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Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Diplomatic and consular service – France »

Auteur : Grafiati
Publié le 10 mars 2023

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Articles de revues sur le sujet "Diplomatic and consular service – France"

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Kolpakov, A., et A. Bobrov. « The Intake of Young Diplomats as an Instrument of the Russian MFA Renewal ». World Economy and International Relations 66, no 4 (2022) : 111–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/0131-2227-2022-66-4-111-118.

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As opposed to the overwhelming majority of researches within the so called “Diplomatic studies” that focus on an institutional design of external services (which appears to be “the form” of diplomacy per se), this article deals with “the substance” of the matter in question, paying special attention to the means and ways of educating and integrating young diplomats into the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia. Unlike the State Department (the USA), Foreign Commonwealth and Development Office (FCDO, the UK), le Quais d’Orsay (the MFA of France) or Das Auswärtige Amt (the MFA of Germany), that are influenced by the so-called “political appointees”, the Russian diplomatic service is renowned for its “career diplomats”, who generation after generation are recruited into the Ministry to form (by means of different vertical and horizontal ties) a close-knit team that promotes the country’s national interests on the world stage. Thus, the authors explore the process of renewal of the Russian diplomatic service, whereby young diplomats are being purposefully groomed in several national Universities (namely, MGIMO-University or Diplomatic Academy) to subsequently rise through the ranks of the Ministry by taking disparate career trajectories (for example, depending on or, conversely, irrespective of the foreign languages they acquired), occupying different job families (desk work, protocol, interpretation, consular service, public relations, etc.), taking part in a diplomatic rotation that will bring them to various home (in Headquarters) and overseas (Embassies, Permanent Missions and Consulate- Generals) postings and acquiring new ranks as a prerequisite to promotion from junior to senior positions. As a result, Russia’s diplomatic service has come to be seen as a full-fledged system, the key to understanding of which lies not in depicting the existing institutional framework (which appears to be the focus of the overwhelming majority of works on the matter), but in scrutinizing main recruitment principles and the MFA’s personnel policy, thoroughly analyzed in this article.
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Freund, Lawrence S. « New Jersey’s Barbary Diplomat (Part 2 of 2) ». New Jersey Studies : An Interdisciplinary Journal 9, no 1 (25 janvier 2023) : 1–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.14713/njs.v9i1.307.

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In 1816, Charles Davenport Coxe, anxious to leave his New Jersey home and return to his diplomatic career, sought a consular appointment to France with the support of his former superior in North Africa, Tobias Lear, who praised Coxe’s arduous service in Tunis at a time when the United States had no warships in the Mediterranean to protect its commerce. However, Coxe’s application was not successful nor was his later bid to return to the Marine Corps as its commandant. Finally, in 1824, Coxe’s efforts were rewarded with an appointment as consul at Tunis. The following year, he was transferred to another North African capital, Tripoli, where he became awkwardly entangled in the local fallout of big-power rivalries and Tripolitan politics. Coxe died in Tripoli in 1830, his legacy one of involvement in two of his country’s most challenging and distant outposts as it began to emerge on the world stage.
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Domaniczky, Endre. « Possible Ways for Development of the Consular Service in the South Pacific ». Acta Universitatis Sapientiae Legal Studies 9, no 1 (2 décembre 2020) : 25–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.47745/ausleg.2020.9.1.02.

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The author presents the specifi c elements of diplomatic and consular work in the South Pacifi c region from the perspective of a career diplomat. He shows the main geographical and political characteristics of Australia which infl uence consular activity and also the characteristics of the benefi ciaries of consular services who need to be served by the consular infrastructure. The study presents several models for undertaking Hungarian consular work and for organizing the Hungarian consular network in Australia. The author also outlines current inconsistencies in the regulations applicable to consular activity in Australia under domestic, international, and Hungarian norms as well as functional issues and the possible ways to correct them. In his conclusions, the author formulates proposals for the redesign of consular organization in Australia.
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Szabó, Mátyás. « Die juristische Bildung an der k.u.k. Konsularakademie, mit Fokus auf die staatsrechtlichen Studien ». PRÁVNĚHISTORICKÉ STUDIE 52, no 1 (5 avril 2022) : 53–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.14712/2464689x.2022.4.

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The institutional predecessors of the recent Diplomatic Academy in Vienna took a significant impact on the civil service of the Habsburg Monarchy. The Oriental Academy was founded by empress Maria Theresia in 1754 to train dragomans for the eastern relations. The Academy stood under Jesuit influence and became a secular institution in the middle of the 19th century. By this time the political and legal studies had been dominated on behalf of human and natural sciences and the Academy had been turning to a special institution for training professionals for the foreign service (central service, diplomatic service, consular service). In 1898 the Oriental Academy was transformed into the Imperial and Royal Consular-Academy by Minister Gołuchowski. This reform affected the educational structure as well and the institution focused on the consular branch. The quota of political and economical courses increased as a reflection to the intensive global trade, but on the other hand Austrian and Hungarian Constitutional Law were also set in the new educational system due to the public legal transformation of the Monarchy in 1867 (Austro-Hungarian Compromise). This study aims to present the brief institutional history of the Oriental and Consular Academy and the way the educational system of the Academy had evolved. At last, it is going to be observed to what extent constitutional legal studies were represented in the courses of the institution and how they interpreted the disputed legal nature of the dualistic Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.
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Klynina, Tetiana. « Rogers Act 1924 : establishment of a professional USA Foreign Service ». American History & ; Politics Scientific edition, no 10 (2020) : 35–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.17721/2521-1706.2020.10.3.

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The article is devoted to the analysis of the formation of the legal framework that made possible the existence and functioning of the US foreign service. The purpose of the article is to clarify the preface and the course of formation of the professional foreign service of the United States, which was reflected in the adoption of the Rogers Act. The methodological basis of the study. The study was based on the principle of historicism, which contributed to the consideration of the phenomenon under study in its development and made it possible to identify periods in the formation of a professional diplomatic service. The use of the problem-chronological method contributed to the preservation of the historical heredity and integrity of the picture; the application of the comparative method made it possible to identify significant changes that occurred after the adoption of Rogers’ Law, which was considered through the use of the method of analysis. A historiographical description of the main scientific works devoted to the research topic is given. Analyzed works A. Evans, T. Lay, I. Stewart etc., which became the basis for the study. The scientific novelty lies in the systematization of ideas about qualitative and quantitative changes in the diplomatic service after the adoption of the relevant law. The author concludes that before the adoption of the Rogers Act there was no control over the selection of diplomatic and consular staff and the negative consequences of such a decision were especially evident during the First World War. Therefore, the historical conditions in which America found itself at that time became a challenge for the continued existence of the consular and diplomatic services, and therefore the issue of restructuring and modernization of these services in the United States and its transfer to another, qualitatively new level. In general, the author emphasizes the change in the status of foreign service, which was introduced by relevant legislation, namely the Rogers Act, the need for which was caused by certain historical conditions of the American state and its place on the world stage. Prior to the enactment of the Diplomatic Service Act, there was virtually no control over the selection of diplomatic and consular personnel representing the United States on the world stage. After the First World War, it became clear that the diplomatic service needed to be restructured. That is why Rogers’ law was passed, which, in fact, was the first legislative attempt to resolve this issue.
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Collet, Steven. « Modernizing the Dutch Diplomatic Service : A Work in Progress ». Hague Journal of Diplomacy 10, no 4 (23 octobre 2015) : 440–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/1871191x-12341324.

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A small country with a big international footprint, the Netherlands depends on the world around it for its future security, prosperity and well-being. Its wide diplomatic network is managed by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, which is responsible for policy in the areas of foreign relations and trade, European cooperation, development cooperation and consular services provided to Dutch nationals abroad. Responsibility for foreign trade was added to the ministry’s core tasks when the present Dutch government was formed in 2012. This article looks at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ major programme of reforms and spending cuts—‘Modernizing the Diplomatic Service’—which was started three years ago to ensure that the diplomatic service remains well placed to fulfil its roles. The article discusses the rationale behind the programme, the approach taken, and discusses the reforms that have been introduced and the lessons learned. Finally, the article considers elements for future reform.
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Czubik, Paweł. « Scope of the immunity of the honorary consul in the light of some bilateral consular conventions (case study) ». Problems of Economics and Law 3, no 2 (22 octobre 2019) : 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0013.7213.

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The article is regarding issues of the scope of the immunity of the honorary consul in the treaty particular situation, when the double-sided consular convention being in force between the sending but assuming state isn't distinguishing between professional but honorable consular officers, at the simultaneous sweep the immunity of the consul. In such a situation a fundamental problem is arising - how to treat the honourable consular officer sending you under the immunity account. Theoretically the host country has two possibilities. He can acknowledge that the silence of the bilateral convention on separating the honorable consular service means that the bilateral convention under the immunity account refers only to professional consuls. He/she will be marking it, that honorary consuls will be treated according to standards of the Vienna Convention on consular relationships from 1963 He can however accept, that sometimes very strong jurisdictional immunity guaranteed by the bilateral convention (answering as for of one's scope for diplomatic immunity) will concern both consular categories in the identical scope. Presenting arguments starting to speak is a purpose of the present text too both with interpretations without ultimate determining the correctness one or of second interpretation of norms.
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Freund, Lawrence S. « New Jersey’s Barbary Diplomat (Part 1 of 2) ». New Jersey Studies : An Interdisciplinary Journal 8, no 2 (21 juillet 2022) : 1–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.14713/njs.v8i2.284.

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Charles Davenport Coxe, the descendant of a prominent New Jersey family, likely inspired by the exploits of a small detachment of U.S. Marines in the spring of 1805 in Libya, accepted a commission as a second lieutenant in the Corps that fall, leading to an unanticipated (but coveted) diplomatic career. A few years earlier, Coxe had lobbied for consular appointments in France. Now, arriving aboard a U.S. warship in Tunis harbor, he found himself ordered ashore by his ship’s commander to replace the late American chargé d’affaires. While exploiting the commercial opportunities of his consular post, Coxe also became directly involved in the politics of the region, notably the seizure of American ships by both the Barbary regencies as well as European powers. In 1810, he exercised considerable diplomatic skill in avoiding a clash between Tunis and the United States over the contested ownership of a commercial vessel. Coxe departed Tunis in 1815, returning to the United States and the family home in New Jersey, although not without hope of reclaiming one of his former positions. That story, however, will unfold in part two of this piece, in the Winter 2023 issue of NJ Studies.
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Csatlós, Erzsébet. « Consular cooperation in third states : Some aspects concerning europanisation of foreign service for EU citizens ». Bratislava Law Review 1, no 1 (1 octobre 2017) : 71–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.46282/blr.2017.1.1.57.

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The EU does not aim to harmonize the public administration of Member States, although, in recent years, there have been several examples which prove that EU legislation in whatever policy inevitably and unavoidably results in some standardization. In 2015 the EU replaced its former decision with a directive to enhance Member States to co-ordinate consular assistance in third States. Every EU citizen has the right to enjoy, in the territory of a third State in which the Member State of which they are nationals is not represented, the protection of the diplomatic and consular authorities of any Member State on the same conditions as the nationals of that State. This provision of Article 23 of TFEU not solely requires the cooperation of administrative authorities of foreign service but implicitly means a kind of harmonization of substantive law, leads to organizational changes and affects administrative procedural rules of Member States.
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Seheda, Olha, et Volodymyr Smolianiuk. « Modern Processes of Digitalization in Diplomatic Service of Ukraine and Kuwait ». Історико-політичні проблеми сучасного світу, no 44 (15 décembre 2021) : 77–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.31861/mhpi2021.44.77-88.

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The paper provides an overview of the current digital diplomacy (DD) practices being implemented by the Ministries of Foreign Affairs (MFA) of Ukraine and Kuwait. Given the fact that digital diplomacy is becoming an integral part of the foreign policy in numerous countries, it appears reasonable to analyze the latest experience of Ukraine and Kuwait which represent a fast implementation of digital instruments in their diplomatic practices. Both states are considered as long-time partners which enjoy a fruitful experience of mutual cooperation and have certain peculiarities in the use of digital diplomacy. At the same time, high technologies transform the traditional diplomacy, dramatically increasing the digital impact on the practice and priorities of international relations. Such challenges as digital diplomatic management, targeting of widening key audiences and increasing transparency of diplomatic actions have already become a new reality for modern diplomats. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to clarify the goals, tool-kit and challenges of digital diplomacy of Ukraine and Kuwait. The paper also presents a comparative analysis of existing positive practices of Ukraine and Kuwait in digital diplomacy. This research made it possible to trace the key areas of the digitalization processes in the diplomatic services of Ukraine and Kuwait including consular online services, digitalization of diplomats’ training, the use of digital instruments in the routine diplomatic procedures etc. The author elaborated a comparative table outlining the similarities and differences of digital diplomacy of the mentioned countries. The study confirms that digital diplomacy can be helpful in a range of issues, from internal communication between government bodies to security challenges (e.g. countering information threats and disinformation in the online network). Thus, the coordinated and comprehensive digitalization of diplomatic practice is no longer a subject of discussions on feasibility but a priority on the diplomatic agendas.
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Thèses sur le sujet "Diplomatic and consular service – France"

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余忠傑 et Chung-kit Yu. « The establishment and development of the embassy system in late Qing dynasty ». Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 2009. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B42925708.

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Yu, Chung-kit. « The establishment and development of the embassy system in late Qing dynasty Qing mo zhu wai shi jie zhi du de she li he fa zhan / ». Click to view the E-thesis via HKUTO, 2009. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record/B42925708.

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Spies, Yolanda Kemp. « Meeting the challenge of developing world diplomacy in the 21st century : an assessment of perspectives on contemporary diplomatic training ». Pretoria : [s.n.], 2005. http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-08102006-134244/.

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Falcke, Jeannette. « Studien zum diplomatischen Geschenkwesen am brandenburgisch-preußischen Hof im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert / ». Berlin : Duncker & ; Humblot, 2006. http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/fy0701/2006402928.html.

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Varlan, Olivier. « Armand-Louis de Caulaincourt, duc de Vicenze (1773-1827). Étude d’une carrière diplomatique sous le Premier Empire, de la cour de Napoléon au ministère des Relations extérieures ». Thesis, Paris 4, 2013. http://www.theses.fr/2013PA040252.

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Officier de cavalerie originaire de la noblesse picarde, Armand de Caulaincourt (1773-1827) gravit rapidement tous les échelons de la cour consulaire puis impériale, devenant en 1804 grand-écuyer de l’Empire. Mais, malgré l’importance de ses fonctions curiales, Napoléon le destine à une carrière de diplomate. Après différentes missions, il le nomme ambassadeur de France en Russie, à la fin de l’année 1807. Fervent partisan de l’alliance de Tilsit, Caulaincourt participe à toutes les grandes négociations franco-russes mais doit assister à la lente dégradation des relations entre les deux empires. À son retour à Paris en 1811, son bilan politique est maigre. Sa défense opiniâtre du tsar Alexandre, mais surtout son opposition à la campagne militaire qui se prépare, irritent Napoléon. Elles lui permettent toutefois d’acquérir une nouvelle stature après le désastre de Russie : pour ses contemporains Caulaincourt devient l’« homme de la paix ». Une image que Napoléon réutilise lorsqu’il le charge de le représenter aux congrès de Prague (1813) et de Châtillon (1814). Le duc de Vicence, devenu ministre des Relations extérieures, ne parvient pas à faire accepter la paix ; il lui faut finalement négocier l’abdication de Napoléon et renoncer, après les Cent-Jours, à toute carrière politique. Cette étude, qui s’appuie sur les archives personnelles de Caulaincourt et ses célèbres Mémoires, entend redonner toute son importance à cette figure majeure du Premier Empire, en insistant sur son action et sa pensée dans le domaine de la diplomatie. L’exemple de ce parcours devant permettre de contribuer à reconsidérer et réévaluer le rôle du personnel diplomatique napoléonien
A cavalry officer born into Picardy's landed gentry, Armand de Caulaincourt rose rapidly through the ranks of the consular, and later the imperial court, to become in 1804 Grand Squire of the Empire. However, notwithstanding the importance of his curial functions, Napoleon destined him to a diplomatic career. After several missions, he was appointed as Ambassador of France to Russia (1807). Caulaincourt took part in all the major negotiations between France and Russia, but was forced to witness a slow breakdown in relations between the two Empires. At the time of his return to Paris in 1811, his political accomplishments were unimpressive. His stalwart defense of Tsar Alexander, and especially his opposition to the upcoming military campaign, were an irritation to Napoleon. Nevertheless, these stances allowed him to gain new stature after the disaster in Russia : in the eyes of his contemporaries, he became the “Peacemaker”, an image Napoleon used to his advantage by appointing him his representative at the congresses in Prague (1813) and in Châtillon (1814). The Duke of Vicenza, now Minister for Foreign Affairs, could not, however, broker an agreement in favour of peace : he was forced to negotiate Napoleon's abdication and to give up any hope of political career after the Hundred Days. This study, based on Caulaincourt's personal records and famous Memoirs, aims at restoring a major figure of the First French Empire to his due importance, while focusing on his action and thought in the field of diplomacy. The exemplary value of his career should also allow historians to reconsider and reevaluate the role of Napoleon's diplomatic personnel
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Jestin, Mathieu. « Le consulat de France à Salonique 1781-1913 ». Thesis, Paris 1, 2014. http://www.theses.fr/2014PA010629/document.

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À l’issue des deux guerres balkaniques, en décembre 1913, les consuls de Salonique reçoivent des mains du gouvernement hellène une circulaire annonçant la suppression des capitulations. S’achève alors l’histoire du consulat de France en Macédoine ottomane, commencée en 1686. Cette région de l’Empire ottoman, quasiment inconnue du grand public européen avant les événements du tournant des XIXe et XXe siècles, est pourtant emblématique du déploiement de la diplomatie consulaire française au cours du long du XIXe siècle. Malgré sa réorganisation théorique par l’ordonnance de 1781, le consulat de Salonique demeure longtemps à la marge de la machine diplomatique française avant de s’y intégrer progressivement. Les réalités locales conditionnent en effet autant, si ce n’est davantage, le quotidien de la gestion du poste, confrontant les consuls à l’expérience de l’altérité
In December 1913, just after the two Balkan wars, the Hellenic Governor of Salonica communicate to all the consuls a circular announcing the abolition of the capitulations, ending the story of the French consulate in Ottoman Macedonia, started in 1686. Even if this region of the Ottoman Empire is mostly unknown in Europe before the events of the beginning of the 20th century, the case of the French Consulate in Salonica is emblematic of the deployment of the French consular diplomacy during the long nineteenth century. Despite its theoretical reorganization in 1781, the consulate of Salonica long remained at the margin of the French diplomatic machine before gradually become integrated. Much more than the diplomatic level, local realities precondition the daily running of the office, confronting the consuls to the common experience of otherness
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Ito, Hikoko. « The Japanese Consulate and the Japanese Cultural Centre ». Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong, 1996. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B25951610.

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Thesis (M. Arch.)--University of Hong Kong, 1996.
Added title page title: Japanese cultural centre in Hong Kong. Includes special report study entitled: Semiotic meaning of Mezirushi in architecture. Includes bibliographical references.
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Haehl, Madeleine. « Les affaires étrangères au temps de Richelieu : le secrétariat d'État, les agents diplomatiques, 1624-1642 / ». Paris : Bruxelles ; Bern ; Berlin [etc.] : Direction des Archives, Ministère des affaires étrangères ; PIE-Peter Lang, 2006. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb401725406.

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Seccia, Giovanni. « La missione cattolica in Sudan vista e vissuta da protagonisti ed osservatori tirolesi, 1858-1862 / ». Roma : Missionari comboniani, 2001. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/53109847.html.

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Poure, Valérie. « L'officier de l'état civil en droit des personnes et de la famille ». Thesis, Strasbourg, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015STRAA021.

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L’officier de l’état civil est l’autorité désignée par la loi pour constater, enregistrer, conserver et exploiter, en la forme authentique, les actes constitutifs de l’individu et de la famille. Le maire, avec ses adjoints, est l’officier de l’état civil par excellence. En sa qualité de représentant de l’État à l’échelon communal, il assure l’administration d’un service accessible et proche des administrés. Le dédoublement fonctionnel qu’induit cette charge tend à satisfaire des besoins tant nationaux qu’individuels. À la fois organe exécutif de la commune et autorité publique déconcentrée, le maire est un acteur original en droit des personnes et de la famille qui lui vaut souvent d’être comparé à un notaire ou à un greffier. Si sa position hybride, à la frontière entre le droit privé et le droit public, présente un intérêt certain au regard des impératifs d’organisation sociale, elle n’en est pas moins perfectible
The Officer of Civil Status is the authority designated by law to observe, register, keepand exploit, in their authentic form, the constituting acts of individuals and families. The mayor, with his assistants, is the Officer of Civil Status par excellence. As a State's representative at municipal level, he ensures the administration of a service which is accessible and close to the citizens. The two-fold responsibility arising from this function tends to meet both State and individual needs. As an executive municipal body and a decentralized public authority, the mayor plays a unique role in the law of persons and the family law. Therefore, he is often compared to a notary or a registrar. On the borderline between private law and public law, his hybrid position which has a definite interest with regard to the requirements of social organisation, could nevertheless be improved
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Livres sur le sujet "Diplomatic and consular service – France"

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Bacqué-Grammont, Jean-Louis. Représentants permanents de la France en Turquie (1536-1991) et de la Turquie en France (1797-1991). Istanbul : Editions Isis, 1991.

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Billecocq, Xavier Beguin. Un Consul de France à Mascate en 1905 = : A French consul in Muscat in 1905. Paris : [s.n.], 1991.

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Les diplomates : Derrière la façade des ambassades de France. [Paris] : Nouveau Monde, 2010.

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Les diplomates : Derrière la façade des ambassades de France. Paris : Nouveau Monde Éditions, 2011.

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Center for Ottoman Diplomatic History, dir. Ambassadeurs de France morts à Constantinople. Istanbul : Les Éditions Isis, 2011.

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Couleurs : Mémoires d'un ambassadeur de France en Afrique. Saint-Malo : Galodé, 2012.

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Falgas, Geneviève. Le consulat de France à Tunis aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles : Vie quotidienne. Paris : L'Harmattan, 2014.

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East encounters West : France and the Ottoman Empire in the eighteenth century. New York : Oxford University Press, 1987.

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Radio-France internationale. Centre de documentation., dir. Répertoire africain : Information et presse, ambassades Afrique/France, services et centres culturels français. Paris : Radio France internationale, Centre de documentation, 1985.

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Mézin, Anne. Les consuls de France au siècle des Lumières (1715-1792). [Paris] : Direction des archives et de la documentation, Ministère des affaires étrangères, 1997.

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Chapitres de livres sur le sujet "Diplomatic and consular service – France"

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« The ‘Pleasantest Post’ in the Service ? Contrasting British Diplomatic and Consular Experiences in Early Liberal Italy ». Dans Exiles, Emigrés and Intermediaries, 141–57. Brill | Rodopi, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789042030695_009.

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Kornicki, Peter. « HMS Pembroke V, Alias Station X, Alias Bletchley Park ». Dans Eavesdropping on the Emperor, 71–98. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197602805.003.0004.

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Bletchley Park absorbed most of the graduates of the Bedford Japanese School but could never get enough Japanese linguists. Consequently, the Naval Section and the Air Section began running their own Japanese courses within Bletchley Park: after the elimination of Italy from the war, Italian linguists working at Bletchley Park were given crash courses in naval Japanese by John Lloyd, who had worked for the British consular service in Japan. It was at Bletchley Park that the dispatches of the Japanese ambassador in Berlin, General Ōshima Hiroshi, were deciphered and translated. Ōshima was a personal friend of Hitler and was extremely well informed on Hitler’s intentions and was unaware that his extensive dispatches to Tokyo were being intercepted and read in London, thanks to the breaking of the Japanese diplomatic cypher machine by American codebreakers.
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Batey, Mavis. « Breaking machines with a pencil ». Dans The Turing Guide. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198747826.003.0019.

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Dilly Knox, the renowned First World War codebreaker, was the first to investigate the workings of the Enigma machine after it came on the market in 1925, and he developed hand methods for breaking Enigma. What he called ‘serendipity’ was truly a mixture of careful observation and inspired guesswork. This chapter describes the importance of the pre-war introduction to Enigma that Turing received from Knox. Turing worked with Knox during the pre-war months, and when war was declared he joined Knox’s Enigma Research Section at Bletchley Park. Once a stately home, Bletchley Park had become the war station of the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), of which the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) was part. Its head, Admiral Sir Hugh Sinclair, was responsible for both espionage (Humint) and the new signals intelligence (Sigint), but the latter soon became his priority. Winston Churchill was the first minister to realize the intelligence potential of breaking the enemy’s codes, and in November 1914 he had set up ‘Room 40’ right beside his Admiralty premises. By Bletchley Park’s standards, Room 40 was a small-scale codebreaking unit focusing mainly on naval and diplomatic messages. When France and Germany also set up cryptographic bureaux they staffed them with servicemen, but Churchill insisted on recruiting scholars with minds of their own—the so-called ‘professor types’. It was an excellent decision. Under the influence of Sir Alfred Ewing, an expert in wireless telegraphy and professor of engineering at Cambridge University, Ewing’s own college, King’s, became a happy hunting ground for ‘professor types’ during both world wars—including Dillwyn (Dilly) Knox (Fig. 11.1) in the first and Alan Turing in the second. Until the time of Turing’s arrival, mostly classicists and linguists were recruited. Knox himself had an international reputation for unravelling charred fragments of Greek papyri. Shortly after Enigma first came on the market in 1925, offering security to banks and businesses for their telegrams and cables, the GC&CS obtained two of the new machines, and some time later Knox studied one of these closely.
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