Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Descrete Mathematics »

This study establishes a framework for the practice and the acquisition of mathematical knowledge. The natures of mathematics and rituals/ritual-like activities are examined compared and contrasted. Using a four-fold typology of core features, surface features, content features and functions of mathematics it is established that the nature of mathematics, its practice and the acquisition is typologically similar to that of rituals/ ritual-like activities. The practice of mathematics and its acquisition can hence be metaphorically compared to that of rituals/ritual-like activities and be enriched by the latter. A case study was conducted using the ritual metaphor at two levels to introduce and teach a topic within the current year eleven West Australian Geometry and Trigonometry course. In the first level, instructional materials were written using a ritual-like mentor-exemplar, exposition, replicate and extrapolate model (through the use of specially organised examples and exercises) based on the approaches of several mathematics text book authors as they attempted to introduce a topic new to the West Australian mathematics curriculum.In the second level, the classroom instruction was organised using a ritual-like pattern with direct exemplar mentoring and exposition by the teacher followed by replication and extrapolation from the students. Embedded within this ritual-like process was the personal (and communal) engagement with each student vis-a-vis the establishment of the relationships between the referent concepts, procedures and skills. This resulted in the emergence of solution behaviours appropriate to specific tasks imitating and extrapolating the mentored solution behaviours of the teacher. In determining the extent to which the instruction, mentoring and acquisition was successful, each student's solution 'behaviour was compared "topographically" with the expected solution behaviour for the task at various critical points to determine the degree of congruence. Marks were allocated for congruence (or removed for incongruence), hence a percentage of congruence was established. The ritual-like model for the teaching and acquisition of mathematical knowledge required agreement with all stake-holders as to the purpose of the activity, expert knowledge on the part of the teacher, and within a classroom context requires students to possess similar levels of prerequisite mathematical knowledge.This agreement and the presence of an expert practitioner, provides the affirmation and security that is inherent in the practice of rituals. The study concluded that there is evidence to suggest that some aspects of mathematical ability are wired into the cognitive structures of human beings providing support to the hypothesis that some aspects of mathematics are discovered rather than created. The physical origin of mathematical abilities and activities was one of the factors used in this study to establish an isomorphism between the nature and practice of mathematics with that of rituals. This isomorphism provides the teaching and learning of mathematics with a more robust framework that is more attuned to the social nature of human beings. The ritual metaphor for the teaching and learning of mathematics can then be used as a framework to determine the relative adequacies of mathematics curricula, mathematics textbooks and teaching approaches.

This study establishes a framework for the practice and the acquisition of mathematical knowledge. The natures of mathematics and rituals/ritual-like activities are examined compared and contrasted. Using a four-fold typology of core features, surface features, content features and functions of mathematics it is established that the nature of mathematics, its practice and the acquisition is typologically similar to that of rituals/ ritual-like activities. The practice of mathematics and its acquisition can hence be metaphorically compared to that of rituals/ritual-like activities and be enriched by the latter. A case study was conducted using the ritual metaphor at two levels to introduce and teach a topic within the current year eleven West Australian Geometry and Trigonometry course. In the first level, instructional materials were written using a ritual-like mentor-exemplar, exposition, replicate and extrapolate model (through the use of specially organised examples and exercises) based on the approaches of several mathematics text book authors as they attempted to introduce a topic new to the West Australian mathematics curriculum.<br>In the second level, the classroom instruction was organised using a ritual-like pattern with direct exemplar mentoring and exposition by the teacher followed by replication and extrapolation from the students. Embedded within this ritual-like process was the personal (and communal) engagement with each student vis-a-vis the establishment of the relationships between the referent concepts, procedures and skills. This resulted in the emergence of solution behaviours appropriate to specific tasks imitating and extrapolating the mentored solution behaviours of the teacher. In determining the extent to which the instruction, mentoring and acquisition was successful, each student's solution 'behaviour was compared "topographically" with the expected solution behaviour for the task at various critical points to determine the degree of congruence. Marks were allocated for congruence (or removed for incongruence), hence a percentage of congruence was established. The ritual-like model for the teaching and acquisition of mathematical knowledge required agreement with all stake-holders as to the purpose of the activity, expert knowledge on the part of the teacher, and within a classroom context requires students to possess similar levels of prerequisite mathematical knowledge.<br>This agreement and the presence of an expert practitioner, provides the affirmation and security that is inherent in the practice of rituals. The study concluded that there is evidence to suggest that some aspects of mathematical ability are wired into the cognitive structures of human beings providing support to the hypothesis that some aspects of mathematics are discovered rather than created. The physical origin of mathematical abilities and activities was one of the factors used in this study to establish an isomorphism between the nature and practice of mathematics with that of rituals. This isomorphism provides the teaching and learning of mathematics with a more robust framework that is more attuned to the social nature of human beings. The ritual metaphor for the teaching and learning of mathematics can then be used as a framework to determine the relative adequacies of mathematics curricula, mathematics textbooks and teaching approaches.

This work is primarily aimed at determining the effect that an immunisation policy Is likely to have on the incidence of Haemophllus influenzae Type B (HIB) and systematic HIB in Western Australia. There was a significant effort made to collect data pertinent to the estimation of parameter values but since HIB has only been a notifiable disease since 1992, there was a distinct lack of relevant data available. Private communication with individual’s such as Dr Jeffrey Hanna and Dr Beryl Wild resulted in practical information being obtained that was used to estimate certain parameters. The deterministic mathematical models within the thesis are extensions of existing ideas tailored to suit the needs of this thesis. Chapter one is a basic introduction to the pursuit of modelling infectious diseases with a brief description of basic epidemiology concepts. It also shows that even simple models may not deliver analytical results. Chapter two extends a model used by Angela Mclean and allows some analytical results to be obtained by first simplifying the model and then solving using standard methods to give the equilibrium distributions for the proportions of people in each state within the model

Educational Administration<br>Ed.D.<br>Some students do not learn mathematics even though they have both the potential and ability to learn math. This problem typically diminishes opportunities for students who are already marginalized by society. Educators, educational administrators, education policy makers, and the education community have been aware of the significant disparities in mathematics and science achievement between Asian/Pacific Islanders and Caucasians and underrepresented minority groups. If we are to understand students and to alter their motivational patterns and attitudes, continued research in the area of student motivation and attitude is essential. This case study provides a detailed examination of a 10th grade geometry class located in an urban magnet public high school with 95% minority students. The primary purpose was to learn how students perceive and describe their mathematical learning experiences. The secondary purpose was to determine the factors that influenced on students' motivation, attitudes, or perceptions of their mathematical learning experiences. Students described not only their perceptions and attitudes in light of their actual degree of success, but also the impact of their mathematics teacher's pedagogy. Using qualitative methods, this study suggests the potential of some factors that mathematics educators, educational administrators, or policy makers should consider in order to explain why and how some students do not learn mathematics, even though they have the ability to learn it. The researcher analyzes data from surveys, interviews, and classroom observation. There are seven emergent themes--three themes which arose as influencing students' attitudes: (1) family background, (2) teacher's beliefs and attitudes, and (3) the concept of success as a turning point and four themes which had been anticipated as potentially explanatory, but ultimately were not: (1) student initial attitude, (2) gender, (3) ethnicity, and (4) teacher's pedagogy alone. Furthermore, the data indicate that the classic stereotypes about how gender and/or ethnicity influence the mathematics achievement gap in the U.S. may not apply in settings where all students receive appropriate support and the educational environment is conducive to learning mathematics. Moreover, the data indicate that the focus on content knowledge in determining who is a highly qualified teacher in the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 may need to be examined further. This study will be of value to educators in the design and understanding of interventions to enhance achievement in high school mathematics.<br>Temple University--Theses

Modelling is a powerful method for understanding complex systems, which works by simplifying them to their most essential components. The choice of the components is driven by the aspects studied. The tool chosen to perform this task will determine what can be modelled, the maximum number of components which can be represented, as well as the analyses which can be performed on the system. Performance Evaluation Process Algebra (PEPA) was initially developed to tackle computer systems issues. Nevertheless, it possesses some interesting properties which could be exploited for the study of epidemiological systems. PEPA's main advantage resides in its capacity to change scale: the assumptions and parameter values describe the behaviour of a single individual, while the resulting model provides information on the population behaviour. Additionally, stochasticity and continuous time have already proven to be useful features in epidemiology. While each of these features is already available in other tools, to find all three combined in a single tool is novel, and PEPA is proposed as a useful addition to the epidemiologist's toolbox. Moreover, an algorithm has been developed which allows converting a PEPA model into a system of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs). This provides access to countless additional software and theoretical analysis methods which enable the epidemiologist to gain further insight into the model. Finally, most existing tools require a deep understanding of the logic they are based on and the resulting model can be difficult to read and modify. PEPA's grammar, on the other hand, is easy to understand since it is based on few, yet powerful concepts. This makes it a very accessible formalism for any epidemiologist. The objective of this thesis is to determine precisely PEPA's ability to describe epidemiological systems, as well as extend the formalism when required. This involved modelling two systems: the bubonic plague in prairie dogs, and measles in England and Wales. These models were chosen as they exhibit a good range of typical features, allowing to thoroughly test PEPA. All features required in each of these models have been analysed in detail, and a solution has been provided for representing each of these features. While some of them could be expressed in a straightforward manner, PEPA did not provide the tools to express others. In those cases, we determined methods to approach the desired behaviour, and the limitations of said methods were carefully analysed. In the case of models with a structured population, PEPA was extended to simplify their expression and facilitate the writing process of the PEPA model. The work also required the development of an algorithm to derive ODEs adapted to the type of models encountered. Finally, the PEPAdum software was developed to assist the modeller in the generation and analysis of PEPA models, by simplifying the process of writing a PEPA model with compartments, performing the average of stochastic simulations and deriving and explicitly providing the ODEs using the Stirling Amendment.

The purpose with this research paper is to examine the students’ shown knowledge in geometry, with a focus on construction and its concepts, and the educational value and teaching the students got in this area. The students’ homes are used as a starting-point. The students shall, from a self-made drawing of their home and a photograph of it, describe what their home looks like. In this paper, the mathematical concepts the students used will be analyzed and compared with the education they received. The analytical framework is based on Van Hieles levels of knowledge and Blooms Taxonomy. The study was done at a Secondary School in Kenya. Four students were selected and interviewed. The lesson observations were made with the purpose to get an understanding for how the education for these students look like and to get examples on how the teaching is conducted for these students. Finally, interviews with the teachers were carried out. The students show a good knowledge in the national exams. However, the study shows that when the students are supposed to use this particular knowledge outside of the classroom, the students experience difficulties. Mostly, the students encounter problems when they are supposed to estimate measurements. Furthermore, they lack the ability to compare scales. The research also shows that the education for these students is monotone and much time during the lessons is spend either with a teacher lecturing in front of the board or students working with examples in the textbook. According to the Variation Theory, the knowledge of the students should deepen if the objects of learning are varying. This variation is not something the students receive in the present situation.<br>Syftet är att undersöka några gymnasieelevers visade kunskaper i geometri med fokus på konstruktion och begreppsanvändning samt den undervisning som erbjuds eleverna inom området. Elevernas hem används som utgångspunkt. Eleverna ska utifrån en teckning, som de själva ritat, och ett fotografi beskriva hemmet. De matematiska begrepp som eleverna använder analyseras. Analysverktyget bygger på van Hieles kvalitativa kunskapsnivåer och Blooms Taxonomi. Undersökningen genomfördes på en gymnasieskola i Kenya. Fyra utvalda elever intervjuades. Lektionsobservationer genomfördes i syfte att få förståelse för hur elevernas undervisningssituation ser ut och få exempel på hur undervisningen bedrivs. Slutligen intervjuades två av elevernas lärare. Eleverna har goda kunskaper på nationella prov men undersökningen visar att när dessa kunskaper skall överföras till något utanför lektionssalen stöter eleverna på problem. De har svårt att uppskatta längdenheter och svårt att jämföra skala. Det kommer också fram att deras undervisning är ganska monoton. Mycket tid läggs till att läraren undervisar eleverna framme vid tavlan eller att eleverna jobbar med uppgifter i sin övningsbok. Enligt variationsteorin, som beskrivs i arbetet, skulle elevernas kunskaper ges möjlighet att fördjupas om de geometriska objekt som skall förstås varieras. Denna variation erbjuds inte eleverna i nuläget.