Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Enlightenment – Poland – Influence »

The Polish version of the article was published in Roczniki Humanistyczne 58 (2010), issue 2. The idea of the justice of the authority in the general meaning remains a central topic in Polish political theory. This has resulted in the frequent tackling of this problem, but it has not been reflected in the complexity of the theory. It is even difficult to talk about a theory in the case of the considerations analyzed. They were mostly very superficial mentions of the monarch’s justice, permeated with old-Polish legalism, a legalism reduced to the rule: the king is obliged to observe legal norms and to give priority to the good of those ruled over his own interests. This model determined the deliberations about justice. Most theoreticians could not see the possibility of strengthening the king’s influence on dispensing justice in the country, although there were exceptions to this view and not only among monarchists. Owing to this model in Polish political thought, after the fall of the First Republic of Poland it was easier to accept the idea of justice dispensed by broad bodies representing the community. The model was not even overturned by the instrumental transfer of the idea of natural justice to Poland. It was also not overturned by the doubts expressed by Wybicki about the possibilities of linking justice to the subjects’ happiness and political freedom.

The author defines intellectual culture as a tendency to base decisions on objective analyses or the habit of investigating issues analytically. In the broader sense, intellectual culture may be considered to be the way the collective reacts to phenomena that appear in the real world. A high level of intellectual culture, in the author’s opinion, is shown by a modern form of thinking manifested in the ability to make use of abstracts and to take into account alternative systems of constructing opinions. On the basis of selected analyses of Polish scholars the author advances the hypothesis that Poland has failed to form proper institutional mechanisms favoring rational analysis in public life. The author demonstrates that this is the result of many factors, such as the long-lasting model of Sarmatian customs (including its providentialism), the strong and lasting influence of a radical form of romanticism, and also the nugatory influence of Enlightenment and positivist models. These factors have been accompanied by the unsuitability of educational and scholarly institutions, the delayed development of modern forms of economics, which force the use of rational calculations, and a structure of society that does not favor exchanges of ideas and deliberation.

Niniejszy artykuł ma na celu przybliżenie postaci Szymona Askenazego jako jednego z najpoczytniejszych historyków polskich przełomu XIX i XX w. oraz ukazanie wartości jego dokonań na niwie historycznej. Głównymi wątkami, wokół których toczy się narracja są: czynniki kształtujące postawę naukową Szymona Askenazego, wpływ epoki, w której przyszło mu żyć, na jego twórczość oraz rolę, jaką odegrał w ówczesnym środowisku historycznym. Najkrócej rzecz ujmując, można stwierdzić, że Szymon Askenazy osiągnął na początku XX w. w naukowym życiu polskich elit wysoką pozycję, której nie sposób dzisiaj zakwestionować. Przede wszystkim był pierwszym historykiem, który na niespotykaną dotąd skalę rozpoczął na ziemiach polskich badania nad dziejami porozbiorowymi. Nazywany „przewodnikiem niosącym otuchę” nawiązywał zdecydowanie do polskiego oświecenia i romantyzmu, przeciwstawiając się jednocześnie dominacji pozytywistycznego myślenia. Stąd też uważa się go za czołowego przedstawiciela nurtu neoromantycznego w historiografii polskiej. Szymon Askenazy – sketch to the portrait of a neoromantic historian The article aims to discuss the character of Szymon Askenazy, one of the most read Polish historians of the turn of the 20th century, and to show how valuable his achievements are for history. The narrative revolves around the factors which influenced scientific approach of Szymon Askenazy, the influence of the times he lived in on his work, and the role he played in the historic milieu of his times. In short, one might say that Szymon Askenazy, at the beginning of the 20th century, indisputably achieved a high position in the academic circles of the Polish elites. First of all, he was the first historian in Poland who, to an extent unseen before, started research on the history of Poland before partitions. He was often called “a guide bringing comfort”, and he made references to the Polish Enlightenment and Romantic periods, opposing at the same time the dominance of Positivism. Thus, he is considered the main representative of the neo-romantic current in the Polish historiography.

In the mid-18th century, with the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment, fundamental reforms of the state’s governance were introduced in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Part of the state’s modernisation concerned the reform of the court system, considered by 18th-century political theorists to be one of the composite branches of the state administration (alongside the treasury, the police and the army). During the reign of Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski, the work of the courts of first instance underwent reform on several occasions in Poland and Lithuania: with the passing of laws in 1764, 1792 and 1793 on the structure and organisation of the activities of the castle and land courts, the existing court system was changed, as was the procedure for electing judges, also defining the scope of competency of the courts, regulating court activities and the duties of judges, introducing new requirements for the handling of court procedural documents, and the calculation of judges’ working hours. During the course of the introduction of these reforms, principles reflecting the administrative ideas of the Enlightenment were gradually entrenched in the court system of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which concerned the election of judges and other court officials, the acceptance of collegial decisions, the elimination of the influence of any blood and marital ties, and the principles for remuneration, seeking to introduce stricter requirements for the qualification of judges. In this article, based on legislation on the organisation of court activities passed at the diets (Sejm) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and documents from the dietines (sejmiki) of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the author seeks to analyse changes to the activities of the courts and the regulation of judges’ duties, and reforms made in the court chanceries between 1764 and 1793.

The monograph is dedicated to the broad topic of the development of printing and publishing in Russia in the 18th - early 20th centuries. The study is not generalizing: this task is too complex and multifaceted. The authors touched upon different and at the same time interrelated subjects, some of which were practically not previously investigated. The reviewer notes that the project is based on Japanese historians and literary critics, which once again shows the productive work of Japanese historiography of late imperial Russia. Nine chapters of the monograph are divided into three parts according to the key periods: XVIII-XIX, XIX-XX centuries. and the eve of the 1917 Revolution. At the same time, thematic blocks are visible in each part. The first focuses on the Russian language and literature during the period of their transformation into a part of world culture. Y. Toriyama highlights the activities of the Society Striving for the Translation of Foreign Books created by Catherine II. A.I. Reitblat draws attention to the formation of the very concept of Russian classical literature. H. Kaizawa makes an attempt to rethink the “reactionary” 1880s, noting the importance of this period for the development of Russian literature, recognition of its importance and influence in Russia and around the world. The second part focuses on the development of the press of the peoples of the empire and the role of foreigners. The importance of the latter is noted by Y. Tatsumi, who speaks about several immigrants from Poland and Germany who managed to create large publishing firms in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. T. Inoue analyzes in detail the influence of the Russian press on the national identity and representation of the Kalmyks. D. Ross tells about the development of newspapers and magazines in the Tatar language, and A. Sakurama about the publishing activities of the baptized Tatars. Finally, the third part focuses on the impact of the 1905 Revolution and World War I on print and publishing. M. Stockdale examines in detail the period of 1914-1918, noting the importance of the press in the interest of Russian society in the events on the fronts of the war. T. Tsurumi briefly describes the situation and development of the Zionist press in Siberia and Chinese Harbin on the eve and during the Revolution and the Russian Civil War. On the whole, the monograph leaves the impression of a thorough work, in which important and interesting plots, though often poorly covered in historiography, are raised. Perhaps, there is a lack of a more detailed analysis of the development of the press during the revolutionary period, but this does not reduce the merits of the book, a rare example in modern historiography of late imperial Russia. The author declares no conflicts of interests.

Straipsnis skiriamas šviesiam profesoriaus Romano Plečkaičio atminimui. Straipsnyje analizuojamas Plečkaičio mokslinis palikimas, profesoriaus indėlis į Lietuvos ir visos Vakarų filosofijos istoriją, vertinama teorinis ir asmeninis Plečkaičio vaidmuo Lietuvos filosofijos akademiniame gyvenime ir kultūroje. Straipsnyje teigiama, kad Plečkaitis visų pirma laikytinas filosofijos istorijos kaip solidžios akademinės disciplinos pradininku Lietuvoje, ypač išskirtini jo Viduramžių ir Apšvietos epochos filosfijos istorijos tyrinėjimai. Kita reikšminga Plečkaičio įnašo į lietuviškąjį filosofijos lobyną kryptis – klasikinių tekstų vertimai, ypač pabrėžiant Kanto, Spinozos ir Tomo Akviniečio veikalų pristatymą lietuvių kalba. Atsakomybė, su kuria profesorius vertė Vakarų filosofijos klasikus, formavo akademinio vertimo tradiciją Lietuvoje ir darė įtaką visai Lietuvos kultūrai.Pagrindiniai žodžiai: Romanas Plečkaitis, Vakarų filosofijos istorija, Lietuvos filosofijos istorija.Lithuanian Philosophy – as History, Present and Vision of the FutureNaglis Kardelis AbstractThe article is devoted to the memory of the late Professor Romanas Plečkaitis. The author presents an evaluation of the extraordinary scholarly achievements of Plečkaitis in the field of the history of philosophy, both Lithuanian and Western in general, discusses the unique force and influence of his professional and personal authority in the context of academic life at the Faculty of Philosophy at Vilnius University, underscores the Professor’s role as one of the most prominent figures in the cultural life of contemporary Lithuania, shares with the reader some private reminiscences from personal communication with the Professor.It is argued that Romanas Plečkaitis was the sole true initiator of the history of philosophy in Lithuania as a solid, scientifically grounded academic discipline. His achievements in various branches of the history of Western philosophy, especially Medieval philosophy and the philosophy of the Enlightenment, are brought to the fore. The superbly conducted translations of the works of various thinkers representing almost all periods of Western philosophy, but especially the translations of the writings of Saint Thomas Aquinas and Immanuel Kant, prominently stand out as an acknowledged classic in the context of Lithuanian philosophical translations. The translations of Plečkaitis with adjacent commentaries as well as precise textual and philosophical analyses are mentioned by the author of this article as being of particular importance to contemporary philosophical discourse in Lithuania and Lithuanian cultural life in general.The achievements of Plečkaitis in the field of the history of Lithuanian philosophy are arguably even more important. In the author’s opinion, the discovery, textual research and philosophical analysis of the extant manuscripts of the philosophy courses taught at various academic institutions of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at university- and school-level constitute the most valuable part of the Professor’s work in the field of the history of Lithuanian philosophy. The singular role of Romanas Plečkaitis as an informal ambassador of Lithuanian philosophy to other European countries, especially Poland, is also briefly touched upon.Keywords: Romanas Plečkaitis, history of Western philosophy, history of Lithuanian philosophy.

Статья посвящена изучению эволюции кровельного искусства в архитектуре Франции XVII - начала XIX в. При всеобщем интересе к истории возникновения и расцвета французского классицизма, оказавшего существенное влияние на культуру всех стран, вопрос о роли новой формы кровли, причинах ее появления обычно остается за границами внимания исследователей. Переход от мансарды к плоской кровле, которую французские мастера называли «итальянской», сопровождался значительными конструктивными и инженерными новшествами. С целью их изучения в статье особое внимание было уделено анализу архитектурных увражей, многочисленных строительных трактатов, практических руководств, отражающих внимание архитекторов к развитию новой формы завершения зданий. Поиски новой модели идеальной кровли рассматриваются на конкретных архитектурных примерах Франции. К исследованию были привлечены не только реализованные постройки, но и проекты, оставшиеся неосуществленными, а также учебные проекты, исполненные в Королевской Академии архитектуры Парижа и в других образовательных центрах. Подобный подход позволяет учитывать процессы, разворачивавшиеся в официальных органах и в частных программах заказчиков разного уровня. Таким образом, наряду с конкретными вопросами, касающимися устройства плоской кровли, в статье затрагивается широкий круг общих проблем архитектуры французского классицизма и принципов его атрибуции, что представляется на редкость существенным. В работе последовательно прослеживается, каким образом эволюция формы кровли изменяла облик отдельных построек, архитектурных ансамблей и городского пространства. Широкое распространение строительного опыта французских кровельщиков при переносе знаний в другие страны претерпевало существенные метаморфозы. Это отражено в серии попыток реализовать проекты французского классицизма в России местными мастерами. Совершенно очевидно, что игнорирование особенностей кровли приводит к грубым ошибкам при современной реставрации памятников, а недооценка роли подлинных конструктивных элементов заканчивается их сносом или заменой. The article is devoted to the study of the evolution of roofing art in French architecture of the 17th - early 19th centuries. With general interest in the history of the origin and rise of the French classicism that much influenced the culture of all countries, the issue on the role of the new roof shape and the reasons for its appearance is usually not considered by researchers. Starting from the 17th century orientation to the Italian architecture resulted in the idea to reproduce flat roof - terraces. The refusal to use the mansards and the construction of a new type of roof, which the French masters called “Italian”, was accompanied by significant design and engineering innovations, taking into account local climate features. With the aim of studying the technological discoveries, this paper paid special attention to the analyses of illustrated architectural editions, numerous construction essays and practical manuals reflecting the attention of architects to the development of a new form of building completion. Actually the difficulty in constructing a false ‘flat’ roof with numerous slopes hidden behind the attic allows us to call it the ‘fifth façade’. The search for a new model of an ideal roof is examined with specific architectural examples from the era of classicism and neo-classicism in France. At the same time, not only realized constructions were involved in the research, but also inсomplete projects, as well as class designs executed at the Royal Academy of Architecture in Paris and other study centres. Such an approach allows us to take into account the processes unfolding within official bodies and in private programmes of numerous customers at different levels. In that way, along with specific issues relating to the construction of the flat roof, the paper addresses a wide range of general problems of the architecture of the French classicism, and the principles of its attribution. The paper consistently traces how the evolution of the roof shape has changed the appearance of individual buildings, architectural ensembles and urban space. When spreading the building experience of the French roofers in other countries, of particular interest are issues related to the attempts to reproduce the flat type of roof during the projects’ implementation in Russia, executed by Parisian architects, who have not travelled outside of France (J.-F. Blondel, Ch.-L. Clérisseau, Ch. de Wailly, L.J. Desprez, J.-J. Guerne, Cl.-N. Ledoux and many others). Often it was exactly the lack of feasibility of the repetition of complex structures that caused stylistic metamorphoses in the Russian buildings. It is this analysis which reveals the route through which the construction school principles spread and allows tracing the peculiarities of the French classicism infiltration into the architectural culture of numerous countries (like neighboring countries Austria, Belgium, Germany, Poland and many others), both neighbouring and very distant ones (USA, Russia and many others). Studying the technology of construction of a new roof, invented in France, was necessary as a form of introduction to the achievements of the European culture of the Age of Enlightenment. However, nowadays, ignoring research on the features of roofing art results in blunders during the restoration and reconstruction of historical monuments, and underestimating the role of genuine structural elements ends with their demolition or replacement.

Defence date: 19 September 2017
Examining Board: Professor Pavel Kolář, European University Institute; Professor Ann Thomson, European University Institute; Associate Professor Kateryna Dysa, National University of 'Kyiv-Mohyla Academy'; Dr. Bernhard Struck, University of St Andrews
This thesis explores how the szlachta and residents of the geographically, socially, and politically distinctive regions of Volhynia and Podole reflected on and made representations of the Enlightenment in the 1790s – 1860s. By focusing primarily on the memoirs of the local actors in Volhynia and Podole, this dissertation addresses the ways they experienced and responded to changes in social practices and intellectual communication within their local context and environment. The chapters of this dissertation tackle issues such as education, reading habits, the practice of translation, scientific exploration, emancipation, toleration, and the role of religion in society. By building on these topics, this thesis argues for the importance of peripheral areas in order to uncover the geographical diversity of the Enlightenment. It also contributes to the discussions on cultural superiority/inferiority that were prevalent during the age of Enlightenment, and elucidates the new vocabulary that the residents adopted in their works between the 1790s and 1860s. By focusing on the narratives offered by the landed nobility and residents, this study makes a case for the transfer of ideas and their cultural (dis)placement. The ambition of this work is to trace the full spectrum of changes that occurred within this provincial community, in order to provide a fresh perspective on blending and transformation of ideas in a specific context. Simultaneously, the local actors’ works are also examined as indicators of identity formation in the face of foreign imperial domination.

The conflict between Haskalah and hasidism was one of the most important forces in shaping the world of Polish Jewry for almost two centuries, but our understanding of it has long been dominated by theories based on stereotypes rather than detailed analysis. This book challenges the long-established theories about the conflict by contextualizing it, principally in the Kingdom of Poland but also with regard to other parts of eastern Europe. It follows the development of this conflict in its central arena and reconstructs the way the conflict expressed itself. The book shows that it was primarily informed by non-ideological clashes at the level of local communities. Attention is devoted to the general characteristics of hasidism and the Haskalah, as well as to the post-Haskalah movements. Here too the book challenges the ideologically charged assumptions of a generation of historians who refused to see the advocates of Jewish modernity in nineteenth-century Poland as an integral part of the Haskalah movement. Consideration is given to the professional, social, institutional, and ideological characteristics of the Polish Haskalah as well as to its geographic extent, and to the changes the movement underwent in the course of the nineteenth century. Similar attention is given to the influence of the specific characteristics of Polish hasidism on the shape of the conflict. The book presents a synthesis that offers both breadth and depth, contextualizing its subject matter within the broader domains of the European Enlightenment and Polish culture, hasidism and rabbinic culture, tsarist policy and Polish history, not to mention the ins and outs of the Haskalah itself across Europe.

This chapter describes the early years of Rabbi Jehiel Jacob Weinberg's (1884–1966) life amid the backdrop of the final decades of the nineteenth century. Within this milieu, the Jews in Russia, Poland, and Lithuania were coming to grips with a number of new movements and philosophies. Although the apostles of Jewish enlightenment (Haskalah), through their propagation of new ideals, had some influence in bringing about a modernization and acculturation, there were other important factors which were independent of Haskalah, although often indirectly nourished by it. It was into this east European Jewish society in transition that Weinberg was born in 1884, in Ciechanowiec, Poland. From there, the chapter describes Weinberg's early childhood and schooling. The latter in particular occurred during a controversy over the musar movement, founded upon the ideologies of Rabbi Israel Salanter.

This chapter examines how the middle of the eighteenth century was a major turning point in the history of the Jews in Europe. Under the influence of the philosophy of the Enlightenment, many rulers now began to initiate attempts, carried still further by their constitutional successors in the nineteenth century, to transform the Jews from members of a religious and cultural community into ‘useful’ subjects, or, where a civil society had been established, into citizens. This attempt to change the legal, social, and economic status of the Jews was part of a wider process affecting the whole of society which can be described as ‘the Great Transformation’. There were two aspects to this transformation: economic and political. One now sees the industrial revolution as the culmination of a much longer process that should probably be dated back to the effects of European overseas expansion from the fifteenth century. The end result of this revolution was urbanization, the development of industry, the increasing importance of the bourgeoisie, and the displacement of the landed aristocracy as the dominant economic and political stratum.

This chapter subverts the traditional image of Galician Jewry around the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Far from being ignorant and uneducated, this chapter reveals a significant number of secularly educated Galician Jewish academics and doctors. It shows that, in spite of the resistance to secular education among Galician Jews, there were many within the community who wished to allow their children to profit from the new opportunities open to them. The chapter goes on to explore how the Hebrew, German, and Polish cultural influences all managed to persist throughout the final decades of the nineteenth century, although Yiddish remained identified with the uneducated. Nevertheless, it is revealed that, over time, the balance between these three factors began to shift.

This chapter outlines the most important episode in the political history of Hasidism in central Poland, the government investigation conducted in the years 1823 and 1824. It clarifies how the investigation showed that Hasidism could potentially become an important element in the government's more general political program for the Jewish population. Once state officials began to connect Hasidism to the broader issue of the Jewish Question, their interest in the movement greatly increased. The chapter also discusses the investigation of 1823–4 that was more significantly influenced by the Enlightenment approach to the reform of Jewish society than earlier investigations had been. A major factor was the active participation of Staszic, who constantly returned to the continuing debate on the Jewish Question.