Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Early mother-infant communication »

AbstractResponsive parental communication during an infant's first year has been positively associated with later language outcomes. This study explores responsivity in mother–infant communication by modeling how change in guiding language between 7 and 11 months influences toddler vocabulary development. In a group of 32 mother–child dyads, change in early maternal guiding language positively predicted child language outcomes measured at 18 and 24 months. In contrast, a number of other linguistic variables – including total utterances and non-guiding language – did not correlate with toddler vocabulary development, suggesting a critical role of responsive change in infant-directed communication. We further assessed whether maternal affect during early communication influenced toddler vocabulary outcomes, finding that dominant affect during early mother–infant communications correlated to lower child language outcomes. These findings provide evidence that responsive parenting should not only be assessed longitudinally, but unique contributions of language and affect should also be concurrently considered in future study.

AbstractThe present study examines the effects of gestational age and birthweight status on the development of infant and maternal behaviour as well as the (mutual) predictability between partners during face-to-face interaction at 6, 12 and 18 weeks of corrected age. Subjects are healthy fullterm infants (N = 6) and three groups of healthy preterm infants: small-for-gestational age (N = 6), and appropriate for gestational age, the latter being born after a pregnancy duration of less than 32 weeks (N = 6) or between 32 and 34 weeks (N = 6). Using dyadic sequential analyses, based on log-linear modelling and information statistics, for each individual infant-mother pair at each age, the effect of both partners on the behaviour of the other was quantified, while accounting for autocorrelational effects. In the majority of cases the interactions could be labelled as showing 'bidirectionality', particularly at 18 weeks. Mothers were more likely to be influenced by the previous behaviour of the infants than vice versa. No group differences were apparent in the way mothers were influenced by their infants. However, the small-for-gestational age preterm infants were less likely to be influenced by maternal behaviour, particularly at 6 and 12 weeks of age. A lower variability was the most common finding in infants who were not predictable from the previous behaviour of the mother. At 6 and 12 weeks they were less expressive and more often showed a monotonous behavioural pattern in which 'looking at mother's face without positive expressions' was shown during most of the interaction. As this lack of variability was more often found in SGA preterm infants, they were less predictable from their mother's behaviour than the fullterm and AGA preterm infants. These data suggest that having a low birthweight for gestational age may be a risk factor for a lack of 'bidirectionality' during early mother-infant interaction.

Language has long been identified as a powerful communicative tool among humans. Yet, pre-linguistic communication, which is common in many species, is also used by human infants prior to the acquisition of language. The potential communicational value of pre-linguistic vocal interactions between human infants and mothers has been studied in the past decades. With 120 dyads (mothers and three- or six-month-old infants), we used the classical Still Face Paradigm (SFP) in which mothers interact freely with their infants, then refrain from communication (Still Face, SF), and finally resume play. We employed innovative automated techniques to measure infant and maternal vocalization and pause, and dyadic parameters (infant response to mother, joint silence and overlap) and the emotional component of Infant Directed Speech (e-IDS) throughout the interaction. We showed that: (i) during the initial free play mothers use longer vocalizations and more e-IDS when they interact with older infants and (ii) infant boys exhibit longer vocalizations and shorter pauses than girls. (iii) During the SF and reunion phases, infants show marked and sustained changes in vocalizations but their mothers do not and (iv) mother–infant dyadic parameters increase in the reunion phase. Our quantitative results show that infants, from the age of three months, actively participate to restore the interactive loop after communicative ruptures long before vocalizations show clear linguistic meaning. Thus, auditory signals provide from early in life a channel by which infants co-create interactions, enhancing the mother–infant bond.

Mother-infant interactions, including culturally specific features, have been found to predict child socio-emotional development (e.g., social communication and emotion regulation (ER)). However, research is lacking on the specific processes involved. We used a cross-cultural, longitudinal design, and a microanalytic coding approach to address this issue. Fifty-two mother-infant dyads were recruited from the UK ( N = 21) and Italy ( N = 31), representing Northern European and Mediterranean cultures, respectively. While these cultures share core features of parent-child relationships, their values about emotional expressiveness differ. We observed face-to-face mother-infant interactions at 2 months (T1), and coded infant socio-emotional behavior and maternal responses. Children were seen again at 2 years (T2), when their ER in the face of frustration, using the Barrier Task, was assessed, and the occurrence of different “mature” strategies (communicative and autonomous) coded. Results revealed common features of interactions at T1 (infant socio-emotional expressions, and maternal positive responses), but also cultural variation in the frequency of different infant cues (more pre-speech in UK infants, more smiles in Italians), and of maternal responses to them. While greater overall maternal responsiveness at T1 predicted more mature ER in general at T2, cultural differences in early responsiveness to specific infant behaviors predicted later group differences in children’s use of particular ER strategies, with UK children using more communicative strategies, and Italians more autonomous. Findings indicate that positive maternal behaviors that are common across cultures (e.g., responsiveness) promote overall successful child emotion regulation, while culturally specific features of interactions are associated with how child socio-emotional outcomes are expressed.

Advances in neonatology have led to increased numbers of high-risk neonates surviving and intensified interest in the developmental outcomes of this population. In the South African context prematurity and low birth weight are the most common causes of death in the perinatal period and the same risk factors that contribute to infant mortality also contribute to the surviving infants’ increased risk for developmental delays. As a result of the interacting biological and environmental risk factors of prematurity, low birth weight, poverty and HIV and AIDS in the South African context Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) has been developed as best practice to promote infant survival and to facilitate mother-infant attachment. Mother-infant attachment may lead to synchronous interaction patterns between the mother and infant which forms the basis of early communication development. Early communication intervention (ECI) services are recommended as early as possible as high-risk infants are especially at risk for feeding difficulties and communication developmental delays. It is, however, not clear what the content of an ECI programme should be and how it should be implemented according to the changing communication and feeding developmental needs of the infant while receiving KMC. There appears to be a dearth of research on the earliest stages of communication development in high-risk neonates, which should form the foundation of such a programme. A descriptive survey was conducted to describe the development of 25 high-risk infants and their mothers’ changing needs from admission to discharge from a KMC unit. Each participant and mother dyad was followed up over an average of 11 days of data collection with three to four data collection sessions. Data was collected by means of direct observation during routine care-giving activities. The different developmental subsystems of the participants’ feeding, communication, neuro-behavioural organization and mother-neonate interaction were described. The results demonstrated that subtle, but definite changes could be observed in the participants’ development. Development in all the different areas occurred over time as the participants progressed through the three developmental states of the in-turned state, coming-out state and reciprocity state. As the participants progressed during the 11 days of data collection and were increasingly able to attend to their environment, they also developed the ability to regulate and organize their own behaviour in order to develop more complex communication, feeding and interaction skills with their mothers. The functioning of the participants’ sensory systems developed in a specific order namely tactile, auditory and then visual. Although the participants developed consistently throughout their stay in the KMC unit, mother-neonate interaction never reached optimal levels. The importance of an individualized training programme for each mother is reflected in the finding that the neonate’s developmental level and progress needs to be considered when implementing the ECI programme. The need for speech-language therapy involvement in KMC is emphasized in the light of a shortage of practicing speech-language therapists in South Africa. It is therefore imperative that the prevention of communication delays and feeding difficulties in high-risk neonates as well as parent training assume priority.
Dissertation (MCommunication Pathology)--University of Pretoria, 2008.
Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
unrestricted

Abstract The present longitudinal follow-up study had two main goals. Firstly, this study aimed to describe aspects of maternal interactive/communicative behaviour that could be considered constitutive in sensitive responsiveness. Secondly and most importantly, it aimed to find predictive relations between characteristics of mother-infant interaction around the onset of infant intentional communication and subsequent child communicative and linguistic development. The participants were 27 Finnish-speaking mothers and their healthy first-born infants. Analyses of the amount and types of maternal and infant communicative acts as well as maternal responses to infant signals were carried out from videotaped free-play samples at the infants' age of 10 months. In addition, the CARE-Index was used to rate maternal sensitivity and infant co-operativity. At 12 months, children's communicative and linguistic skills were assessed by using the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories and the Communication and Symbolic Behaviour Scales. At 30 months, the Reynell Developmental Language Scales III was used to assess comprehensive and expressive language. The results suggest that maternal activity in eliciting interaction and conversational interchanges is characteristic of sensitive responsiveness around the onset of infant intentionality. However, very distinctive aspects of verbal behaviour that might be constitutive in sensitive responsiveness were not found — probably as a result of considerable individual variation in all aspects of maternal as well as infant interactive/communicative behaviour that were analysed. As predictors of communicative and linguistic skills at 12 months, both maternal and infant characteristics made a significant contribution. In general, the predictive relations found were quite specific. In turn, except for the predictive validity of maternal sensitivity for comprehensive language at 30 months, later language outcomes were predicted only by children's communicative and linguistic skills at 12 months, suggesting that over time, language development becomes increasingly child-driven. Individual differences in early communicative capacities may also to some extent mask the language-facilitating effects of parenting. On the other hand, some potentially facilitating effects of parental behaviour may be elicited by the infant's well-advanced communicative skills. The importance to acknowledge transactional processes in parent-child interaction is highlighted — both in future research and clinical applications.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro
Mesmo antes das crianças começarem a falar, elas utilizam gestos, como dar, mostrar e apontar. O início da comunicação gestual pode ser percebido muito cedo na infância humana, mas ainda não está claro como ocorre a progressão deste desenvolvimento. O presente estudo investiga o papel e as características do desenvolvimento gestual no primeiro ano de vida. Um bebê de sexo masculino e sua mãe foram observados longitudinalmente, a cada semana, do nascimento aos 12 meses de idade. A díade foi filmada em casa enquanto realizava atividades de rotina. Nas idades de 9 a 12 meses, uma vez ao mês a mãe foi solicitada a brincar com seu bebê em situação estruturada. Os vídeos foram analisados qualitativa e quantitativamente em termos da percentagem de ocorrência de categorias de gestos comunicativos de ambos os parceiros e de seus comportamentos. Cenários comunicativos foram identificados. O aparecimento de diferentes comportamentos e suas trajetórias de desenvolvimento foram registrados. As possíveis relações com o surgimento posterior de gestos foram discutidas, analisando comportamentos que se tornaram ou não precursores e o modo como eles tenderam a apresentar mudanças com o tempo. Alguns resultados interessantes foram observados: pré-apontar foi identificado desde os primeiros meses e apresentou declínio de ocorrência. Pré-alcançar foi identificado aos 5 meses de idade e declinou no mesmo período em que foi observado o aparecimento do gesto de alcançar, o qual tendeu a aumentar com o tempo. Virar a cabeça enquanto rejeição foi observado aos 4 meses. Conforme o bebê foi se tornando mais velho, ele passou mais tempo engajado com sua mãe e com objetos de forma coordenada. Desde o início do primeiro ano, a mãe exibiu gestos de mostrar objetos e apontar proximal declarativo. Comportamentos de atenção conjunta foram observados e tenderam a aumentar no período de 9 a 12 meses de idade. Gestos proximais e declarativos realizados pelo bebê ocorreram mais precocemente se comparados a gestos imperativos e distais. As transições observadas a partir dos cenários comunicativos não compartilhados rumo aos de natureza simbólica foram identificadas. Percentagens de tempo de cenários comunicativos não-compartilhados e atencionais primários diminuíram enquanto as de cenários atencionais secundários aumentaram, tornando-se predominantes no final do primeiro ano. Neste período, cenários convencionais e simbólicos surgiram, apresentando breve duração. Embora estes resultados não sejam conclusivos, podem contribuir para a compreensão das primeiras modalidades de comunicação mãe-bebê, ajudando a fornecer suportes para a discussão sobre a existência de precursores gestuais precoces.
Even before children begin to speak, they gesture like pointing, showing and giving gestures to communicate themselves. The beginnings of gestural communication can be seen very early in human infancy, but its still unclear how this developmental progression occurs. The present study investigates the role and the features of early gestural development in the first year of life. One baby boy and his mother were observed longitudinally and extensively every week from birth to 12 months of age. The dyad was video-recorded at home while performing routine activities. In addition, from infant age 9 through 12 months, at once a month, the mother was asked to play with her baby in a structured situation. The videotapes were analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively in terms of the percentage of occurrence of specific categories of dyads communicative gestures and general behaviors. Mother-child communication frames were identified. The appearance of different behaviors and their developmental trajectories were registered. The possible links with the emergence of gestures were discussed, examining which infant behaviors became precursors of gestures and how did they change with age. Some interesting results were found: pre-pointing was identified since the first months of life and tended to decrease. Pre-reaching was identified at 5 months of age and decreased as soon as reaching appeared for the first time and tended to increase. Turning head away as rejection was observed at 4 months of age. As the baby became older, he spent more time engaged with his mother and objects in a coordinated joint attentional state, especially after 9 months of age. Early in the first year, the mother exhibited specific declarative and proximal gestures like showing and pointing. Occurrences of joint attention behaviors such as giving, showing, pointing, offering and point following were observed for both dyad members and tended to increase from 9 to 12 months of age. Infant proximal and declarative gestures tended to occur earlier than imperative and distal gestures. The transitions from non-shared to symbolic mother-child communication frames were identified. The percentage of time of non-shared and primary attentional frames decreased while the percentage of secondary attentional frames increased, becoming predominant at the end of the first year. At this period, conventional and symbolic frames emerged and showed brief durations. Although these findings are not conclusive, they may contribute to a better understanding for the first modalities of mother-infant communication and helps to provide some support to the discussion about the precursors existence of early gestures.

Comprehensive management in the neonatal nursery involves medical treatment of the infant, as well as developmental care and the provision of guidance, counselling and information to the family who are part of the decision-making process regarding the infant’s care. Neonatal communication intervention is of utmost importance in a country such as South Africa, which has an increased prevalence of infants at risk for disabilities and where the majority of these infants live in poverty. Speech-language therapists fulfil an important role in the neonatal nursery and are an integral part of the team involved with the high risk neonatal population. Local literature showed a dearth of information on the current service delivery and roles of speech-language therapists and audiologists in neonatal nurseries in the South African context. From an asset-based perspective it appears that the South African population receiving services in neonatal nurseries have unique characteristics. This provides speech-language therapists with ample opportunity to intervene, providing that intervention is well-timed in the neonatal nursery context. The country-wide initiative to implement the evidence-based technique of kangaroo mother care indicates that speech-language therapists should recognise its importance and develop communication based materials and tools to complement this successful neonatal intervention. The aim of the research was to establish whether speech-language therapists have needs for assessment and intervention tools/materials in this context. The study furthermore aimed to compile a locally relevant neonatal communication intervention instrument/tool for use by speech-language therapists in the neonatal nurseries of public hospitals in South Africa in order to propose a solution to address the shortage of tools in the public health context. The study entailed descriptive, exploratory research. During Phase 1, a survey was received back from 39 speech-language therapists and two audiologists in six provinces. The data revealed that participants performed different roles in neonatal nurseries, which were determined by the environment, tools, materials and instrumentation available to them. Many participants were inexperienced, but were resourceful in their attempts to develop and adapt tools/materials. Participants expressed a need for culturally appropriate and user-friendly instruments for parent guidance and staff/team training on the topic of developmental care. During Phase 2 a tool for parent guidance titled “Neonatal communication intervention programme for parents” was compiled for use by speech-language therapists and justified by participants’ roles and needs as well as current early communication intervention (ECI) literature. The programme was piloted by three participants. Certain suggestions for enhancements of the programme were made such as providing a glossary of terms, adapting the programme’s language and terminology, and providing more illustrations. The programme complied with the guiding principles for best practice in ECI (ASHA, 2008) and can therefore contribute to neonatal care of high risk infants in South Africa. Speech-language therapists and audiologists must contribute to neonatal care of high risk infants to facilitate optimal health and development and to support their families. AFRIKAANS : Omvattende intervensie in die neonatale sorgeenheid behels mediese behandeling van die neonaat, sowel as ontwikkelingstoepaslike sorg en die verskaffing van leiding, berading en inligting aan die gesin wat deel is van die besluitnemingsproses rakende die baba se sorg. Neonatale kommunikasie intervensie is van uiterste belang in Suid-Afrika aangesien daar ‘n hoër prevalensie van babas is wat ‘n risiko het vir ontwikkelingsafwykings en aangesien die meerderheid van hierdie babas in armoede leef. Spraak-taalterapeute vervul ‘n belangrike rol in die neonatale sorgeenheid en is ‘n integrale deel van die span wat betrokke is by die hoërisiko neonatale populasie. Plaaslike literatuur dui op ‘n tekort aan inligting rakende die huidige dienslewering van die spraak-taalterapeut en oudioloog in neonatale sorgeenhede in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks. Vanuit ‘n bate-benadering kom dit voor of die Suid-Afrikaanse populasie wat dienste in neonatale sorgeenhede ontvang, unieke eienskappe het. Dit bied genoegsame geleenthede aan spraak-taalterapeute om intervensie te verskaf, solank die behandeling betyds in die neonatale sorgeenheid konteks aanvang neem. Daar is ‘n landswye inisiatief om die bewysgerigte tegniek van kangeroe moedersorg toe te pas. Spraak-taalterapeute moet dus die belang daarvan herken en kommunikasie gebasseerde terapiemateriaal ontwikkel om hierdie suksesvolle neonatale intervensie te komplementeer. Die navorsing se doel was om vas te stel hoe wyd spraak-taalterapeute en oudioloe ‘n behoefte aan evaluasie en intervensie instrumente en –materiaal in hierdie konteks het. Die navorsing het verder ten doel gestel om ‘n relevante terapie instrument saam te stel vir spraak-taalterapeute in die neonatale sorgeenhede as ‘n moontlike oplossing vir die tekort aan relevante terapiemateriaal in die plaaslike publieke gesondheidsorgkonteks. Die studie het beskrywende, eksplorerende navorsing behels. Gedurende Fase 1 is ‘n vraelys terug ontvang van 39 spraak-taalterapeute en twee oudioloë in ses provinsies. Die data het aangedui dat deelnemers verskillende rolle in hierdie konteks vervul, wat beïnvloed was deur die omgewing, die instrumentasie en materiaal wat tot hulle beskikking was. Die meerderheid van die deelnemers was onervare, maar was vindingryk in hulle pogings om terapiemateriaal aan te pas en te ontwikkel. Deelnemers het ‘n behoefte vir kultureel toepaslike- en gebruikersvriendelike instrumente en materiaal uitgedruk met die oog op ouerleiding en personeel/span opleiding oor die onderwerp van ontwikkelingstoepaslike sorg. Gedurende Fase 2 is ‘n terapie instrument naamlik “Neonatale kommunikasie intervensie program vir ouers” saamgestel vir die gebruik in die neonatale sorgeenhede deur spraak-taalterapeute. Die samestelling van hierdie program is verantwoord deur die deelnemers se rolbeskrywing en behoeftebepaling van Fase 1, sowel as deur huidige vroeë kommunikasie intervensie (VKI) literatuur. Die program is deur drie deelnemers in ‘n loodsstudie geëvalueer. Voorstelle vir die verbetering van die program is verskaf, naamlik die byvoeging van ‘n terminologielys, aanpassing van die program se taalgebruik en terminologie en verskaffing van meer illustrasies. Die program het ooreengestem met die beginsels vir beste praktyk in VKI (ASHA, 2008) en kan daarom tot neonatale sorg van hoërisikobabas in Suid-Afrika bydra. Spraak-taalterapeute en oudioloë moet bydra tot neonatale sorg van hoërisiko neonate om sodoende optimale gesondheidsorg en ontwikkeling te fasiliteer en gesinne te ondersteun. Copyright
Dissertation (MCommunication Pathology)--University of Pretoria, 2010.
Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology
unrestricted

Postpartum depression is a serious psychiatric condition that has deleterious effects on the mother and poses a risk for the mother-infant relationship and ultimately the infant’s development. Maternal anhedonia and social communication deficits are two major clinical features central to postpartum depression that likely contribute to deficits in parenting. The present study used Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) mother rats, an animal model of depression which we have developed to examine the postpartum disorder, to investigate the relationship between maternal anhedonia, social communication deficits and parenting disturbances. Rats produce ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) in different social contexts, and USVs are becoming an increasingly valuable assay for behavioral phenotyping. Alterations of the ultrasound patterns have been reported in several models of neuropsychiatric disorders, including those associated with communicative/social deficits, and can also provide reliable insight into the affective state of the mother rat during social interactions with her litter. In the first study, WKY and control Sprague-Dawley (SD) postpartum females were examined for their affective responses to social cues from pups, as measured by their ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) during a 30-minute maternal behavior test following 20 minutes of mother-litter separation. Total number of calls, acoustic frequency and duration of calls, and individual USV profiles were analyzed in conjunction with maternal behavior. Both WKY and SD mothers predominantly produced ~50 kHz USVs when interacting with the pups in the maternal behavior test. WKY mothers emitted more trill-type USVs as is compared with SD mothers. Similarly, WKY mothers exhibited substantial disturbances in theirmaternal behavior. A second experiment evaluated the therapeutic efficacy of adenosine A2A receptor antagonism as a novel treatment strategy for postpartum depression. Emerging evidence indicates that the neuromodulator adenosine, particularly through actions on adenosine A2A receptors, modulates behavioral functions associated with the mesocorticolimbic DA system, including cognitive and motivational processes. Results indicate that acute MSX-3 administration did not attenuate the parenting disturbances of WKY or affect the USV emissions of either strain. Taken together, these results provide evidence for the presence of maternal USVs during motherlitter interactions, and further suggest that variations in USVs produced by mothers during social interaction with their pups may function as an index of their affect. Rat USVs may be used to study the neurobiological mechanisms underlying maternal affect in animal models of postpartum disorders.

Questa tesi di Dottorato illustra tre studi empirici che sono stati realizzati per approfondire lo studio di aspetti universali e delle specificità culturali nelle prime forme di comunicazione madre-lattante durante i primi tre mesi di vita, cioè prima, durante e dopo la transizione del secondo mese segnata dalla comparsa del sorriso sociale. Gli studi sono basati sul modello teorico ecoculturale dello sviluppo, secondo cui in contesti specifici il modello culturale dominante influenza le strategie di parenting (obiettivi di socializzazione, etnoteorie e comportamenti) e lo sviluppo del bambino, ed hanno utilizzato un approccio multi-metodo con una combinazione di metodologie quantitative e qualitative. Il livello rappresentazionale delle strategie di parenting, cioè gli obiettivi di socializzazione e le etnoteorie, sono stati esplorati in madri Italiane di classe media e in madri immigrate dell’Africa Occidentale quando i lattanti avevano 3 mesi. Le madri Italiane hanno enfatizzato obiettivi di socializzazione relativi all’autonomia psicologica, mentre le madri immigrate hanno enfatizzato obiettivi relativi all’interrelazione gerarchica. Riguardo alle etnoteorie di stimolazione fisica, entrambi i gruppi di madri hanno fatto riferimento al focus sulle emozioni positive, sebbene le madri immigrate abbiano sottolineato anche l’importanza della stimolazione fisica di tipo motorio. I comportamenti di madre e lattante sono stati esaminati durante l’interazione spontanea nel corso del primo trimestre di vita in tre gruppi di diadi: diadi Camerunesi autoctone, diadi Italiane di classe media e madri immigrate dall’Africa Occidentale e i loro lattanti che vivono in Italia. I due gruppi di madri autoctoni hanno mostrato lo stile di parenting (prossimale vs. distale) che è adattivo nei due rispettivi contesti ecoculturali prototipici (comunità rurali vs. famiglie di classe media), mentre le madri immigrate dall’Africa Occidentale hanno mostrato elementi di cambiamento interessanti, indicativi del processo di acculturazione. I pattern di comportamento madre-lattante erano organizzati in sistemi di parenting differenti secondo il gruppo culturale: comunicazione faccia-a-faccia e stimolazione con oggetto per le diadi Italiane, stimolazione motoria per le diadi Camerunesi, stimolazione motoria e comunicazione faccia-a-faccia per le diadi immigrate. Sebbene in tutti e tre i gruppi i lattanti mostrino comportamenti comunicativi legati alla transizione del secondo mese, questi comportamenti agiscono come feedback positivo solo nelle madri Italiane e nelle madri immigrate, che rispondono ai lattanti con un incremento di comunicazione faccia-a-faccia.
This dissertation presents three empirical studies that have been carried out to deepen the investigation of both universal and cultural aspects in early forms of mother-infant communication across the first trimester of life, i.e., before, during, and after the 2-month transition indexed by the onset of social smiling. The studies are based on the ecocultural theoretical model of development, which claims that in specific contexts the prevalent cultural model informs parenting strategies (socialization goals, ethnotheories and behaviors) and child development, and they involved a mixed-method approach with a combination of quantitative and qualitative methodologies. The representative level of parenting strategies, i.e., socialization goals and ethnotheories, has been investigated in Italian middle class-mothers and West African immigrant mothers when infants were 3 months old. Italian mothers emphasized socialization goals related to psychological autonomy, while West African mothers emphasized socialization goals related to hierarchical relatedness. Immigrant mothers resembled Italian mothers in their ethnotheories of body stimulation concerning the focus on positive emotionality, although they underlined the importance of motor stimulation. Maternal and infant behaviors have been examined during the spontaneous interaction across the first trimester of life in three groups of dyads: Cameroonian autochthonous dyads, Italian middle-class dyads and West African immigrant mothers and their babies living in Italy. The two autochthonous groups of mothers showed the parenting behavioral style (proximal vs. distal) which is adaptive for the two prototypical ecocultural contexts (rural communities vs. middle-class families), while West African immigrant mothers showed interesting elements of change, indicative of the acculturation process. Mother-infant behavioral patterns were organized in different parenting systems according to the cultural group: face-to-face communication and object stimulation for the Italian dyads, motor stimulation for the Cameroonian dyads, both motor stimulation and face-to-face communication for the West African immigrant dyads. Although in all three groups infants showed communicative behaviors related to the second-month transition, these behaviors acted as positive feedback only for Italian and immigrant mothers, who replied to infants with an increase in face-to-face communication.

In this paper, Winnicott proposes that at the centre of each individual is an area not to be exploited or invaded in analysis and in ordinary life. He writes that there is a right not to communicate alongside the fundamental need to do so, which Winnicott links to the fantasy of being found. The individual is an isolate who can engage in object relations so long as he cannot be fully ‘found’. Winnicott bases this proposition on the illusion of the early infant, that out of helpless dependence he has ‘created’ the actual mother/object. This early engagement with reality is as valid as all explicit communication and may be the source of artistic and cultural creativity. He detects in the artist the co-existence of the need to communicate and the need not to be found. Clinical examples illustrate his thesis.