Articles de revues sur le sujet « Employee ownership – France »

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to give an updated overview of the research on employee ownership. What does the scientific literature reveal about advantages and disadvantages? What can be learned from different models used in Italy, France, Mondragon (Spain), UK and US with many employee-owned firms in contrast to Denmark.Design/methodology/approachA structured review of the literature on employee. The paper identifies different mechanisms leading to effects on productivity, job stability, distribution, investment etc., and reviews the empirical evidence. The main barriers and drivers are identified and different models for employee ownership in Italy, France, Mondragon (Spain), UK and US are reviewed to identify potential models for a country like Denmark with few employee-owned firms.FindingsThe article gives an overview over the theoretical predictions and the main empirical evidence of the effects of employee ownership. The pros are greater employee identification with the firm and increased productivity reinforced by increased participation. Employee-owned firms have more equal distribution of wages and more stable employment, and they have greater mutual control between employees and fewer middle managers. The motivation effects may be smaller for large firms and lack of capital may lead to lower levels of investments and capital per employee.Originality/valueComprehensive and updated literature review on the effects and successful formats of employee ownership to identify models for implementation in countries with few employee-owned firms.

Approximately 220 of the 700 firms whose stock was traded on the main French markets had an employee stock ownership plan at the end of the year 2000. Average ownership was 3.7%. Employee ownership can be implemented for many reasons, and the relationship between ESOPs and performance still remains unclear. The purpose of this research is thus to determine how employee ownership can affect corporate performance and risk in France. This study improves upon previous work by using ownership, performance and risk variables, as well as control variables (sector, size, debt, growth), applied to a large sample of French firms. Cross-sectional regressions show some positive links between the presence of ESOPs and some financial performance measures, such as the return on equity and the return on investments. Links between ESOPs and risk variables are more complicated. The presence of ESOPs reduces the return on equity variability, but the more employee ownership there is the more the beta coefficient increases. This result seems to show that investors tend to consider firms with ESOPs to be more risky, even if their profitability is more stable. Within the limitations of these results, we propose a general model introducing the concept of social capital.

France has a one of the longest- and best-established employee financial participation system in the world with 3.5 million employee-owners, the largest number of employee-owners of any European country (EFES, 2019). It has also been the first country in 1967 to have compulsory profit-sharing schemes in firms employing 50 or more. The PACTE law (action plan for the growth and transformation of companies) has been promulgated in France in 2019. The PACTE law introduces new measures that support employee financial participation through profit-sharing, gainsharing and employee ownership and, second, employee participation in decision-making through labor representation in corporate governance and social dialogue. First, gainsharing and profit-sharing bonuses are promoted in small businesses by decreasing the social tax. Second, the law introduces developments relating to the representation of employee shareholders and employees, first in corporate governance and, second, in the supervisory boards of company savings funds (CSF). The objective of this paper is to present the new measures of the PACTE law that will affect the development of employee financial participation.

Drawing on qualitative research and longitudinal data on two Mondragon multinational cooperatives, the authors examine the multinational expansion of these co-ops and the diffusion of the cooperative model’s employment practices to their subsidiaries in Brazil, China, Slovakia, France, and Poland. The results show that international expansion can radically transform the organizational architecture of co-ops and exacerbate dilemmas about how to put their hallmark values into practice. Moreover, the findings reveal a fragmented and inconsistent introduction of the cooperative model overseas. Work organization practices are homogeneous across the various sites, whereas job security, training, and pay equity practices are not. Core cooperative practices (i.e., employee participation in ownership, profit sharing, and general management) have not been implemented in any foreign operation. The study illustrates how market influences, institutions, and macro- and micro-politics shape the transfer of employment practices.

Introduction: Enasidenib is approved for the treatment of patients with relapsed/refractory (R/R) acute myeloid leukemia (AML) with an isocitrate dehydrogenase-2 mutation (mIDH2+) in the USA. To compare the relative effectiveness of enasidenib with standard of care (SoC) in terms of overall survival (OS) among patients with mIDH2+ R/R AML who are ineligible for hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT), a propensity score matching (PSM) analysis was performed using data from the phase 1/2 AG221-C-001 single-arm trial and a real-world chart review study of patients from France (France chart review [FCR] study) and historical data from the AML Study Group (AMLSG) database. Methods: Individual patient data (IPD) were obtained from the phase 1/2 AG221-C-001 trial for enasidenib (100 mg/day) and from the FCR study and AMLSG database for SoC. Data from the FCR study and AMLSG database were combined to create a single pooled SoC group. Based on clinician feedback and data availability, 6 clinically important covariates (history of HCT before baseline, age, number of prior lines of AML therapy at baseline, cytogenetic risk at baseline, history of myelodysplastic syndromes [MDS], Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status) were used for propensity score calculation and matching. Patients from the 2 groups were matched using nearest neighbor 1:1 matching with a caliper of 0.2 standard deviations (SDs) of the logit transform of the propensity score. A comparison of means, SDs, and standardized mean differences (SMDs) between treatment groups was conducted for each covariate to assess the balance between the pre- and post-match populations. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated using doubly robust Cox proportional hazard models that adjusted for the aforementioned covariates. Sensitivity analyses were conducted using alternative matching algorithms, weighting methods, and covariates. Additional sensitivity analyses excluding patients with early events (landmark analyses) were conducted. Results: Before matching, considerable differences existed between the enasidenib (N = 195) and SoC (N = 258) groups (i.e. SMDs > 0.10 were observed for nearly all covariates), and OS was numerically in favor of enasidenib (HR 0.82, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.66-1.01). After matching, the enasidenib and SoC groups (N = 144 per group) were mostly well balanced (SMDs for all covariates except for prior MDS were < 0.10), and enasidenib was associated with significantly longer OS than SoC (HR 0.61, 95% CI 0.47-0.80). The median OS was 8.8 months (95% CI 7.5-10.7) for enasidenib and 4.4 months (95% CI 3.5-6.1) for SoC (Figure). Sensitivity analyses (i.e., analyses using alternative matching algorithms, weighting methods and covariates, and landmark analyses) delivered results consistent with the primary analysis. Conclusions: The results of this study suggest that enasidenib may prolong survival compared with SoC for patients with mIDH2+ R/R AML who are ineligible for HCT. The incorporation of 2 separate data sources (i.e. the FCR study and AMLSG database) into a combined SoC group increases the generalizability and robustness of these findings. Additional studies should aim to validate these findings using data sources from other countries and assess the comparative efficacy of enasidenib with SoC for other clinically important outcomes. Disclosures De Botton: Syros: Consultancy; Servier: Consultancy; Janssen: Consultancy; Daiichi: Consultancy; AbbVie: Consultancy; Agios: Consultancy, Research Funding; Celgene Corporation: Consultancy, Speakers Bureau; Forma: Consultancy, Research Funding; Novartis: Consultancy; Pfizer: Consultancy; Pierre Fabre: Consultancy; Bayer: Consultancy; Astellas: Consultancy. Brandwein:Roche: Research Funding; Celgene: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Pfizer: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria; Jazz Pharma: Consultancy, Honoraria; Otsuka: Honoraria. Stein:Agios: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Daiichi Sankyo, Inc.: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Bioline: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Genentech: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Novartis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; PTC Therapeutics: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Syros: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astellas Pharma US, Inc: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Celgene Corporation: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Wei:Celgene: Honoraria, Research Funding; Walter and Eliza Hall Institute: Other: former employee, Patents & Royalties: receives a fraction of its royalty stream related to venetoclax; Genentech: Honoraria; Amgen: Honoraria, Research Funding; Pfizer: Honoraria; Servier: Honoraria, Research Funding; Macrogenics: Honoraria; AbbVie: Honoraria, Research Funding; Novartis: Honoraria, Research Funding; Astellas: former employee, Honoraria; AstraZeneca: Honoraria, Research Funding; Janssen: Honoraria. Weber:Celgene Corporation: Research Funding. Pigneux:Roche: Honoraria; Pfizer: Honoraria; Daichi: Honoraria; Amgen: Honoraria; Jazz: Honoraria; Astellas: Honoraria; Abbvie: Honoraria; F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd: Honoraria; Novartis: Honoraria. Boissel:NOVARTIS: Consultancy. Paschka:Pfizer: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Sunesis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; BMS: Other: Travel expenses, Speakers Bureau; Amgen: Other: Travel expenses; Novartis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: Travel expenses, Speakers Bureau; Abbvie: Other: Travel expenses; Takeda: Other: Travel expenses; Astellas: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Agios: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Janssen: Other: Travel expenses; Jazz: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Otsuka: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astex: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Travel expenses; Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: Travel expenses, Speakers Bureau. Döhner:Daiichi: Honoraria; Jazz: Honoraria; Novartis: Honoraria; Celgene: Honoraria; Janssen: Honoraria; CTI Biopharma: Consultancy, Honoraria. Nehme:Celgene Corporation: Employment, Equity Ownership. Frattini:Celgene Corporation: Employment, Equity Ownership. Marion-Gallois:Celgene Corporation: Employment. Wang:Celgene International: Employment, Equity Ownership. Cameron:Cornerstone Research Group: Employment, Equity Ownership. Siddiqui:Celgene: Consultancy; Cornerstone Research Group: Employment. Qadeer:Cornerstone Research Group: Employment; Celgene Corporation: Consultancy. Döhner:Pfizer: Research Funding; Roche: Consultancy, Honoraria; AbbVie: Consultancy, Honoraria; Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Bristol Myers Swuibb: Research Funding; Astex: Consultancy, Honoraria; Arog: Research Funding; Astellas: Consultancy, Honoraria; Celgene Corporation: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Jazz: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding; Janssen: Consultancy, Honoraria; Seattle Genetics: Consultancy, Honoraria; Agios: Consultancy, Honoraria; Amgen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Research Funding.

Purpose This study aims at providing a proof of the factors associated with sustainability assurance demand by French companies. Design/methodology/approach This research used panel data methodology. Findings The study results demonstrate that institutional ownership and the presence of corporate social responsibility (CSR) committee within the management board have an effect on the demand for sustainability assurance. The results also reveal that three types of stakeholders (employees, environment and customers) positively affect the demand of voluntary sustainability assurance. Originality/value The paper provides a preliminary proof on the effects of the governance of corporation and pressure of some groups of stakeholders on the voluntary demand of sustainability assurance in France.

Today’s world seems to be quite overwhelmingly concerned with communication as an incontestable aspect of which is communicating with people lacking a shared linguistic background. A common language (or lingua franca) would, therefore, be needed which can cut across all local, national, and regional linguistic boundaries. This study aimed at exploring the attitudes of 400 bilingual and monolingual college students and EFL learners. It investigated English language status in the linguistically diverse context of Iran. For the purpose of the study, a standardized questionnaire containing 37 Likert-type items was distributed. Descriptive statistics were employed for data analysis revealing that learners from different linguistic backgrounds had significantly different reactions and attitudes to the issues such as: General perception to English, Status of English, text and content matter comprehensibility through English, job prospects, official status, culture learning, integrating with American or British cultures, religion and foreign language learning, English ownership, Adherence to British English, American English or English as an international language.

Assessing the remaining value (RV) of agricultural machines is essential to compute the depreciation costs, especially in the second-hand market, although previous scientific studies have employed the scrap value as an estimate of RV (10 years of life). Since Brazil, a developing country, is at the very first steps of the process of grape harvest mechanization, it is likely that second-hand grape harvesters will be mainly machines that will be imported and employed for this task. ASABE has developed a methodology to evaluate RV based on an experimental formula that takes into account the auction value, the age and the intensity of annual use. Our work adjusted the RV coefficients for grape harvesters based on the online European market (Spain and France) considering 1290 visited reporting brands, models, ages, hours of use and sale value, refined to 89 unique records. For self-propelled grape harvesters, two types of ownership were identified based on the normal distribution of annual use intensity: private owners (22) and farm service providers (6), with an average RV of 28% and 40% of auction value, respectively. For trailed harvesters, the average RV for a machine age shorter than 13.5 years was 36% of the auction value compared to 12.5% for a life of more than 24 years. The performance of the RV models (R2) based on the formulation of ASABE (American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers) amounted to 0.86 and 0.85 for self-propelled and trailed harvesters.

- According to the "European Paradox" conjecture, although Eu countries have a top-level scientific output, they can't convert this strength into practical applications. Indeed, comparing the number of patents stemming from academic researches in Italy, France, Sweden and the Us, the author criticises the validity of the paradox. In fact, according to data, technology transfer seems to occur also in Europe, but the ownership of academic patents is seldom held by universities. After a brief review of the economical and sociological literature about nature and production of knowledge, the author analyses the role of institutions in explaining such differences, outlining two different models of technology transfer: the European and the American one. The first model seems to derive from centralisation and bureaucratisation of the university system, where academics are civil servants, while the second one seems to derive from decentralisation and autonomy of the single universities, where academics are employees engaged not only in teaching and research but also in the solution of practical problems. The author points out that sociological investigation can explain the differences in technology transfer patterns through institutions with policy implications at both national and local level.Key words: European Paradox, technology transfer, patents, university, institutions, knowledge

Abstract The road network in Cyprus has seen an 88% increase in the last 20 years. This expansion has not been followed by any kind of assessment on the effects of the network on nature conservation. This is the first island-wide quantitative assessment of the size, character (surface types), pervasiveness and distribution of the road system with particular reference to Natura 2000 network on the island. We mapped roadless areas (i.e. areas at least one km away from nearest road) for the whole island and examined the spatial distribution with respect to Natura 2000. We tested the relationship between overall road density and road density of different road categories within terrestrial Natura 2000 sites to four zones which were defined on the basis of landform, principal land use and ownership. We employed three indices i.e. effective mesh size, splitting and division to measure fragmentation caused by the road network within Natura 2000 and investigated the relationship between road density and the above fragmentation metrics. Mean road density in Cyprus is 2.3 km/km2 which is comparable to road density values recorded in other Mediterranean countries such as France, Spain and Italy, which have much larger area and population. Roadless areas cover 4.5% of the island, and despite being scattered 80% is found within Natura 2000, which demonstrates the added value of the network for nature conservation. Road expansion has taken place throughout the island with the same intensity irrespectively of the zones examined. Fragmentation has been lower in sites on mountainous areas where sites are larger and under state ownership. Road density is negatively correlated (r = - 0.383, p = 0.05) with effective mesh size and positively correlated with both landscape division (r = 0.376, p = 0.05) and splitting index (r = 0.376, p = 0.05). Results corroborate that spatial configuration is an important property of the road network in addition to traffic load, length and density.With the shift from site based conservation to landscape level there is a challenge for integrating technical, human and ecological requirements into infrastructure planning.

Background: Cytokine release syndrome (CRS) management in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients treated with flotetuzumab, an investigational CD123xCD3 bispecific DART® molecule for T cell redirected therapy. CRS is a hallmark of T cell activating therapy and can be correlated with efficacy, specifically, with CAR-T cells(1). Identification of patients at risk for high grade CRS will help guide CRS management. Flotetuzumab (MGD006) is anovel CD123xCD3 bispecific DART® molecule in Phase 1/2 testing in patients with relapsed/ refractory AML. Several strategies have been successfully employed to mitigate CRS severity, some have been previously reported (2, 3). Here we report on further refinement of CRS management and subsequent investigation of potentiel predictive biomarkers of severity. Methods: The recommended phase 2 dose (RP2D) of flotetuzumab is 500ng/kg/d CIV. Week 1 comprises a step-wise lead-in dose (LID) (1-step: 100 ng/kg/day days 1-4; 2-step: 30ng/kg/d for 3days, 100ng/kg/d for 4days, or multi-step (MS) LID at 30, 60, 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 ng/kg/day each for 24 hours) in order to improve flotetuzumab tolerability. Tocilizumab usage recommended early in CRS management. The relationships between immune cells (T-cell subsets, monocytes) and tumor burden (percent CD123+ AML blasts, CD123 expression) were further interrogated as potential determinants of CRS. Results: 50 patients have been treated at the RP2D. While almost all patients experienced IRR/CRS events, the majority of these patients experienced IRR/CRS that were mild-moderate in severity (28% Grade(G)1, 62% G2, and 8% G3), of short duration (median 1 day for G1, 2 days G2, 2.5 days G3), and resolved completely with no clinical sequalae reported. Most CRS events occured in the first week of treatment (38.3%) and gradually decreased with continuous dosing (24.8%, 7.4%, and 4.3% during weeks 2-4, respectively). Several key interventions have helped mitigate CRS severity. Sequential increment in steps of LID schedules (1 step, 2-step or multi-step LID) have successfully decreased CRS severity and incidence. For example, CRS mean grade±SEM for week 1 was 2.0±0.26 vs 1.4±0.72 vs 1.5±0.63 and for week 4, 0.67±0.42 vs 0.2 ±0.50 vs 0.1 ±0.50 (1 step, 2-step or multi-step LID, respectively). Moreover, LID improved overall tolerability. Introduction of early use of tocilizumab has helped forestall CRS development; 27 patients received tocilizumab (10 doses for G1, 27 for G2, and 2 for G3 events), only 5 pts have required steroids (4 for G2 and 1 for G3), and no pts have required vasopressor support. Blunting of CRS events did not impact antileukemic activity. CRS severity showed a relationship with baseline frequency of circulating CD4+ cells (mean 0.2 K/µL in patients with no CRS vs. 1.0 K/µL in G1 vs 1.6 K/µL in G ≥2, p < 0.000.1), and peak CRS grade in week 1. Conclusion: Like other T-cell activating therapies, flotetuzumab is associated with CRS. Several mitigating factors have helped to blunt the severity of CRS, including lead-in dosing and early tocilizumab usage. Circulating CD4+ cells at baseline continues to be associated with CRS risk, and may be a helpful marker to identify patients at increased risk for CRS. 1. Maude, SL. et al. Managing Cytokine Release Syndrome Associated With Novel T Cell-Engaging Therapies. Cancer J. 2014; 20(2): 119-122. 2. Jacobs, K, et al.Lead-in Dose Optimization to Mitigate Cytokine Release Syndrome in AML and MDS Patients Treated with Flotetuzumab, a CD123 x CD3 Dart® Molecule for T-Cell Redirected Therapy. Blood 2017 130:3856. 3. Jacobs, K, et al.Management of Cytokine Release Syndrome in AML Patients Treated with Flotetuzumab, a CD123 x CD3 Bispecific Dart® Molecule for T-Cell Redirected Therapy. Blood 2018 132:2738. Disclosures Bakkacha: Macrogenics,Inc: Employment, Equity Ownership. Uy:Astellas: Consultancy; Pfizer: Consultancy; Curis: Consultancy; GlycoMimetics: Consultancy. Aldoss:Helocyte: Consultancy, Honoraria, Other: travel/accommodation/expenses; AUTO1: Consultancy; Jazz Pharmaceuticals: Honoraria, Other: travel/accommodation/expenses, Speakers Bureau; Agios: Consultancy, Honoraria. Foster:Bellicum Pharmaceuticals, Inc: Research Funding; Daiichi Sankyo: Consultancy; MacroGenics: Research Funding; Celgene: Research Funding. Sallman:Celyad: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Sweet:Pfizer: Consultancy; Incyte: Research Funding; Agios: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Bristol Myers Squibb: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Celgene: Speakers Bureau; Novartis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Speakers Bureau; Stemline: Consultancy; Jazz: Speakers Bureau; Abbvie: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astellas: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Rizzieri:Celgene, Gilead, Seattle Genetics, Stemline: Other: Speaker; AbbVie, Agios, AROG, Bayer, Celgene, Gilead, Jazz, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi, Seattle Genetics, Stemline, Teva: Other: Advisory Board; AROG, Bayer, Celgene, Celltron, Mustang, Pfizer, Seattle Genetics, Stemline: Consultancy; Stemline: Research Funding. Advani:Glycomimetics: Consultancy, Research Funding; Kite Pharmaceuticals: Consultancy; Amgen: Research Funding; Pfizer: Honoraria, Research Funding; Macrogenics: Research Funding; Abbvie: Research Funding. Emadi:Genentech: Consultancy, Honoraria; KinaRx: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Other: Co-Founder and Scientific Advisor, Patents & Royalties; NewLink Genetics: Research Funding; Jazz Pharmaceuticals: Research Funding; Amgen: Consultancy, Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Wieduwilt:Reata Pharmaceuticals: Equity Ownership; Daiichi Sankyo: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Amgen, Leadiant, Merck, Servier: Research Funding. Vey:Novartis: Consultancy, Honoraria; Janssen: Honoraria. Arellano:Gilead: Consultancy. Löwenberg:Up-to-Date", section editor leukemia: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Abbvie: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Agios Pharmaceuticals: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astellas: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astex: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Chairman, Leukemia Cooperative Trial Group HOVON (Netherlands: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Clear Creek Bio Ltd: Consultancy, Honoraria; Editorial Board "European Oncology & Haematology": Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Elected member, Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts, The Netherlands: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Frame Pharmaceuticals: Equity Ownership; Hoffman-La Roche Ltd: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts, The Netherlands: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Supervisory Board, National Comprehensive Cancer Center (IKNL), Netherland: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Chairman Scientific Committee and Member Executive Committee, European School of Hematology (ESH, Paris, France): Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; CELYAD: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Ravandi:Cyclacel LTD: Research Funding; Menarini Ricerche: Research Funding; Selvita: Research Funding; Xencor: Consultancy, Research Funding; Amgen: Honoraria, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Macrogenix: Consultancy, Research Funding. Tran:MacroGenics: Employment. Muth:MacroGenics, Inc.: Employment, Equity Ownership. Baughman:MacroGenics, Inc.: Employment, Equity Ownership. Timmeny:MacroGenics, Inc.: Employment, Other: Stock Ownership. Topp:Celgene: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Novartis: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Roche: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Boehringer Ingelheim: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; KITE: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding; Amgen: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees, Research Funding. Guo:Macrogenics: Employment. Zhao:MacroGenics, Inc.: Employment. Wigginton:macrogenics: Employment, Equity Ownership; western oncolytics: Consultancy, Other: consultancy. Bonvini:MacroGenics, Inc.: Employment, Equity Ownership. Walter:Daiichi Sankyo: Consultancy; Amgen: Consultancy; Agios: Consultancy; Boston Biomedical: Consultancy; Covagen: Consultancy; Amphivena Therapeutics: Consultancy, Equity Ownership; Aptevo Therapeutics: Consultancy, Research Funding; Argenx BVBA: Consultancy; Astellas: Consultancy; BioLineRx: Consultancy; BiVictriX: Consultancy; Boehringer Ingelheim: Consultancy; Pfizer: Consultancy, Research Funding; Race Oncology: Consultancy; Seattle Genetics: Research Funding; Jazz Pharmaceuticals: Consultancy; Kite Pharma: Consultancy; New Link Genetics: Consultancy. Davidson:Macrogenics,Inc: Employment, Equity Ownership. DiPersio:Incyte: Consultancy, Research Funding; Celgene: Consultancy; Karyopharm Therapeutics: Consultancy; Bioline Rx: Research Funding, Speakers Bureau; RiverVest Venture Partners Arch Oncology: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Cellworks Group, Inc.: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Magenta Therapeutics: Equity Ownership; WUGEN: Equity Ownership, Patents & Royalties, Research Funding; Amphivena Therapeutics: Consultancy, Research Funding; NeoImmune Tech: Research Funding; Macrogenics: Research Funding, Speakers Bureau. Jacobs:Macrogenics,Inc: Employment, Equity Ownership.

FR. Ce texte est issu d’une enquête en cours de finalisation, portant sur des entreprises de presse (huit en France et une en Espagne) qui ont été reprises ou transformées par leurs salariés sous la forme coopérative (Scop, SCIC). Il se focalise plus particulièrement sur l’un des terrains étudiés : le mensuel L’Âge de faire, édité par une petite rédaction basée dans le sud-est de la France. Crée en 2005 sous statut associatif, puis repris en scop par ses salariés fin 2011, c’est un des rares titres de presse indépendant, fonctionnant sans publicité, avec un modèle économique assis essentiellement sur son lectorat. S’appuyant sur le recueil d’un matériau qualitatif (9 entretiens réalisés entre juillet 2015 et avril 2016), cet article retrace l’historique de ce journal, de sa création à aujourd’hui, en évoquant la manière dont s’est structuré son modèle économique. Mais il entend surtout démontrer en quoi L’Âge de faire peut être envisagé à la croisée de divers mondes sociaux. Étant en effet porté sur « les initiatives visant une réappropriation citoyenne de l’économie, la création de lien social [et] un mode de vie plus écologique », L’Âge de faire serait à envisager comme un micro-monde à l’intersection de monde sociaux plus vastes : ceux des alternatives écologiques, de l’économie sociale et solidaire ou des milieux militants. Cette intersection se matérialiserait ainsi dans les interactions entretenues par le journal avec son lectorat et avec les acteurs de ces divers mondes sociaux qu’il dépeint et dont il retrace les évolutions et les débats internes. Ayant développé sa diffusion par sa présence dans les foires et salons « bio », L’Âge de faire a su tirer partie de son positionnement économique et éditorial singulier au sein du tiers-secteur médiatique en nourrissant son contenu des thématiques et questionnements qui traversent ces mêmes mondes sociaux. *** EN. This paper is the product of a survey currently being finalised covering news organisations (eight in France and one in Spain) that have been taken over or transformed by their employees into cooperatives (Scop, SCIC). It focuses on one of the samples studied: the monthly magazine L’Âge de faire, published by a small editorial office in south-eastern France. Created in 2005 as a non-profit organisation and then taken over by its employees at the end of 2011, it is one of the few independent publications that operate without advertising; its business model relying almost exclusively on its readership. Based on a corpus of qualitative material (nine interviews conducted between July 2015 and April 2016), this paper traces the history of the publication, from its creation until today, by analysing the evolution and structure of its business model. But above all, it aims to demonstrate how L’Âge de faire can be considered to be at the crossroads of various social worlds. Being focused on “initiatives aimed at regaining citizen ownership of the economy, creating social ties [and] a more ecological way of life,” L’Âge de faire can be considered a micro-world at the crossroads of broader social worlds: those of ecological alternatives, social and solidarity-based economies and militant circles. This intersection manifests in the publication’s interactions with its readers and with the actors of the various social worlds it depicts and whose internal evolutions and debates it charts. Having developed its readership through its presence at alternative fairs and exhibitions, L’Âge de faire has been able to take advantage of its unique economic and editorial positioning within third sector media by offering content with themes and questions that cut across these social worlds. *** PT. Este texto tem como base uma pesquisa que está sendo finalizada sobre empresas de mídia (oito na França e uma na Espanha) que foram assumidas ou transformadas por seus funcionários no formato de cooperativa (Scop, SCIC). Ele se concentra mais particularmente sobre um dos campos estudados: o jornal mensal L’Âge de faire, editado por uma pequena redação sediada no sudeste da França. Criado em 2005 com status associativo, assumido por seus funcionários no final de 2011, é um dos poucos títulos da imprensa independente, funcionando sem publicidade, com um modelo econômico baseado essencialmente em seus leitores. A partir da coleta de um material qualitativo (9 entrevistas realizadas entre julho de 2015 e abril de 2016), este artigo traça a história do jornal, desde a sua criação até hoje, evocando o modo como seu modelo econômico foi estruturado. Mas pretende, acima de tudo, mostrar como L’Âge de faire pode ser visto na encruzilhada de vários mundos sociais. Sendo realmente focado em « iniciativas voltadas para a reapropriação cidadã da economia, a criação de vínculos sociais [e] um modo de vida mais ecológico », L’Âge de faire seria considerada como um micromundo na intersecção de mundos sociais maiores: os das alternativas ecológicas, a da economia social e solidária ou dos círculos militantes. Essa intersecção se materializaria, assim, nas interações mantidas pelo jornal com seus leitores e com os atores desses vários mundos sociais que ele descreve e dos quais traça as evoluções e os debates internos. Tendo desenvolvido sua circulação por sua presença nas feiras e exposições « bio », L’Âge de faire soube aproveitar seu singular posicionamento econômico e editorial dentro da mídia do terceiro setor, alimentando seu conteúdo com temas e questões transversais a esses diferentes mundos sociais. ***

AbstractMarble mosaic and terrazzo were a very common type of stone paving in Venice, Italy, especially between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. Throughout the period, migrant craftsmen from the nearby Alpine foothills area of Friuli (in northeastern Italy) virtually monopolized the Venetian marble mosaic and terrazzo trade. Thus, on February 9, 1583, the Venetian Council of Ten granted maestro (master) Sgualdo Sabadin from Friuli and his fellow Friulian workers of the arte dei terazzeri (art of terrazzo) the capacity to establish a school guild dedicated to St. Florian. The first chapters of the Mariegola de’ Terazzeri (Statutes of the Terrazzo Workers Guild), which set the rules for the guild of terrazzo workers, was completed three years later, in September 1586.From the 1830s onward, Friulian craftsmen began to export their skills and trade from Venice across Europe and later, at the turn of the twentieth century, overseas to several American cities. Prior to reaching America, mosaic and terrazzo workers left from their work places outside Italy, initially from Paris. Friulian mosaic and terrazzo workers were regarded as the “aristocracy” of the Italian American building workforce due to their highly specialized jobs: This contrasted with the bulk of Italians in the United States who were largely employed as unskilled. The New York marble mosaic- and terrazzo-paving trade was completely in the hands of the Italian craftsmen, who demonstrated a strong tendency to become entrepreneurs. They made use of their craftsmanship comparative advantages to build a successful network of firms that dominated the domestic market, in a similar fashion to what had already been occurring in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and other European countries.This paper argues that immigrants can be powerful conduits for the transfer of skills and knowledge, and emphasizes the importance of studying skilled migrant artisan experiences. A closer look at ethnic migration flows reveals a variety of entrepreneurial experiences, even in groups largely considered unskilled. The Italian marble mosaic and terrazzo workers’ experience sheds new light on ethnic entrepreneurship catering for the community as a whole, it reveals a remarkable long-lasting craftsmanship experience, thus demonstrating the successful continuity in business ownership and the passing down of craftsmanship knowledge across family generations. Creativity skills and innovative productive methods adopted by firms appear as a key factor that allowed these artisans to control the trade for such a long time.

Background Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a molecularly and clinically heterogeneous hematological malignancy. Chemotherapy resistance is common, and relapse is the major cause of treatment failure. Although immunotherapy may be an attractive modality to exploit in patients with AML, the ability to predict the groups of patients and the types of cancer that will respond to immune targeting remains limited. Methods Immune gene expression profiling for the high-dimensional analysis of the immunological landscape of bone marrow (BM) samples from patients with newly-diagnosed (de novo) non-promyelocytic AML (n=387) was employed to analyze the tumor microenvironment (TME). We derived immune scores from mRNA expression levels and devised an RNA-based, quantitative metric of immune infiltration, as previously published (Danaher P, et al. JITC 2017 and 2018). The PanCancer IO360™ gene expression assay was used to profile BM samples collected prior to and during flotetuzumab (FLZ) treatment from 30 AML patients treated at the RP2D (500 ng/kg/day) in the CP-MGD006-01 clinical trial (NCT#02152956), primary refractory, n=23 or relapsed, n=7. IO360 score comparisons are presented as mean ± SD and significance was assessed by the Mann Whitney U test. Results Analysis of pre-treatment BM samples from de novo AML revealed distinct immune signature modules, reflecting the co-expression of genes associated with 1) an IFNγ-dominant TME, 2) adaptive immune responses, and 3) myeloid cell abundance. When considered in aggregate, the relative intensity of gene expression in the immune modules stratified BM samples into two subgroups, which will be herein termed immune-infiltrated and immune-depleted. When AML patients were dichotomized based on median immune scores, high versus low, a higher percentage of primary refractory patients was observed within the IFNγ high module (65.4% versus 34.6%; p=0.0022). In multivariate logistic regression, an IFNγ high profile (derived from the IFNγ-dominant module) was predictive of therapeutic resistance to induction chemotherapy, even more than ELN risk categories (AUROC = 0.815 versus 0.702 with ELN risk only). In a validation cohort, Beat AML series, the IFNγ high profile when compared to other clinically established prognostic indicators in AML, i.e. disease type (primary versus secondary), WBC count, patient age at diagnosis, and ELN risk categories was significantly more predictive of therapeutic resistance to induction chemotherapy (AUROC=0.921 versus 0.709 with ELN cytogenetic risk alone; two-tailed p value=0.002673). Similarly, a higher percentage of patients with an IFNγ high profile AML in the HOVON series failed to achieve CR in response to induction chemotherapy when compared to AML cases with an IFNγ low profile (27.2% versus 15.2%; p=0.0004). We hypothesized that higher expression of IFNγ inducible genes, while underpinning chemotherapy resistance, might identify AML patients who derive benefit from immunotherapy with FLZ. BM samples from 92% of patients with evidence of FLZ anti-leukemic activity (ALA), which was defined as either CR, CRh, CRi, PR or overall benefit (&gt;30% reduction in BM blasts), had an immune infiltrated TME relative to non-responders (SD or PD). Interestingly, the IFNγ-signaling score was significantly higher in patients with chemotherapy-refractory AML compared with relapsed AML at time of FLZ treatment, and in individuals with evidence of ALA compared to non-responders (p&lt;0.0001). Additionally, another IFNγ-related score, the tumor inflammation signature (TIS), had strong predictive power of anti-leukemic activity to FLZ, with an AUROC value of 0.847 (p=0.001). FLZ also modified the TME, and on-treatment BM samples (available in 19 patients at the end of cycle 1) displayed increased expression of antigen presentation and immune activation genes relative to baseline, and had higher TIS scores (6.47±0.22 versus 5.93±0.15, p=0.0006), antigen processing machinery scores (5.67±0.16 versus 5.31±0.12, p=0.002), IFNγ signaling scores (3.58±0.27 versus 2.81±0.24, p=0.0004) and PD-L1 expression (3.43±0.28 versus 2.73±0.21, p=0.0062). Conclusions Our findings to date suggest that microenvironmental immune gene profiles could be used to inform the delivery of personalized immunotherapies to patients with IFNγ-dominant AML subtypes, and identify patients less likely to respond to cytotoxic chemotherapy. Disclosures Minden: Trillium Therapetuics: Other: licensing agreement. Hood:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment. Church:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment, Equity Ownership. Sullivan:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment. Viboch:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment. Warren:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment. Liang:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment. Cesano:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Employment. Löwenberg:Chairman, Leukemia Cooperative Trial Group HOVON (Netherlands: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Agios Pharmaceuticals: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astellas: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Astex: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Celgene: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Abbvie: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Up-to-Date", section editor leukemia: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; CELYAD: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Chairman Scientific Committee and Member Executive Committee, European School of Hematology (ESH, Paris, France): Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Elected member, Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts, The Netherlands: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Editorial Board "European Oncology & Haematology": Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Clear Creek Bio Ltd: Consultancy, Honoraria; Hoffman-La Roche Ltd: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Frame Pharmaceuticals: Equity Ownership; Royal Academy of Sciences and Arts, The Netherlands: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Supervisory Board, National Comprehensive Cancer Center (IKNL), Netherland: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Tasian:Incyte Corportation: Research Funding; Gilead Sciences: Research Funding; Aleta Biotherapeutics: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees. Rettig:WashU: Patents & Royalties: Patent Application 16/401,950. Davidson-Moncada:MacroGenics, Inc.: Employment, Equity Ownership. DiPersio:Celgene: Consultancy; NeoImmune Tech: Research Funding; Macrogenics: Research Funding, Speakers Bureau; Incyte: Consultancy, Research Funding; Karyopharm Therapeutics: Consultancy; RiverVest Venture Partners Arch Oncology: Consultancy, Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Cellworks Group, Inc.: Membership on an entity's Board of Directors or advisory committees; Amphivena Therapeutics: Consultancy, Research Funding; Magenta Therapeutics: Equity Ownership; WUGEN: Equity Ownership, Patents & Royalties, Research Funding; Bioline Rx: Research Funding, Speakers Bureau. Rutella:NanoString Technologies, Inc.: Research Funding; MacroGenics, Inc.: Research Funding.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate how the attitudes of Russian managers are affected by personal attributes, environmental conditions and also cognitive processes. Design/methodology/approach Based on social cognitive theory, the authors developed hypotheses and tested them against data collected from 173 Russian managers via an online survey. A linear regression analysis revealed several determinants of ethical attitudes within the Russian context. Findings The findings suggest that personal values (i.e. political orientation), environmental conditions (i.e. hierarchical level, ownership – state-owned versus private – of the current employer, industry in which a manager works) as well as cognitive processes (i.e. the presence (absence) of multilingualism at the workplace) strongly affect ethical attitudes of Russian managers in several issues related to both job ethics (relations inside the organization) and business ethics (relations outside the organization). Practical implications Revealing a positive effect of multilingualism as cognitive process on managers' ethical attitudes, this study calls for incorporating a second lingua franca, for example, English, within the working context. Originality/value The study provides an in-depth investigation of the determinants of ethical attitudes in Russia. Conducting a single-country study, the authors are able to reveal locally meaningful determinants that may otherwise be overlooked.

Preface In the last twelve years of following copyright developments, I have witnessed an accelerating growth in the agitation over its application and increasing cries for reform. This was triggered by a mounting corporate hysteria for strengthening copyright which seems to mask other anxieties and other issues of bad faith beside the one at hand. This is in contrast with the more reasonable stance of the U.S. government in the 1980s when Congress refused to regulate video rentals and the Courts refused to cite the video recorder for ‘contributory infringement.’ In the 1990s, the Republican-controlled Congress passed several pieces of legislation extending copyright and punishing reverse engineering. Congressional giveaways and corporate shrillness has inspired a progressive movement to defend the intellectual ‘commons.’ The reality is that intellectual property is not owned by intellectuals, and so people are realising that further extensions of copyright no longer benefits the sciences and useful arts. Developments in copyright are driven by the challenges of new technologies of communication. This is a problem for the law, which does not like surprises and certainly proceeds by analogising new situations to old ones in order to build continuity. Case law (which is law that is developed by judges’ decisions and interpretations) proceeds by precedent. Yet old technologies are not the accurate precedents for new technology and this is particularly the situation today. The new technologies have a particular impact on the situation since they change not just one variable in the earlier balance of copyright, but all the variables. While the courts and the corporations have concentrated on the one variable of easy reproduction of content, we should also pay attention to how the new technologies have changed the very balance between the so-called ‘real world’ and cultural expression. The material world is now composed to a significant extent by cultural expression. We walk through physical landscapes dominated by billboards and other totems of the marketplace, while our mentalscapes are filled with trademarks and other commodity bits. This was not the case as copyright law developed; it is the case now, and the various underpinnings of copyright law have become embarrassingly ineffective in this new world. Edelman Bernard Edelman pushes back to find the moment of embarrassment. He finds it in photography. As Paul Hirst points out, ‘[Edelman’s title] Le Droit saisi par la photographie puns on the law being seized or caught by photography, surprised or caught out by it. Photography, a technical innovation developing independently of law, contradicts the existing formulations of property right in representations of things’ (Hirst 1-2). Prior to photography, representation inherently had stamps of personality that allowed such representation (painting, drawing, engraving et alia) to be easily and significantly distinguished from that part of the material world it was representing, as well as from other artistic representations (even of the same referent). The earliest French legal pronouncements on photography were reluctant to grant it copyright protection, precisely because it was thought to have no personality and to be a mechanical copy of nature. When the court did extend copyright protection to photography and admitted its personality, it was faced with how to distinguish it from the natural. The camera could no longer be interpreting as transparently reproducing the real. Edelman calls this the subjectivisation of the machine. The camera can no longer be both a transparent reproducer of the real; it has been found always to invest the real with the personality of its subject (the photographer). This has resulted in a number of ad hoc decisions to prevent ‘over-appropriation’ of the real. Anglo-American versus French Law Anglo-American writing about copyright has never wasted much time on subjectivisation of the machine. The basis of British copyright was pragmatic and economic to begin with, having originated with the Tudors’ desire to encourage printing by granting monopoly rights to printers, and to control and censor printing. The relocation of copyright ownership from printer to author in the 18th century was also an economically driven consideration reflecting the new spirit of competitive capitalism. Certainly the language of the U.S. Constitution that authorised the federal prerogative in setting copyright law was very pragmatic in its emphasis on promoting the progress of science and the ‘useful’ arts (Article 1 Section 8). The French tradition, which is somewhat paralleled by the German and those of other continental nations, was born out of a more courtly regard for the rights of genius. Although France recognised that works ‘made for hire’ were owned by the employer, it vested certain inalienable moral privileges in the real person of the artist. This legal doctrine is known as droit d’auteur. (see Ginsburg) Idea/Expression Yet the American tradition is not totally pragmatic. The balance between copyright and the First Amendment commitment to an absolute freedom of speech calls for a certain degree of abstraction. It was Thomas Jefferson who cautioned about the chilling effect copyright law might have with the spread of ideas. Fortunately in written language it was rather easy to work out that the way to protect ideas from property claims was to distinguish between the expression, which can be copyrighted, and the idea, which cannot. Siva Vaidhyanathan (109-15) goes over Judge Learned Hand’s development of the test to distinguish the idea from the expression in the 1920s and 1930s as particularly instructive for striking the balance. In Nichols v. Universal (1929), Hand develops the theme of ‘patterns of increasing generality’ as more incident is left out. At some point the abstraction is too great to be protected, since it now is more in the realm of idea then of particular expression. (45 F.2d 120) But Edelman’s work poses the question whether this works, as we move from machines of writing to machines of visual reproduction. Doesn’t Apply to Mechanical Mimetic Reproduction Photographs can be taken of the imaginary world and indeed the subjectivisation model holds that every photograph is determined by the imagination of the author. But it is commonsensical that photographs begin as traces of the material world. This is not analogous to the written word. The structural nature of language removes the written word from a direct relationship with its physical referent. Indeed, the entire linguistic turn in post-war philosophy is premised on the lack of any transparent or even determined relationship between language and things. Even in pre-war jurisprudence it was this lack of coincidence that allowed the easy split of the idea from its expression. As the expression floats above the idea, the word floats above the physical. Vincent Porter argues that in contrast to language, visual and audio recordings do not have this split, they do not float above the physical. He noted sound/image recordings have presented a problem in that they are speech acts without a language system, or in a distinction borrowed from Saussure ‘a series of paroles without a langue.’ (Porter 12) After all does a photograph fit into a grammar of images? Are there photographs that are ‘patterns of increasing generality?’ Where is the photograph that is the same idea as another photograph without being the same photograph? Is there a photograph that can do the same work as the word ‘mother?’ No. Every photograph will be of a particular mother of a particular age and particular ethnic group and the same difficulty applies even if we photograph a group of mothers or edit a montage of mothers. This has the effect of making the idea the same as the expression. If you protect one you have protected the other. At this point I was not certain how decisive an intervention these concepts could make in the current copyright ferment. Certainly the most exciting argument was the one mounted at the Berkman Institute at Harvard by several lawyers and argued before the Supreme Court by Lawrence Lessig in Eldred v. Ashcroft (2003). This presented the argument that the government had strayed from the original Constitutional mandate to allow exclusive rights only for a limited time. But as I read Lessig’s Free Culture and as I re-read Edelman, it strikes me that the idea/expression test does not adequately help the First Amendment rights of technologies of mimetic reproduction (film, audio recordings). It is that these technologies allow reproductions to easily re-enter the material world. When these reproductions do re-enter they will naturally become part of the domain of creative expression. Our artists must be allowed to freely comment on the world in which we live and the world in which we live is now visually and aurally full of copyrighted material. This image came to mind forcefully when Lessig explained the difficulties of documentarians when they film their subjects watching TV and then have to edit out the TV image rather than deal with the risk of being sued for infringement (Aufderheide and Jaszi 95-8). This image also comes to mind when reading of farmers who are not allowed to harvest their seed because they come from patented plants. But I will defer to patent philosophers on that apparent travesty of natural rights. I wish to stay focused on the argument that is the corollary of Edelman’s subjectivisation of the camera. The camera records the physical world and in turn that recording enters that world. This is to say that the genius of copyright is in the literary domain because written language never re-enters the material world. When copyright was extended beyond the literary, policy makers should have noticed that earlier tests were no longer capable of maintaining balance between our divine right to express our lives and the practical right to own our own expressions (for a limited time). The new test is almost already present in the law: it is the protection of parody from copyright infringement violation. The courts recognise that parody positions the original expression as an artifact of the world in order to comment on it. If only the policy makers could extend that view to documentarians and others who film the world and include in their film the physical fact of other videos being displayed in the world. Just as in parody they ought to consider the intent of the video makers is to comment on the original, not to plagiarise it. References Aufderheide, P., and P. Jaszi. Untold Stories: Creative Consequences of the Rights Clearance Culture for Documentary Filmmakers. 2004. 25 April 2005 http://www.centerforsocialmedia.org/rock/index.htm>. Edelman, B. Ownership of the Image: Elements for a Marxist Theory of Law. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979. Eldred v. Ashcroft, Attorney General. United States Supreme Court decision, 15 January 2003. http://www.supremecourtus.gov/opinions/02pdf/01-618.pdf>. Ginsburg, J. C. “A Tale of Two Copyrights: Literary Property in Revolutionary France and America.” Tulane Law Review 64.5 (1990): 991-1032. Hirst, P. Q. “Introduction.” In Bernard Edelman, Ownership of the Image: Elements for a Marxist Theory of Law. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979. Lessig, L. Free Culture. 2004. 8 April 2005 http://free-culture.org/get-it>. Porter, V. “Copyright: The New Protectionism.” InterMedia 17.1 (1989): 10-7. Vaidhyanathan, S. Copyrights and Copywrongs: The Rise of Intellectual Property and How It Threatens Creativity. New York: NYU Press, 2001. Citation reference for this article MLA Style Wasser, Frederick. "When Did They Copyright the World Without Us Noticing?." M/C Journal 8.3 (2005). echo date('d M. Y'); ?> <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0507/05-wasser.php>. APA Style Wasser, F. (Jul. 2005) "When Did They Copyright the World Without Us Noticing?," M/C Journal, 8(3). Retrieved echo date('d M. Y'); ?> from <http://journal.media-culture.org.au/0507/05-wasser.php>.

Introduction 2021 was the year that NFTs got big—not just in value but also in terms of the cultural consciousness. When digital artist Beeple sold the portfolio of his 5,000 daily images at Christie’s for US$69 million, the art world was left intrigued, confused, and outraged in equal measure. Depending on who you asked, non-fungible tokens (NFTs) seemed to be either a quick cash-grab or the future of the art market (Bowden and Jones; Smee). Following the Beeple sale, articles started to appear indicating that the film industry was abuzz for NFTs. Independent filmmaker Kevin Smith was quick to announce that he planned to release his horror film Killroy Was Here as an NFT (Alexander); in September 2021 the James Bond film No Time to Die also unveiled a series of collectibles to coincide with the film’s much-delayed theatrical release (Natalee); the distribution and collectible platforms Vuele, NFT Studios, and Mogul Productions all emerged, and the industry rumour mill suggests more start-ups are en route (CurrencyWorks; NFT Studios; NewsBTC). Blockchain disciples say that the technology will solve all the problems of the Internet (Tewari; Norton; European Business Review); critics say it will only perpetuate existing accessibility and equality issues (Davis and Flatow; Klein). Those more circumspect will doubtless sit back until the dust settles, waiting to see what parts of so-called web3 will be genuinely integrated into the architecture of the Internet. Pamela Hutchinson puts it neatly in terms of the arts sector: “the NFT may revolutionise the art market, film funding and distribution. Or it might be an ecological disaster and a financial bubble, in which few actual movies change hands, and fraudsters get rich from other people’s intellectual property” (Hutchinson). There is an uptick in the literature around NFTs and blockchain (see Quiniou; Gayvoronskaya & Meinel); however, the technology remains unregulated and unstandardised (Yeung 212-14; Dimitropoulos 112-13). Similarly, the sheer amount of funding being put into fundamental technical, data, and security-related issues speaks volumes to the nascency of the space (Ossinger; Livni; Gayvoronskaya & Meinel 52-6). Put very briefly, NFTs are part of a given blockchain system; think of them, like cryptocurrency coins, as “units of value” within that system (Roose). NFTs were initially rolled out on Ethereum, though several other blockchains have now implemented their own NFT frameworks. NFTs are usually not the artwork itself, but rather a unique, un-copyable (hence, non-fungible) piece of code that is attached, linked, or connected to another digital file, be that an image, video, text, or something else entirely. NFTs are often referred to as a digital artwork’s “certificate of authenticity” (Roose). At the time of writing, it remains to be seen how widely blockchain and NFT technology will be implemented across the entertainment industries. However, this article aims to outline the current state of implementation in the film trade specifically, and to attempt to sort true potential from the hype. Beginning with an overview of the core issues around blockchain and NFTs as they apply to film properties and adjacent products, current implementations of the technology are outlined, before finishing with a hesitant glimpse into the potential future applications. The Issues and Conversation At the core of current conversations around blockchain are three topics: intellectual property and ownership, concentrations of power and control, and environmental impact. To this I would like to add a consideration of social capital, which I begin with briefly here. Both the film industry and “crypto” — if we take the latter to encompass the various facets of so-called ‘web3’ — are engines of social capital. In the case of cinema, its products are commodified and passed through a model that begins with exclusivity (theatrical release) before progressing to mass availability (home media, streaming). The cinematic object, i.e., an individual copy of a film, is, by virtue of its origins as a mass product of the twentieth century, fungible. The film is captured, copied, stored, distributed, and shared. The film-industrial model has always relied on social phenomena, word of mouth, critical discourse, and latterly on buzz across digital social media platforms. This is perhaps as distinct from fine art, where — at least for dealers — the content of the piece does not necessarily matter so much as verification of ownership and provenance. Similarly, web3, with its decentralised and often-anonymised processes, relies on a kind of social activity, or at least a recorded interaction wherein the chain is stamped and each iteration is updated across the system. Even without the current hype, web3 still relies a great deal on discourse, sharing, and community, particularly as it flattens the existing hierarchies of the Internet that linger from Web 2.0. In terms of NFTs, blockchain systems attach scarcity and uniqueness to digital objects. For now, that scarcity and uniqueness is resulting in financial value, though as Jonathan Beller argues the notion of value could — or perhaps should — be reconsidered as blockchain technology, and especially cryptocurrencies, evolve (Beller 217). Regardless, NFT advocates maintain that this is the future of all online activity. To questions of copyright, the structures of blockchain do permit some level of certainty around where a given piece of intellectual property emerged. This is particularly useful where there are transnational differences in recognition of copyright law, such as in France, for instance (Quiniou 112-13). The Berne Convention stipulates that “the subsistence of copyright does not rest on the compliance with formal requirements: rights will exist if the work meets the requirements for protection set out by national law and treaties” (Guadamuz 1373). However, there are still no legal structures underpinning even the most transparent of transactions, when an originator goes out of their way to transfer rights to the buyer of the accompanying NFT. The minimum requirement — even courtesy — for the assignment of rights is the identification of the work itself; as Guadamuz notes, this is tricky for NFTs as they are written in code (1374). The blockchain’s openness and transparency are its key benefits, but until the code can explicitly include (or concretely and permanently reference) the ‘content’ of an NFT, its utility as a system of ownership is questionable. Decentralisation, too, is raised consistently as a key positive characteristic of blockchain technology. Despite the energy required for this decentralisation (addressed shortly), it is true that, at least in its base code, blockchain is a technology with no centralised source of truth or verification. Instead, such verification is performed by every node on the chain. On the surface, for the film industry, this might mean modes of financing, rights management, and distribution chains that are not beholden to multinational media conglomerates, streamers like Netflix, niche intermediaries, or legacy studios. The result here would be a flattening of the terrain: breaking down studio and corporate gatekeeping in favour of a more democratised creative landscape. Creators and creative teams would work peer-to-peer, paying, contracting, servicing, and distribution via the blockchain, with iron-clad, publicly accessible tracking of transactions and ownership. The alternative, though, is that the same imbalances persist, just in a different form: this is outlined in the next section. As Hunter Vaughan writes, the film industry’s environmental impact has long been under-examined. Its practices are diverse, distributed, and hard to quantify. Cinematic images, Vaughan writes, “do not come from nothing, and they do not vanish into the air: they have always been generated by the earth and sun, by fossil fuels and chemical reactions, and our enjoyment of them has material consequences” (3). We believe that by watching a “green” film like Avatar we are doing good, but it implicates us in the dirty secret, an issue of “ignorance and of voluntary psychosis” where “we do not see who we are harming or how these practices are affecting the environment, and we routinely agree to accept the virtual as real” (5). Beyond questions of implication and eco-material conceptualisation, however, there are stark facts. In the 1920s, the Kodak Park Plant in New York drew 12 million gallons of water from Lake Ontario each day to produce film stock. As the twentieth century came to a close, this amount — for a single film plant — had grown to 35-53 million gallons per day. The waste water was perfunctorily “cleaned” and then dumped into surrounding rivers (72-3). This was just one plant, and one part of the filmmaking process. With the shift to digital, this cost might now be calculated in the extraction of precious metals used to make contemporary cameras, computers, or storage devices. Regardless, extrapolate outwards to a global film industry and one quickly realises the impact is almost beyond comprehension. Considering — let alone calculating — the carbon footprint of blockchain requires outlining some fundamentals of the technology. The two primary architectures of blockchain are Proof of Work (PoW) and Proof of Stake (PoS), both of which denote methods of adding and verifying new blocks to a chain. PoW was the first model, employed by Bitcoin and the first iteration of Ethereum. In a PoW model, each new block has a specific cryptographic hash. To confirm the new block, crypto miners use their systems to generate a target hash that is less than or equal to that of the block. The systems process these calculations quickly, as the goal is to be “the first miner with the target hash because that miner is the one who can update the blockchain and receive crypto rewards” (Daly). The race for block confirmation necessitates huge amounts of processing power to make these quick calculations. The PoS model differs in that miners are replaced by validators (or staking services where participants pool validation power). Rather than investing in computer power, validators invest in the blockchain’s coins, staking those coins (tokens) in a smart contract (think of this contract like a bank account or vault). When a new block is proposed, an algorithm chooses a validator based on the size of their stake; if the block is verified, the validator receives further cryptocurrency as a reward (Castor). Given the ubiquity and exponential growth of blockchain technology and its users, an accurate quantification of its carbon footprint is difficult. For some precedent, though, one might consider the impact of the Bitcoin blockchain, which runs on a PoW model. As the New York Times so succinctly puts it: “the process of creating Bitcoin to spend or trade consumes around 91 terawatt-hours of electricity annually, more than is used by Finland, a nation of about 5.5 million” (Huang, O’Neill and Tabuchi). The current Ethereum system (at time of writing), where the majority of NFT transactions take place, also runs on PoW, and it is estimated that a single Ethereum transaction is equivalent to nearly nine days of power consumption by an average US household (Digiconomist). Ethereum always intended to operate on a PoS system, and the transition to this new model is currently underway (Castor). Proof of Stake transactions use significantly less energy — the new Ethereum will supposedly be approximately 2,000 times more energy efficient (Beekhuizen). However, newer systems such as Solana have been explicit about their efficiency goals, stating that a single Solana transaction uses less energy (1,837 Joules, to be precise) than keeping an LED light on for one hour (36,000 J); one Ethereum transaction, for comparison, uses over 692 million J (Solana). In addition to energy usage, however, there is also the question of e-waste as a result of mining and general blockchain operations which, at the time of writing, for Bitcoin sits at around 32 kilotons per year, around the same as the consumer IT wastage of the Netherlands (de Vries and Stoll). How the growth in NFT awareness and adoption amplifies this impact remains to be seen, but depending on which blockchain they use, they may be wasting energy and resources by design. If using a PoW model, the more valuable the cryptocurrency used to make the purchase, the more energy (“gas”) required to authenticate the purchase across the chain. Images abound online of jerry-rigged crypto data centres of varying quality (see also efficiency and safety). With each NFT minted, sold, or traded, these centres draw — and thus waste, for gas — more and more energy. With increased public attention and scrutiny, cryptocurrencies are slowly realising that things could be better. As sustainable alternatives become more desirable and mainstream, it is safe to predict that many NFT marketplaces may migrate to Cardano, Solana, or other more efficient blockchain bases. For now, though, this article considers the existing implementations of NFTs and blockchain technology within the film industry. Current Implementations The current applications of NFTs in film centre around financing and distribution. In terms of the former, NFTs are saleable items that can raise capital for production, distribution, or marketing. As previously mentioned, director Kevin Smith launched Jay & Silent Bob’s Crypto Studio in order to finish and release Killroy Was Here. Smith released over 600 limited edition tokens, including one of the film itself (Moore). In October 2021, renowned Hong Kong director Wong Kar-wai sold an NFT with unreleased footage from his film In the Mood for Love at Sotheby’s for US$550,000 (Raybaud). Quentin Tarantino entered the arena in January 2022, auctioning uncut scenes from his 1994 film Pulp Fiction, despite the threat of legal action from the film’s original distributor Miramax (Dailey). In Australia, an early adopter of the technology is director Michael Beets, who works in virtual production and immersive experiences. His immersive 14-minute VR film Nezunoban (2020) was split into seven different chapters, and each chapter was sold as an NFT. Beets also works with artists to develop entry tickets that are their own piece of generative art; with these tickets and the chapters selling for hundreds of dollars at a time, Beets seems to have achieved the impossible: turning a profit on a short film (Fletcher). Another Australian writer-producer, Samuel Wilson, now based in Canada, suggests that the technology does encourage filmmakers to think differently about what they create: At the moment, I’m making NFTs from extra footage of my feature film Miles Away, which will be released early next year. In one way, it’s like a new age of behind-the-scenes/bonus features. I have 14 hours of DV tapes that I’m cutting into a short film which I will then sell in chapters over the coming months. One chapter will feature the dashing KJ Apa (Songbird, Riverdale) without his shirt on. So, hopefully that can turn some heads. (Wilson, in Fletcher) In addition to individual directors, a number of startup companies are also seeking to get in on the action. One of these is Vuele, which is best understood as a blockchain-based streaming service: an NFT Netflix, if you like. In addition to films themselves, the service will offer extra content as NFTs, including “behind the scenes content, bonus features, exclusive Q&As, and memorabilia” (CurrencyWorks). Vuele’s launch title is Zero Contact, directed by Rick Dugdale and starring Anthony Hopkins. The film is marketed as “the World’s First NFT Feature Film” (as at the time of writing, though, both Vuele and its flagship film have yet to launch). Also launching is NFT Studios, a blockchain-based production company that distributes the executive producer role to those buying into the project. NFT Studios is a decentralised administrative organisation (DAO), guided by tech experts, producers, and film industry intermediaries. NFT Studios is launching with A Wing and a Prayer, a biopic of aeronaut Brian Milton (NFT Studios), and will announce their full slate across festivals in 2022. In Australia, Culture Vault states that its aim is to demystify crypto and champion Australian artists’ rights and access to the space. Co-founder and CEO Michelle Grey is well aware of the aforementioned current social capital of NFTs, but is also acutely aware of the space’s opacity and the ubiquity of often machine-generated tat. “The early NFT space was in its infancy, there was a lot of crap around, but don’t forget there’s a lot of garbage in the traditional art world too,” she says (cited in Miller). Grey and her company effectively act like art dealers; intermediaries between the tech and art worlds. These new companies claim to be adhering to the principles of web3, often selling themselves as collectives, DAOs, or distributed administrative systems. But the entrenched tendencies of the film industry — particularly the persistent Hollywood system — are not so easily broken down. Vuele is a joint venture between CurrencyWorks and Enderby Entertainment. The former is a financial technology company setting up blockchain systems for businesses, including the establishment of branded digital currencies such as the controversial FreedomCoin (Memoria); the latter, Enderby, is a production company founded by Canadian film producer (and former investor relations expert in the oil and uranium sectors) Rick Dugdale (Wiesner). Similarly, NFT Studios is partnered with consulting and marketing agencies and blockchain venture capitalists (NFT Investments PLC). Depending on how charitable or cynical one is feeling, these start-ups are either helpful intermediaries to facilitate legacy media moving into NFT technology, or the first bricks in the capitalist wall to bar access for entry to other players. The Future Is… Buffering Marketplaces like Mintable, OpenSea, and Rarible do indeed make the minting and selling of NFTs fairly straightforward — if you’ve ever listed an item for sale on eBay or Facebook, you can probably mint an NFT. Despite this, the current major barrier for average punters to the NFT space remains technical knowledge. The principles of blockchain remain fairly opaque — even this author, who has been on a deep dive for this article, remains sceptical that widespread adoption across multiple applications and industries is feasible. Even so, as Rennie notes, “the unknown is not what blockchain technology is, or even what it is for (there are countless ‘use cases’), but how it structures the actions of those who use it” (235). At the time of writing, a great many commentators and a small handful of scholars are speculating about the role of the metaverse in the creative space. If the endgame of the metaverse is realised, i.e., a virtual, interactive space where users can interact, trade, and consume entertainment, the role of creators, dealers, distributors, and other brokers and players will be up-ended, and have to re-settle once again. Film industry practitioners might look to the games space to see what the road might look like, but then again, in an industry that is — at its best — somewhat resistant to change, this may simply be a fad that blows over. Blockchain’s current employment as a get-rich-quick mechanism for the algorithmic literati and as a computational extension of existing power structures suggests nothing more than another techno-bubble primed to burst (Patrickson 591-2; Klein). Despite the aspirational commentary surrounding distributed administrative systems and organisations, the current implementations are restricted, for now, to startups like NFT Studios. In terms of cinema, it does remain to be seen whether the deployment of NFTs will move beyond a kind of “Netflix with tchotchkes” model, or a variant of crowdfunding with perks. Once Vuele and NFT Studios launch properly, we may have a sense of how this all will play out, particularly alongside less corporate-driven, more artistically-minded initiatives like that of Michael Beets and Culture Vault. It is possible, too, that blockchain technology may streamline the mechanics of the industry in terms of automating or simplifying parts of the production process, particularly around contracts, financing, licensing. This would obviously remove some of the associated labour and fees, but would also de-couple long-established parts and personnel of the industry — would Hollywood and similar industrial-entertainment complexes let this happen? 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