrre tutto l’olio di palma di cui il settore del biodiesel comunitario avrà bisogno. Il fulcro di questa tesi è l’analisi della sostenibilità della produzione di biocarburanti e le sue conseguenze sulla produzione di materie prime agricole. La sostenibilità dei biocarburanti viene esaminata attraverso una revisione della letteratura esistente sull’argomento, con particolare enfasi sugli effetti della forte espansione del settore dei carburanti “verdi” sull’ambiente, sulle emissioni di gas serra, i cambiamenti d’uso del suolo, la disponibilità idrica e le implicazioni per i paesi in via di sviluppo. In termini di sostenibilità, uno degli aspetti più importanti riguarda gli effetti del forte aumento della produzione di biofuel sulla produzione e sui prezzi delle materie prime agricole. Questa tesi, nella sua parte empirica, utilizza tecniche econometriche per misurare il livello di integrazione tra i mercati energetici e quelli agricoli nei principali paesi produttori. Viene inoltre anche stimata l’elasticità di trasmissione dei prezzi tra il mercato mondiale e quello comunitario nel caso delle principali materie prime agricole, prima e dopo l’ultima riforma della Politica agricola comune (Riforma Fischler). Negli Stati Uniti e in Brasile i prezzi agricoli e quelli dell’energia (petrolio ed etanolo) condividono il medesimo trend di lungo periodo, con l’influenza del prezzo del petrolio che è andata crescendo negli ultimi anni. Ciò implica che i decisori politici dovranno, in futuro, prestare grande attenzione agli effetti che le politiche energetiche hanno sui mercati agricoli e viceversa. In Europa non è stato possibile dimostrare la presenza di una relazione diretta tra prezzi agricoli e prezzo del petrolio, tuttavia è possibile affermare che i mercati agricoli europei subiscano le conseguenze delle politiche a favore dei biocarburanti di altri paesi, in particolare degli Stati Uniti, in maniera indiretta, cioè tramite l’effetto di tali politiche sui prezzi internazionali. Ciò che merge da questo lavoro è che i biocarburanti, nella situazione economica, politica e demografica attuale, sono, per molti aspetti, non sostenibili. Gli effetti collaterali della produzione di biofuel sono numerosi e spesso difficili da quantificare. Le soluzioni proposte dalla letteratura sono spesso utopiche o, seppur corrette dal punto di vista teorico, molto difficili da applicare. L’espansione del settore dei biocarburanti sta avendo effetti negativi sulla produzione e sui prezzi delle materie prime agricole, sulla biodiversità e sul benessere sociale, sia all’interno dei principali paesi produttori che all’esterno di essi. Il “peccato originale” è stato la mancanza di coordinazione iniziale tra le varie politiche, progettate e messe in pratica in maniera unilaterale dai vari paesi; una cosa alla quale, oggi, è molto difficile porre rimedio. I governi dovrebbero, come è stato recentemente raccomandato dalle Nazioni Unite, considerare la possibilità di modificare in maniera sostanziale i propri programmi di sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti a causa soprattutto delle pesanti conseguenze che hanno sulla sicurezza alimentare nei paesi a basso reddito. Per questa ragione l’utilizzo dei biocarburanti come misura volta a stimolare lo sviluppo nei paesi poveri dovrebbe essere evitata. È altamente improbabile che i poveri nelle zone rurali traggano alcun beneficio dallo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti nei loro paesi poiché gran parte della terra è posseduta da grandi compagnie multinazionali o, in alcuni casi, da paesi terzi (land grabbing). Lo sviluppo del settore dei biocarburanti nei paesi in via di sviluppo contribuirebbe, dall’interno, a mantenere elevati i prezzi dei generi alimentari anche dove finora tale effetto, a causa del basso livello di trasmissione dei prezzi agricoli mondiali, è stato marginale. L’aumento dell’inflazione alimentare causato dalla produzione di biocarburanti avrebbe effetti negativi sia sui poveri delle aree urbane che sue quelli delle aree rurali poiché in molti casi i piccoli coltivatori, nei paesi in via di sviluppo, sono compratori netti di generi alimentari. Molti studi, anche da parte di organizzazioni governative internazionali, mettono in risalto il fatto che la produzione di biocarburanti possa diventare sostenibile solo attraverso lo sviluppo delle cosiddette tecnologie di seconda o terza generazione (cioè quelle che permettono l’uso di materia prima non-food per la produzione di biocarburanti) e l’uso di terreni degradati e marginali per la coltivazione delle materie prime. Tuttavia, tutto ciò è di difficile realizzazione. Attualmente i biocarburanti di seconda o terza generazione sono ancora in fase di sviluppo e la loro produzione non crescerà in maniera sostanziale se non tramite forti investimenti da parte dei vari governi e, in determinate circostanze, di investitori privati. Va ricordato che non sono i governi quelli che decidono se la coltivazione di materia prima per la produzione di biocarburanti in aree degradate o marginali sia economicamente conveniente: sono infatti i coltivatori quelli che prendono le decisioni ed essi non lo faranno se non vi troveranno alcun beneficio economico. L’attuale livello, molto elevato, dei prezzi agricoli pone seri dubbi sul fatto che i coltivatori siano disposti a passare dalla produzione di materie prime food a quelle non-food in assenza di forti incentivi pubblici in tal senso. Tuttavia, un aumento del livello di supporto all’agricoltura, anche solo nel caso delle colture energetiche, difficilmente avverrà nel breve termine, a causa soprattutto della crisi economica, che ha ristretto i budget di spesa di molti paesi, e le pressioni, in sede WTO, per una riduzione del livello di protezione dei mercati. Nel caso in cui si decida di mantenere gli aiuti di stato al settore dei biocarburanti, sarà necessario progettare e sviluppare nuove politiche, questa volta a livello sovranazionale, cosa che implicherebbe un elevato livello di coordinazione e di flessibilità tra i vari paesi, oltre che difficile da raggiungere nel breve o medio termine. Un caso emblematico, in tal senso, è rappresentato dalle metodologie di conteggio delle emissioni di gas serra che sono attualmente basate sull’analisi del ciclo di vita e che sono molto spesso incomplete (limitate, ad esempio, a determinati paesi o regioni) o ancora non in grado di considerare il ruolo di tutti i fattori (es. cambiamenti indiretti d’uso del suolo). La ricerca, negli anni a venire, dovrà focalizzarsi su due argomenti principali. Da una parte, le tecniche di produzione dei biocarburanti di seconda e terza generazione dovranno essere raffinate, rese economicamente convenienti e sostenibili dal punto di vista sociale e ambientale. Possibilmente ciò dovrà avvenire di pari passo con la progressiva riduzione del livello di supporto ai biocarburanti di prima generazione. Dall’altra parte, sarà necessario definire meglio le metodologie di quantificazione dell’impatto dei biocarburanti in termini ambientali, economici e sociali, in modo da determinare con certezza la loro sostenibilità e da consentire lo sviluppo di politiche più appropriate. In particolare, la messa a punto di metodologie affidabili per la valutazione dell’impatto dei vari biocarburanti è molto importante poiché, in futuro, le sovvenzioni potrebbero essere calcolate in maniera tale da premiare la produzione di quei biocarburanti in grado di fornire esternalità positive per l’ambiente e il benessere sociale.

Chapter I: In this paper, we investigate the effect of lobbying and consumer externality on the pattern of protection through non-tariff barriers to trade (NTMs) across United States manufacturing sectors. We first extend the Grossman and Helpman (1994) model, “Protection for Sale", incorporating consumer externality. Externality is intended, in our framework, as the concern of a government for consumers' safety and the environment, which should result in increased protection through standards and technical measures. In our model, externality adds to interest groups' lobbying activity in determining the increase in nontariff measures. We test the predictions of our model using a novel database on 2014 stock of NTMs. We measure political organization of industries through lobbying expenditures data, and we identify sectors where government cares the most about consumers' wellbeing using media sources. Our results suggest that both pressure from interest groups and concerns about safety and environmental issues lead to an increase in the pattern of protection across US manufacturing sectors. Chapter II: This article investigates the influence of lobbying, electoral incentives, and the ideology of U.S. state governors on environmental expenditures. A theoretical framework is presented, emphasizing that the potential impact of lobbying and messaging from interest groups on environmental policies depends on the ideology of governors. Implementing a Regression Discontinuity Design (RDD), we identify and estimate the causal effect of state governors on the level of environmental expenditures. We test whether governors tend to deviate from their own political ideology when facing pressures from polluting lobbies and electoral incentives from environmental organizations. The empirical results reveal that, when Democratic governors are in charge, environmental expenditures are, on average, higher. However, in oil-abundant states, Democratic politicians tend to allocate fewer resources to environmental preservation, suggesting that political pressure from lobbying groups matters.

With over 280 environmental laws designed to regulate economic activities and tackle pollution problems, EU actors have established an impressive environmental policy. While policy-making has been impressive, implementation has often been disappointing with the result that EU environmental policy now suffers from an 'implementation deficit' whereby policy intentions on paper are not carried out properly 'on the ground'. Until recently, many EU actors and analysts have focused on the initial stages of the policy process, in particular the dynamics of bargaining between Member States. Yet, the overall effectiveness of EU environmental policies depends upon actors 'on the ground' and how they apply the policies in practice. This research moves away from the conventional state-centrist approach and focuses instead on the subnational regions and their role in the overall success of EU environmental policies. The research investigates Scotland and Bavaria and assesses to what extent the two regions shape EU environmental policy implementation. To help with the investigation, the research establishes a 'multi-layered implementation map' which best captures the policy 'filtering' process. The map helps identify formal and informal determinants within the layers which either facilitate or obstruct policy implementation. The research not only compares implementation performances between the Member States and between the regions, it also compares the regions vertically with their 'mother' states and thereby highlights implementation obstacles which would remain undetected with the state-centrist approach. A case study illustrates in detail the formal and practical implementation of the EIA Directive in Scotland and Bavaria. The study confirms that subnational regions feature determinants which differ in many respects from national determinants and influence the effectiveness of EU environmental policies. By highlighting subnational regions and their role in the process, the research contributes to a better understanding of the implementation deficit and presents a more refined picture of the EU environmental policy 'reality'.

Thesis (S.M. in Transportation)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2013.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (pages 73-74).
In this work, we analyze the effectiveness of the 2010 Tarmac Delay Rule from a passenger-centric point of view. The Tarmac Delay Rule aims to protect enplaned passengers on commercial aircraft from excessively long delays upon taxi-out or taxi-in, and monetarily penalizes airlines that violate the stipulated three-hour time limit. Using an algorithm to calculate passenger delay, we quantify delays to passengers in 2007, before the Tarmac Delay Rule was enacted, and compare these delays to those estimated for hypothetical scenarios with the rule in effect for that same year. Our delay estimates are achieved using U.S. Department of Transportation data from 2007, and one quarter of booking data purchased from a large legacy carrier to validate our results. The results suggest that the rule has been a highly effective deterrent for airlines to keep tarmac times under three hours. This benefit is offset, however, because coincident with shortened tarmac delays are flight cancellations. Cancellations result in passengers requiring rebooking, and extensive delays. Through our analysis, we show that the overall impact of the Tarmac Delay Rule is a significant increase in passenger delays. We evaluate the impacts of variations to the rule, including changing the rule to apply to flights that are delayed for both less and more than the three hours stipulated in the rule, and identifying other variants of the rule that might better meet the objective of benefiting the flying public. Through extensive scenario analysis, we determine that the rule should be applied selectively, depending on flight departure times and specific network characteristics.
by Allison "Sunny" Elizabeth Vanderboll.
S.M.in Transportation