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1
Eversole, Robyn. "The Chocolates of Sucre: Stories of a Bolivian Industry." Enterprise & Society 3, no. 2 (2002): 209–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1467222700011654.
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Chocolate is a Sucre trademark, one of the few products that this Bolivian city regularly markets to other parts of the country. Despite Sucre's long history of chocolate production, however, the city's chocolate industry at the turn of the twenty-first century remains small, unable to export, and generally uncompetitive with products from neighboring countries. Yet Sucre's chocolate-making enterprises have not disappeared; they continue to produce on a small scale in the face of mass-produced, imported brands. In this article, the history of Sucre's chocolate industry is examined to shed light on larger issues of industrial development and “underdevelopment” in Sucre and on the roots of the city's strong artisan identity.
2
Montagna, Maria Teresa, Giusy Diella, Francesco Triggiano, et al. "Chocolate, “Food of the Gods”: History, Science, and Human Health." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 24 (2019): 4960. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16244960.
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Chocolate is well known for its fine flavor, and its history began in ancient times, when the Maya considered chocolate (a cocoa drink prepared with hot water) the “Food of the Gods”. The food industry produces many different types of chocolate: in recent years, dark chocolate, in particular, has gained great popularity. Interest in chocolate has grown, owing to its physiological and potential health effects, such as regulation of blood pressure, insulin levels, vascular functions, oxidation processes, prebiotic effects, glucose homeostasis, and lipid metabolism. However, further translational and epidemiologic studies are needed to confirm available results and to evaluate other possible effects related to the consumption of cocoa and chocolate, verifying in humans the effects hitherto demonstrated only in vitro, and suggesting how best to consume (in terms of dose, mode, and time) chocolate in the daily diet.
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Sturny, Arno. "Raising the bar: a story of bean-to-bar chocolate production in New Zealand." Hospitality Insights 3, no. 2 (2019): 11–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.24135/hi.v3i2.62.
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Chocolate is considered one of the most gratifying confections there is, and this holds as true in New Zealand as elsewhere in the world.
 Evidence of this high interest in chocolate in New Zealand is demonstrated in the arrival of small artisanal bean-to-bar chocolate makers in the early 2000s; the voting of Whittaker’s as New Zealand’s single most trusted brand for eight years running (Reader’s Digest New Zealand’s Most Trusted Brand) [1]; the reporting on the economic, social and cultural impacts of the closure of the Cadbury chocolate factory in Dunedin [2]; and the opening of the first fair trade chocolate factory, Sweet Justice Chocolate Factory, in Christchurch by Trade Aid New Zealand [3].
 These examples also demonstrate a clear transformation within New Zealand’s commercial chocolate production, reflecting worldwide changes in multinational confectionery companies but also the emergence of artisanal production that directly addresses issues of sustainability and transparency [4, 5].
 While broader culinary traditions in New Zealand have been well-documented, the food history of chocolate production has not yet been explored. Consequently, this study explored the history of chocolate production in New Zealand, with a specific focus on bean-to-bar products [6].
 The study, based on a narrative history and interviews with current bean-to-bar chocolate makers in New Zealand, traced the history of bean-to-bar chocolate production in New Zealand. This process allowed for a multi-faceted reconstruction and interpretation of historical data to help understand various transformations within New Zealand’s chocolate industry, an industry long dominated by multinational companies such as Cadbury and Nestlé. This domination by overseas companies has recently been challenged by the emergence of small artisanal bean-to-bar chocolate makers and the rise of local chocolate company, Whittaker’s.
 Among the key findings was evidence of the maturing of the local chocolate industry to the point where it is clear that New Zealand-made chocolate is now widely viewed and trusted by local consumers as a high-quality product. This trust extends to both the current strong player in the market, Whittaker’s, and equally to smaller artisanal bean-to-bar chocolate makers, a confidence in product comparable to the New Zealand craft beer industry and the more well-established wine industry.
 The research also finds that the emergence of more artisanal bean-to-bar chocolate makers, and their focus on more transparency around the production of chocolate, reflects similar trends overseas. The findings highlight the fragile structure surrounding growth and sustainability in the chocolate production industry, with the view that closer ties should be formed with New Zealand’s Pacific cacao-growing neighbours.
 The findings point to the need for additional research around the history of food in New Zealand, an area of study often undervalued in academia [7]. The findings of the research are timely as they highlight opportunities for the industry to place current worldwide sustainability concerns in perspective with a view to the future – a future that New Zealand chocolate manufacturers cannot avoid.
 The historical archival data captured together with the contemporary voices of New Zealand’s new generation of chocolate makers combine to tell a story of creativity and competition.
 The original research this article is based on can be accessed here: https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10292/12970/SturnyA.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y
 Corresponding author
 Arno Sturny can be contacted at: arno.sturny@aut.ac.nz
 References
 (1) Trusted Brands New Zealand 2019. Most Trusted. http://www.trustedbrands.co.nz/default.asp#mostTrusted (accessed Jun 1, 2019).
 (2) Cadbury’s Dunedin Factory Faces Closure, 350 Jobs on the Line. The New Zealand Herald, Feb 16, 2017. https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11801779 (accessed Jun 2, 2019).
 (3) Trade Aid. The Sweet Justice Chocolate Factory. https://www.tradeaid.org.nz/trade/the-sweet-justice-chocolate-factory/ (accessed Mar 24, 2019).
 (4) Fountain, A.; Huetz-Adams, F. 2018 Cocoa Barometer; 2018. http://www.cocoabarometer.org/cocoa_barometer/Download_files/2018%20Cocoa%20Barometer%20180420.pdf (accessed Oct 13, 2018).
 (5) Squicciarini, M. P.; Swinnen, J. F. M. The Economics of Chocolate; Oxford University Press: Oxford, U.K., 2016.
 (6) Sturny, A. Raising the Bar: A Story of Bean-to-Bar Chocolate Production in New Zealand; Master’s Thesis, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand, 2018. https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10292/12970/SturnyA.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=y (accessed Nov 25, 2019).
 (7) Belasco, W. G. Food Matters: Perspectives on an Emerging Field. In Food Nations: Selling Taste in Consumer Societies; Belasco, W., Scranton, P., Eds.; Taylor & Francis: London, 2002, pp 1–22. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239586863 (accessed Jun 15, 2019).
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Kvaal, Stig, and Per Østby. "Sweet danger – negotiating trust in the Norwegian chocolate industry 1930–1990." History and Technology 27, no. 1 (2011): 91–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2011.548974.
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Onyshchuk, Mykhaylo. "The book industry in Germany." Вісник Книжкової палати, no. 6 (June 24, 2021): 18–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.36273/2076-9555.2021.6(299).18-26.
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The article analyzes book publishing, book distribution in Germany. Some features and tendencies of development of the German book industry in the modern period are covered. The article analyzes the geography of large publishing centers, shows German publishing houses that have their own history, traditions, market segment, publish books in the relevant field of knowledge, and finally have their own philosophy.
 Export markets of German books, problems of distribution of editions abroad are considered.
 Book market segments are highlighted.
 The role and place of e-book publishing, audiobook sector, e-book are clarified in the general system of the book industry.
 The features of book distribution, sales volumes of the largest publishers of Germany, specifics of activity of book trade networks are shown.
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Overy, R. J. "State and Industry in Germany in the Twentieth Century." German History 12, no. 2 (1994): 180–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/12.2.180.
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Overy, R. J. "State and Industry in Germany in the Twentieth Century." German History 12, no. 2 (1994): 180–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026635549401200203.
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Deeg, Richard. "Industry and Finance in Germany since Unification." German Politics and Society 28, no. 2 (2010): 116–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/gps.2010.280208.
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Since German unification there have been dramatic and highly visible changes in the German financial system and relations between banks and firms in Germany. The traditional Hausbank system has weakened, as securities markets have become more important for both borrowers and savers. The demands of financial investors on how German firms manage themselves have—for better or worse—become increasingly influential in this time. In this article, I advance the thesis that bank-industry relations in Germany became increasingly differentiated, with one set of firms moving into an institutional environment readily characterized as market-based finance. Meanwhile, most German firms remain in a bank-based environment that, while not quite the same as the Hausbank model that prevailed at the time of unification, is still easily recognized as such. These changes in the financial system have had numerous consequences for the German economy, including increased pressure on firms to make greater profits and increased pressure on labor to limit wage gains and make concessions in the interest of corporate competitiveness.
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Gutwein, Daniel. "Jewish financiers and industry, 1890–1914: england and Germany." Jewish History 8, no. 1-2 (1994): 177–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01915913.
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Rego, Joseph, Daylyn Niren, and Shilpa Hinduja. "The Paradox of Chocolate." Deakin Papers on International Business Economics 1, no. 2 (2008): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.21153/dpibe2008vol1no2art201.
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If any man has drunk a little too deeply from the cup of physical pleasure; if he has spent too much time at his desk that should have been spent asleep ; if his fine spirits have become temporarily dulled; if he finds the air too damp, the minutes too slow, and the atmosphere too heavy to withstand; if he is obsessed by a fixed idea which bars him from any freedom of thought: if he is any of these poor creatures, we say, let him be given a good pint of amber-flavoured chocolate and marvels will be performed” — Anthelme Brillat-Savarin (1755–1826) Scientifically proven to be a mood elevator due to its ability to promote serotonin in the brain, chocolate is popular for it s aphrodisiac, relaxing, euphoric and stimulating characteristics. Renowned as a universally craved food, a majority of chocolate cravers, or chocoholics, have failed to find any close substitutes that can replace this divine invention (Parker, Parker and Brotchie, 2006). Chocolate holds the ability to transcend beyond merely a food, stimulating irrational behavioural tendencies within people even turning them into addicts. The history of chocolate dates back to approximately 600 AD when the cocoa beans were discovered in the lowlands of south Yucatan in the Maya. It was initially consumed as a beverage known as chocolate only by the emperors until it was developed as edible chocolate. Chocolate had an unpleasant taste and its transformation to a desirable flavour is an interesting historical mystery. Chemically, chocolate is composed of cocoa mass, cocoa butter and added sugar. Cocoa mass forms the base product which is obtained by processing the cocoa bean while cocoa butter is the natural fat fro m the cocoa bean which melts at room temperature to provide the creamy “melt in the mouth” sensation. Sugar was added as a primary ingredient by Europeans to appeal to their palate when chocolate was introduced from America (Parker, Parker and Brotchie, 2006). The present day chocolate industry is a mature and vibrant one consistently generating sales
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Khodjakov, M. V. "Confectionery Production in Besieged Leningrad. 1941–1943." Modern History of Russia 12, no. 4 (2022): 812–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/spbu24.2022.401.
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The article based on archival materials analyses a problem that has not received comprehensive coverage in the historical literature. In Soviet times, it was considered the height of cynicism to talk about the confectionery factories during famine and mass mortality in besieged Leningrad. Later the authors often preferred to focus on the real and fictitious abuses by the Leningrad leaders, who allegedly enjoyed sweet life even under the blockade. The analysis of documents, many of which were previously inaccessible for researchers, indicates that candy and chocolate factories did not cease their work during the blockade. Like all food industries facing the lack of supplies they had to actively use substitutes. As a result, new varieties of sweets emerged, produced with a minimum content of sugar and maximum filling with confectionery waste. At the same time, the factories switched to manufacturing products needed for the front and were engaged in the production of medical supplies and consumer goods. Since the autumn of 1941 the local party bodies supervised all the branches of industry in Leningrad. They had the final say on management decisions and planned performance, including the production of chocolate and sweets. The distribution of confectionery products had a clear focus. Its main consumers were the army, the navy and the population of the besieged city. However, the reduction in the production during 1941–1942 and conservation of a number of factories made chocolate and sweets a scarce product, inaccessible to many residents of Leningrad. The situation changed only after the blockade was breached in 1943 and the confectionery production was restored as its capacity increased.
12
Konig, Wolfgang. "Science-Based Industry or Industry-Based Science? Electrical Engineering in Germany before World War I." Technology and Culture 37, no. 1 (1996): 70. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3107202.
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Stokes, Raymond G. "The Oil Industry in Nazi Germany, 1936–1945." Business History Review 59, no. 2 (1985): 254–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3114932.
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The oil industry in Nazi Germany provides an excellent focus for studying the interplay between economics, politics, and government policy in the Third Reich. In this article, Mr. Stokes brings to this subject a comparative approach, making comparisons both within the oil industry and with the industry's major industrial counterparts. He concludes that a variety of factors—including the degree of shared interest between individual firms and the government, the size and concentration of a firm's production facilities, and the political position of key firm personnel—explain the success as well as the eventual collapse of a given industrial sector.
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De Vries, David. "Capitalist nationalism and Zionist state-building, 1920s-1950s: Chocolate and diamonds in Mandate Palestine and Israel." Journal of Modern European History 18, no. 1 (2019): 48–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1611894419894473.
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The nationalism of business is a crucial issue in the history of British-ruled Palestine (1917-1947) and post-1948 Israel. The importation of Jewish private capital into Palestine was a key factor in shaping the economic development of the Zionist settler project, and in creating an advantage over the Arab community. The Zionism of the Jewish firms was an essential aspect of the political consensus in the Jewish polity and its state-building aspirations. Moreover, the participation of companies in World War II, the war of 1948, and in the establishment of Israel was an essential resource that was mobilized for the Zionist economic expansion and triggered the absorption of Holocaust survivors and Jewish immigrants from Arab and North African countries. These national expressions of private firms harbour a complexity. They illustrate political and cultural beliefs, and an active affiliation to a national movement. At the same time, they are instrumental in the sense that firms benefitted materially and culturally from this association. Furthermore—and particularly relevant to states that have emerged from a colonial past—these practices do not evolve only from the businesses themselves but also from the impact of statist structures on the nationalism of firms. These aspects are discussed through the prism of chocolate manufacturing and the diamond-cutting industry.
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FISCHER, CONAN. "Scoundrels without a Fatherland? Heavy Industry and Transnationalism in Post-First World War Germany." Contemporary European History 14, no. 4 (2005): 441–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777305002717.
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Germany's heavy industrial sector played a definitive role from 1870 onwards in the formation and subsequent shaping of the young German national polity. As such it has been identified with the aggressive, imperialistic tendencies that characterised so much of German history between 1870 and 1945. That said, industrial and national interests could diverge markedly, with heavy industry sometimes exhibiting a marked preference for transnational strategies, particularly during 1923 and 1924, when France and Belgium occupied Germany's industrial heartland – the Ruhr District. Resulting efforts to integrate the coal and metallurgical industries of France and Germany anticipated the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community after the Second World War.
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Oertel, Simon, and Kirsten Thommes. "History as a Source of Competitive Advantages: The watchmaking industry in East Germany." Academy of Management Proceedings 2012, no. 1 (2012): 13498. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2012.13498abstract.
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Hachtmann, Rüdiger. "Fordism and Unfree Labour: Aspects of the Work Deployment of Concentration Camp Prisoners in German Industry between 1941 and 1944." International Review of Social History 55, no. 3 (2010): 485–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020859010000416.
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SummaryThis article examines the relationship between Fordism and unfree labour in Nazi Germany. Fordism is understood here as a form of workplace rationalization (especially assembly-line production), but also as a “technology of domination” and an “exploitation innovation”. In contrast to the Weimar Republic, Fordism was established in broad sectors of German industry under Nazi rule in the form of “war Fordism”. In order to examine the connections between the specific historical variants of these two apparently contradictory production regimes – Fordism and forced labour – the article focuses on the “labour deployment” of the most severely terrorized and brutalized group of labourers in Nazi Germany: concentration camp prisoners. Surveying the existing literature, it explores the compatibilities and tensions between Fordism and the deployments of concentration camp prisoners in German industry. In closing, several theses are presented on how Fordism between 1941 and 1944 can be classified within an entire history of Fordism in Germany.
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Richardson-Little, Ned. "Arms intervention: Weimar Germany, post-imperial influence and weapons trafficking in warlord China." Journal of Modern European History 19, no. 4 (2021): 510–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/16118944211051858.
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The Treaty of Versailles aimed to strip Germany of both its colonial empire and the global reach of its arms industry. Yet the conflicts in warlord-era China led to the reestablishment of German influence on the other side of the world via the arms trade. Weimar Germany had declared a policy of neutrality and refused to take sides in the Chinese civil war in an effort to demonstrate that as a post-colonial power, it could now act as an honest broker. From below, however, traffickers based in Germany and German merchants in China worked to evade Versailles restrictions and an international arms embargo to supply warlords with weapons of war. Although the German state officially aimed to remain neutral, criminal elements, rogue diplomats, black marketeers and eventually military adventurers re-established German influence in the region by becoming key advisors and suppliers to the victorious Guomindang. Illicit actors in Germany and China proved to be crucial in linking the two countries and in eventually overturning the arms control regimes that were imposed in the wake of World War I.
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Wixforth, Harald. "Schiffsfinanzierung im Wandel – Finanzintermediäre und maritime Wirtschaft am Finanzplatz Hamburg vom Kaiserreich bis zum Ende der Weimarer Republik." Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 64, no. 2 (2019): 217–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/zug-2018-0019.
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AbstractFor more than 30 years bank-industry relations have been one of the most important subjects of financial research and history. Despite all research we are still lacking results on this topic for several branches of German industry, e. g. shipbuilding and shipping. Therefore, the article tries to analyze the relations between financial institutions and some of the prominent enterprises of maritime industry in Hamburg – in the 19th and 20th century the most important financial center in Northern Germany as well as place for shipping and shipbuilding. Finally, the article compares the results to those of other studies on bank-industry-relations in Germany in order to show whether there were specific characteristics in financing shipbuilding and shipping. Additionally, the article wants to stimulate further intensive research on this subject.
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Berghoff, Hartmut. "Varieties of Financialization? Evidence from German Industry in the 1990s." Business History Review 90, no. 1 (2016): 81–108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007680516000039.
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Following some general remarks on the impact of financialization on nonfinancial sectors of the economy, this article identifies common misconceptions about the German and American varieties of capitalism. It then outlines the post-1960 U.S. experience with financialization, including the reasons for the rise of financialization and its main consequences. The article will then look at Germany, a country with a very different entry point into the world of financialization, and ask when and to what degree the concept was adopted. Finally, a detailed case study of Siemens—one of Germany's largest industrial concerns—will explore how this icon of Germany Inc. adapted to the demands of financialization and coped with the external changes caused by globalization, deregulation, and digitalization.
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Kritter, Sabine. "Exhibiting Work in Germany—From Industrial Labour to (Industrial) Culture*." German History 37, no. 3 (2019): 375–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gerhis/ghz044.
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Abstract History museums in old industrial regions are important agents in the current debate on how we perceive work in our society. One of their key issues is how work built the region and how it changed in the context of deindustrialization. The article explores the depictions of work in the Ruhr Museum, which is the central regional history museum of the foremost region of heavy industry in Germany. It shows that with few exceptions the representations of the past in this museum include only images of standardized male industrial work, mainly in the coal and steel industries. Furthermore, it demonstrates that in the sections of the museum dedicated to the present, work has disappeared almost entirely from the representations, to be replaced with representations of culture, including industrial heritage, and lifestyles. In light of these findings the article argues that this way of presenting (and not presenting) work emphasizes the break between the past and the present. It homogenizes the historical narrative of work while making current work forms invisible and downplaying the continuing importance of the world of work. Instead, the museum tells a story of loss that requires compensation by culture.
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Raddato, Carole. "Following Hadrian." Studies in Late Antiquity 5, no. 4 (2021): 481–508. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sla.2021.5.4.481.
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Carole Raddato was born in France in 1976, and now lives in Frankfurt am Main, Germany, where she freelances as a music charts analyst for the British music industry. She runs the history photo-blog, Following Hadrian (https://followinghadrian.com), which documents her travels in the emperor’s footsteps, and she regularly contributes to the online World History Encyclopedia and Ancient History Magazine.
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Spennemann, Dirk H. R. "QSL: Subliminal Messaging by the Nuclear Industry in Germany during the 1980s." Heritage 4, no. 3 (2021): 2054–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030117.
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During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the German nuclear power industry came under considerable socio-political pressure from the growing environmental and anti-nuclear movement. As part of a diversified public relations strategy, the Kraftwerk Union (KWU, later Siemens) as the main manufacturer of nuclear power plants distributed pre-printed QSL cards to amateur radio enthusiasts. These cards carried images of the latest nuclear power plants built by KWU. This paper examines the history, iconography and distribution of these QSL cards in the context of the heritage of the German nuclear power industry. It is the first study of its kind to examine the heritage significance of QSL cards.
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Jung, Yong Suk. "From industry protection to environmental protection: The history of the coal mining industry in Rhine-Ruhr, Germany, from an environmental perspective." Korean Society For German History 43 (February 28, 2020): 43–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.17995/kjgs.2020.2.43.43.
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Mckitrick, Frederick L. "An Unexpected Path to Modernisation: The Case of German Artisans during the Second World War." Contemporary European History 5, no. 3 (1996): 401–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777300003933.
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On 10 July 1950, at the celebrations marking the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the Wiesbaden Chamber of Artisans (Handwerkskammer), its president Karl Schöppler announced: ‘Today industry is in no way the enemy of Handwerk. Handwerk is not the enemy of industry.…’ These words, which accurately reflected the predominant point of view of the post-war chamber membership, and certainly of its politically influential leadership, marked a new era in the social, economic and political history of German artisans and, it is not too much to say, in the history of class relations in (West) Germany in general. Schöppler's immediate frame of reference was the long-standing and extremely consequential antipathy on the part of artisans towards industrial capitalism, an antipathy of which his listeners were well aware.
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Bauer, Reinhold. "A Specifically German Path to Mass Motorisation? Motorcycles in Germany between the World Wars." Journal of Transport History 34, no. 2 (2013): 101–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.7227/tjth.34.2.2.
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After rapid growth of its motorcycle industry since the early 1920s, in the 1930s Germany became the world's largest motorcycle producer and exporter. Furthermore, in 1933 Germany was the country with by far the highest motorcycle density in the world. The paper discusses the reasons for the role motorbikes played in the German path to mass motorisation in the interwar era. The central thesis is that specific economic and political conditions in Germany allowed motorcycles to become the dominant motorised form of individual transport in the period.
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Blaney, M. "The Relationship between the Film Industry and Television in the Federal Republic of Germany from 1950 to 1985." German History 9, no. 1 (1991): 69–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gh/9.1.69.
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Katzir, Shaul. "Hermann Aron's Electricity Meters: Physics and Invention in Late Nineteenth-Century Germany." Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences 39, no. 4 (2009): 444–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/hsns.2009.39.4.444.
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This paper examines how Hermann Aron, a well-trained physicist, exploited his multilayered knowledge of science for technological innovations, innovations upon which he built a successful industrial company with more than 1,000 employees. In his academic training, research, and teaching, Aron gained expertise in electromagnetic theory and experimentation, which he later put to use to invent a new electricity meter for the emerging electric power industry of the 1880s. While Aron employed established physical laws and data, particular methods and techniques were central to his development of technology. Moreover, these and the scientific ethos of precision, which he adopted from his training in the Neumann School, were crucial to his invention of a pendulum electricity meter. Contrary to a recent claim about the lack of a scientific basis to the electrical industry, Aron's case shows a direct transformation of knowledge from physics to technology. Still, his work also displays the influence of technology on many topics of scientific research. The relevance of Aron's particular scientific expertise to the technological questions he examined was a central factor in his unusual move from academic physics to his own industrial firm. The move also benefited from sharing ideas, methods, and interests between scientists and engineers. Berlin, in particular, provided a nexus for such an interchange. On the other hand, Aron's poor prospects for a professorship in physics (further reduced by being Jewish), made him more receptive to opportunities outside the academy.
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Stokes, Raymond G. "Autarky, Ideology, and Technological Lag: The Case of the East German Chemical Industry, 1945–1964." Central European History 28, no. 1 (1995): 29–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938900011237.
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The ignominious and total collapse of the German Democratic Republic (GDR) in 1989/90 revealed all too clearly the disastrous state of the country's economy, especially in comparison to the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). This fact must not, however, be seen in isolation from another, apparently contradictory one: From the beginning to the end of its existence, the GDR was the shining economic and technological star in the communist firmament in Eastern Europe. GDR electronics and optics were crucial to the Soviet space program and to East-bloc military production, which counted among communism's few technological successes. Its chemical and automobile industries were also well regarded in the Eastern bloc and in many developing countries. The GDR's technological prowess—especially when combined with its favored and very lucrative relationship with the FRG—made for a reasonably high standard of living, not just in relation to other countries in the Soviet bloc, but in relation to other industrialized countries as well.
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Hayes, Peter. "Carl Bosch and Carl Krauch: Chemistry and the Political Economy of Germany, 1925–1945." Journal of Economic History 47, no. 2 (1987): 353–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700048117.
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Carl Bosch and Carl Krauch, accomplished scientists and prominent executives in the BASF and IG Farben chemical corporations, were drawn together by mutual admiration and common technical interests. In the Nazi era, however, they came to embody competing liberal and nationalist conceptions of German political economy. This article examines their relationship, the reasons for their divergent stances, and their individual contributions to the economic and productive power of the Third Reich. Ironically, Bosch's understanding of his industry, his nation, and scientific progress led him to oppose the Nazis, but also to lay the basis for their recruitment of Krauch and the German chemical industry for their expansionist purposes.
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Gumbert, Heather. "The Deutschland Series: Cold War Nostalgia for Transnational Audiences." Central European History 54, no. 2 (2021): 352–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938921000480.
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How do you explain the Cold War to a generation who did not live through it? For Jörg and Anna Winger, co-creators and showrunners of the Deutschland series, you bring it to life on television. Part pop culture reference, part spy thriller, and part existential crisis, the Wingers’ Cold War is a fun, fast-paced story, “sunny and slick and full of twenty-something eye candy.” A coproduction of Germany's UFA Fiction and Sundance TV in the United States, the show premiered at the 2015 Berlinale before appearing on American and German television screens later that year. Especially popular in the United Kingdom, it sold widely on the transnational market. It has been touted as a game-changer for the German television industry for breaking new ground for the German television industry abroad and expanding the possibilities of dramatic storytelling in Germany, and is credited with unleashing a new wave of German (historical) dramas including Babylon Berlin, Dark, and a new production of Das Boot.
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Lovett, A. W. "The United States and the Schuman Plan. a study in French diplomacy 1950–1952." Historical Journal 39, no. 2 (1996): 425–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0018246x00020318.
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ABSTRACTOn 9 May 1950, Robert Schuman, the French foreign minister, offered to pool the coal and steel resources of France with those of its European neighbours. The proposal was directed principally at Western Germany. After a year of negotiations six western European states agreed to form the European Coal and Steel Community, an organization rightly seen as the beginning of the European Union. However significant at the time and subsequently, this creation resulted from a series of political bargains familiar to any practitioner of traditional politics. France was determined to limit the competitive advantages of German heavy industry to prevent future dominance by the Ruhr industrialists whose unsavoury past was also remembered. Jean Monnet, the head of the French delegation at the talks held in Paris, insisted on the ‘deconcentration’ of the steel and coal industries. Steel companies would be compelled to dispose of the colleries which they owned. To do this, however, Monnet had to invoke the help of the American high commissioner in Germany, John J. McCloy and his expert advisers. In terms of its origins the Coal and Steel Community can be considered the product of a bargain struck between the Federal Republic and America, not France and Western Germany. That the safeguards against vertical combinations and a single sales agency for coal proved unnecessary (and unenforceable) may partly explain the success of the first venture in European integration.
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Hau, Michael. "Sports in the Human Economy: “Leibesübungen,” Medicine, Psychology, and Performance Enhancement during the Weimar Republic." Central European History 41, no. 3 (2008): 381–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938908000563.
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In 1926, the President of the GermanReichCommittee for Physical Exercise (Deutscher Reichsausschuss für Leibesübungen, or DRAL) Theodor Lewald discussed the significance of sports for the German economy and national health in a presentation to the Berlin Chamber of Industry and Commerce. Lewald deplored the physical state of the German population as a consequence of the lost war. Two million of the physically and mentally strongest German men had been killed, while millions of German men, women, and children were permanently physically weakened as a result of starvation during the war and the allied hunger blockade after the armistice. To make matters worse, the hygienic benefits of military service that had guaranteed the physical strength and fitness of male youth had been lost. Prior to the war about 500,000 men had served in the German army or navy where they had learned regimens of cleanliness, order, and discipline. According to Lewald, by limiting the size of the German army to 100,000 men, the victorious allies had not only weakened Germany militarily, but they had also tried to paralyze Germany economically by permanently weakening the “strength of the German people” (deutsche Volkskraft).1
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Gross, Stephen. "The German Economy and East-Central Europe: The Development of Intra-Industry Trade from Ostpolitik to the Present." German Politics and Society 31, no. 3 (2013): 83–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.3167/gps.2013.310305.
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Over the past decade Germany has had one of the most successfuleconomies in the developed world. Despite the ongoing Euro crisis unemploymenthas fallen below 7 percent, reaching its lowest levels since Germanreunification in 1990. Germany’s youth unemployment is among thelowest in Europe, far beneath the European average.1 One of the mostimportant engines of the German economy today, and in fact throughoutthe twentieth and twenty-first centuries, has been its export sector. As LudwigErhard, West Germany’s Economics Minister during the Wirtschaftswunderof the 1950s remarked: “foreign trade is quite simply the core andpremise of our economic and social order.”2 According to various estimates,today exports and imports of goods and services account for nearly a half ofGerman GDP—up from only a quarter in 1990. Germany is one of only threeeconomies that do over a trillion dollars worth of exports a year, the othertwo being the United States and China.
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Torp, Cornelius. "The Pension Crisis and the ‘Demographic Time Bomb’: Perceptions and Misperceptions in Great Britain and Germany at the Turn of the Millennium." English Historical Review 136, no. 583 (2021): 1542–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ehr/ceab355.
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Abstract At the turn of the millennium, Germany and the United Kingdom experienced the most severe crises of their pension systems since the Second World War. In both cases, politicians reacted with extensive reforms. The political debates in each country revolved around the notion that demographic ageing was at the root of the crises. Hence, the call for greater intergenerational equity became the key justification of fundamental pension-system reform. But a comparative historical analysis reveals that it is a vast oversimplification to blame the pension crises entirely on demographic ageing. In fact, a combination of other factors—which varied widely between the UK and Germany—far overshadowed the ‘demographic time-bomb’ as the driving force behind the crises. A prime factor in the UK was the declining value of the Basic State Pension and the growing importance of means-tested benefits, along with the decline of company pension schemes. By contrast, the problems facing the pension system in Germany primarily arose from rising unemployment, the systematic early retirement of millions of eastern Germans and the high costs of German unity, which were largely borne by the social-security system. Furthermore, in the debate on Germany’s ability to remain a thriving centre for business and industry, rising pension contributions were widely held responsible for declining competitiveness. In both countries, politicians seized upon the explanatory model of demographic ageing because it made sweeping reforms of the pension system appear the consequence of a quasi-natural process, and created a welcome opportunity to divert attention from socio-political blunders.
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Heidbrink, Ingo. "Renewable vs fossil fuel: How a fossil-fuel powered industry pushed a renewable resource out of the ice market in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries." International Journal of Maritime History 34, no. 1 (2022): 172–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08438714221080268.
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Artificially produced ice replaced natural ice as a cooling agent in a process of displacement that lasted several decades. This article uses the German market as an example to identify the three main factors that underpinned this process. First, it argues that the displacement process was largely driven by marketing and image campaigns created by the proponents of artificial ice-making technology, together with the general technophilia that prevailed in Imperial Germany. Second, the article shows how Europe's last major cholera outbreak in Hamburg was utilised to promote the transition from natural to artificial ice, and how public opinion and established knowledge disseminated by public authorities were by no means aligned, with natural ice – particularly imported Norwegian natural ice – becoming a victim of adverse public opinion. Third, the article explains why the fisheries, notably the developing steam trawling industry, which was a major and large-scale industrial user of ice in Germany, continued to use natural ice for a relatively long time regardless of public opinion and any perceived pollution of the ice. Rather, decisions to switch from natural to artificial ice in the fisheries were informed by economic and pragmatic reasoning.
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Pfister, Ulrich. "Real Wages in Germany during the First Phase of Industrialization, 1850-1889." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 59, no. 2 (2018): 567–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2018-0019.
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Abstract The study constructs new wage series at the branch level and aggregates them to an index of nominal wages in industry and urban trades in 18481889. Moreover, the study develops new food price and rent indices. These are then combined with price indices for other categories of household expenditure from Hoffmann (1965) into a consumer price index for 1850-1889. The new real wage index shows little growth for the third quarter of the nineteenth century; the first phase of rapid industrialization from the 1840s to the early 1870s had only a small positive impact on the living standard of the industrial and urban lower classes. Only from the 1880s, when Germany moved into a second phase of industrialization, did the real wage experience a sustained and rapid increase. Nevertheless, the diversification of employment opportunities taking place in the wake of industrialization and the European grain invasion were accompanied by a marked reduction of income volatility among lower-class households already from the 1870s.
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Dumiter, Florin, Florin Turcas, and Anca Opret. "German Tax System: Double Taxation Avoidance Conventions, Structure and Developments." Journal of Legal Studies 16, no. 30 (2015): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jles-2015-0006.
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Abstract This paper presents the fundamentals of the tax system in general, the basic elements of a tax system as well as the organization of the German tax system analysis, especially throughout the tax levy and how the taxation typology functions. This theme was chosen in order to expose the principles of German taxation system. With a tumultuous and troubled history, mainly caused by the two World Wars‟ destructions, the German state is considered the „economic locomotive” and a pillar of the European Union. Germany‟s economy is mainly driven by the automotive industry, chemical industry, telecommunications, commerce and agriculture. Of particular importance is the qualitative analysis of conventions for the avoidance of double taxation concluded by Germany; and related implications on fiscal policy. The methodology used in this paper consists of presenting literature derived theories and practical analysis of the German tax system in terms of tax legislation and the evolution of double taxation conventions concluded by Germany with different countries. After the study, the conclusions on the size of the national tax system driven by the example of the German tax system were founded.
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Carroll, Glenn R., Peter Preisendoerfer, Anand Swaminathan, and Gabriele Wiedenmayer. "Brewery and Brauerei: The Organizational Ecology of Brewing." Organization Studies 14, no. 2 (1993): 155–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/017084069301400201.
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Germans and Americans differ in their beer drinking habits and customs. The organizational structures of their brewing industries also differ: Germany is notable for the highly fragmented nature of its industry, which contains many more breweries than the larger American industry. Yet the historical evolution of the two brewing industries is remarkably similar. In both Germany and the U.S., the number of breweries grew slowly for a long period, then expanded rapidly in the late 19th century, and finally declined severely for almost a century. Intrigued by this common pattern, we attempt to explain long-term organizational change in the two industries using the ecological perspective on organizations. We focus on the organizational ecology model of density-dependent legitimation and com petition. Our tests use life history data on all breweries known to have operated in the U.S. and Germany during the period 1861 to 1988. We estimate and report specific tests of the density model using stochastic rates of organizational founding and mortality. The findings are generally supportive of the model and suggest that the organizational evolution of both the German and American brewing industries was density dependent.
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Baker, Thomas H. "First Movers and the Growth of Small Industry in Northeastern Italy." Comparative Studies in Society and History 36, no. 4 (1994): 621–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s001041750001937x.
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In the 1970s, Italy's economy grew faster than all in the industrialized world but Japan's. Its growth rates of up to 5 percent, although lower than in the 1960s, compared favorably to the relatively flat figures from Britain, Germany, and the United States, most strikingly in the two years after the second oil shock of 1979. Following its first “economic miracle” in the 1950s and 1960s, wrote The Economist, Italy's “second, lesser miracle” was how the country continued to thrive in the 1970s despite a “bumbling bureaucracy,” ineffective governments, high inflation and public debt, terrorism, and “the left-wing unions’ greedy, if understandable, reaction to the headlong development of the 1960s.” Italy's rapid growth was all the more impressive in light of the ongoing economic stagnation of the South and a general crisis in the big corporations of Lombardy and Piedmont, which had been dragged down by high oil prices, recession abroad, and indexed wages.
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GRÜNBACHER, ARMIN. "‘Honourable Men’: West German Industrialists and the Role of Honour and Honour Courts in the Adenauer Era." Contemporary European History 22, no. 2 (2013): 233–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777313000064.
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AbstractThis article argues that traditional conceptions of honour and the social practices based on them were both persistent yet at the same time very fragile and changeable amongst post-war German steel industrialists. After a brief overview of how bourgeois honour developed up to the early 1950s, a study of the honour court case of one of the leading men of heavy industry, Hermann Reusch of Gutehoffnungshütte, which ran from 1947 to 1949, will be presented. This is followed by a description of the ultimately unsuccessful attempt by the Wirtschaftsvereinigung Eisen und Stahl to establish honour councils to enforce a price policy across the association. Both cases highlight the rapidly changing social and economic culture in West Germany in the early 1960s.
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Hesse, Jan-Otmar. "The German Textile Puzzle: Selective Protectionism and the Silent Globalization of an Industry." Business History Review 93, no. 02 (2019): 221–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007680519000680.
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As in other countries, textile and apparel production in Germany is considered a victim of globalization. Domestic production and employment declined dramatically after its postwar peak in the late 1950s. Research has often attributed this trajectory to the trade liberalization policy of the German governments. However, this interpretation is puzzling. German trade policy was not as liberal as is claimed, nor did the industry disappear. This article addresses the issue using statistical evidence as well as archival material. The West German textile and apparel industry was using outward processing strategies comparatively early and was supported in that by German politicians starting in the early 1960s. As a result, the industry moved up the global value chain of textile production.
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Patch, William L. "Defending the “Peace of Sunday”: The Debate over Sunday Labor in the West German Steel Industry after the Second World War." Central European History 54, no. 4 (2021): 646–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938921000066.
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AbstractWorking hours were largely unregulated in nineteenth-century Germany, but a powerful alliance emerged in the 1890s between the Christian churches and the socialist labor movement to prohibit most industrial labor on Sunday, including most production of steel. In the 1950s steel management persuaded organized labor that it would be advantageous to produce steel continuously throughout the week, the prevalent system in other countries. The Evangelical Church retreated in this debate, but the Catholic Church waged a fierce and partly successful campaign from 1952 to 1961 to defend the old prohibition. Until the 1980s organized labor continued to cooperate with both major churches to keep Sunday industrial labor quite rare. Their influence declined suddenly after national reunification in 1990, however, and many Germans have come to prize individual freedom above the old principle, honored by Christians and the unchurched alike, that most people should have the same day of rest.
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Svanberg, Johan. "The Contrasts of Migration Narratives. From Germany to the Swedish Garment Industry during the 1950s." Journal of Migration History 3, no. 1 (2017): 131–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/23519924-00301006.
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This article combines a migration-systems approach with oral history and a local-level perspective. It focuses on migrant women recruited from Schleswig-Holstein to a Swedish garment factory in the early 1950s. These migrants were around 20 years old and single; about half of them were German wartime refugees and early post-war expellees from Central and Eastern Europe. The article analyses how migrants articulate retrospective narratives, as regards the different steps (background, journey and interactions in the receiving society) of the migration process. It shows how migrants’ life stories are narratively constructed around contrastive elements and turning points, which correspond to the three steps of their migration experiences. The article also argues that oral sources can be used both to study subjective dimensions of individual migration experiences, and to illuminate important details of past migrations.
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Russell, Mark A. "Picturing the Imperator: Passenger Shipping as Art and National Symbol in the German Empire." Central European History 44, no. 2 (2011): 227–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938911000021.
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The morning of May 23, 1912, witnessed the christening of a new German icon. For many Germans, it was a wonder of the modern age, a powerful symbol of the nation's achievements in industry, engineering, and technology. For others, it was the embodiment of all the evils wrought by political, social, and cultural transformation. Some said it expressed the character of the German people, in a manner similar to Cologne Cathedral and Sanssouci, the palace of Frederick the Great. But there were those who thought it “appeared as a typical manifestation of the new Germany, with its huckstering and obtrusive manners, more a snobbism than a symbol of German competence.” The Kaiser was fascinated by this expression of the ambition, ingenuity, and might of an Empire in which he believed power rested with himself, the Prussian nobility, and a powerful military complex. And yet Hamburg's mayor, Johann Heinrich Burchard, echoed the feelings of many when he described this new wonder as “above all … the product of a flourishing, self-conscious German middle class.” Although extolled as a symbol of German unity, Social Democrats denounced the modern leviathan as an expression of class inequality and lamented that ten men were killed and one hundred injured while constructing it. With this in mind, how could Germany be proud of what it had achieved?
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Schlich, Thomas. "Farmer to industrialist: Lister's antisepsis and the making of modern surgery in Germany." Notes and Records of the Royal Society 67, no. 3 (2013): 245–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsnr.2013.0032.
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This paper analyses what is possibly the most important long-term impact of Joseph Lister's method of antisepsis on surgery, namely its role in replacing surgery's traditional regime of the management of chance by what can be called a regime of modern risk management. It was a crucial step for the expansion of surgery and thus the formation of modern surgery, as we know it today. It put surgery on a par with contemporary trends in industry, transport technologies and science, and made it a component factor in the formation of a modern technology-oriented society. The paper uses the example of the German-speaking countries, which, because of the rapid and emphatic acceptance of Lister's antisepsis there, is particularly well suited for such an analysis. It shows how, in this context, risk management, as a way of dealing with uncertainty, was an integral part of the new techniques of antisepsis and asepsis.
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Ustyugova, O. A. "Salt Market of the Russian Far East in the Conditions of Import Dependency (1900–1914): Features of Functioning." Modern History of Russia 12, no. 2 (2022): 345–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.21638/11701/spbu24.2022.205.
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The article examines the state of the salt market in the Russian Far East at the beginning of the 20th century under conditions of dependence on imports, characterizing the quality, prices and volume of salt supplies. Under the high demand for table salt as a product of prime necessity and raw material for the fishing industry, the salt market of the Far East was entirely dependent on imports. While the import of foreign salt to Russia was decreasing, in the Far East it was showing stable growth. The development of the fishing industry in the 1890s stimulated the growth of salt consumption, which local production could not satisfy. Import dependency, which vividly showed up during the Russian-Japanese War, worried both the authorities and entrepreneurs. After the final cancellation of the porto-franco in 1909, salt became a duty-free commodity, which facilitated the access of foreign product to the region. The system of salt supply for the local market by foreign companies, which was formed in the second half of the 19th century, retained its importance. The matter of organizing the supply of the Russian Far East with salt of domestic production was unsettled. The import of salt from the Crimea and the Irkutsk Salt Plant was unprofitable because of the high cost of transportation. During the First World War the region’s dependence on the import of foreign salt remained. Before the war, the main amount of salt for the population and the fishing industry came from Germany, but after the war began, Japan, China and Port Said became the main suppliers.
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Tkachuk, Pavlo, Andrij Kharuk, Ihor Soliar, and Lilia Skorych. "Russian aviation industry and First World War challenges." History of science and technology 12, no. 2 (2022): 388–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.32703/2415-7422-2022-12-2-388-407.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The purpose of this study is to highlight the peculiarities of the development of the Russian aviation industry during the First World War. The focus is on analyzing production programs and matching their quantitative and qualitative parameters to war requirements. The main methods used in our work are problem-chronological, used to describe the state of the Russian aviation industry, and comparative, used to compare the level of development of the Russian aviation industry with other countries that participated in the First World War. General scientific methods have also found their application ‒ primarily, analysis and synthesis. The research resulted in the following conclusions: First World War became a challenge for Russian industry that was in the developing stage, including aviation industry. Needs of the front demanded for increase in plane productions that was a complex task for Russia, taking into account its economic backwardness. Aviation industry, being represented by several big (in the scope of Russia) enterprises, demonstrated a dynamic of growth. For the war period the plane production capacity had increased only in 3 times while in Germany – in 10 times and in France and Great Britain the growth was much bigger. Leading enterprises of aviation industry, such as factory of Duks, Liebiediev, Anatra, Shchetinin – mainly copied foreign samples (French, and sometimes German). Efforts to establish the production of original samples were a complete failure. The most known example is fighter “Illia Muromets” that was a leading one in 1914 but became old-fashioned till 1917. Aviation engine production was also narrow and was far beyond plane production. Enormous investments made in the development existed and building of new enterprises of planes and aviation engines production in 1916‒1917 did not show any results, none of the enterprises started the production. We have analyzed some of these failures – building of Anatra factory in Simferopol and Matias factory in Berdiansk, and aero-motors factories Anatra in Simferopol and Deka in Aleksandrovsk. State police on controlling aviation industry based on providing subsidies and preferential loan, turned to be ineffective – it was vanished by basic purchasing prices that did not count on inflation. That is why Russian aviation industry appeared to be unable to face and respond to war challenges. Production plans of leading Russian aviation factories as well as qualitative and quantitative parameters of products have been analyzed in the article.
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ROESSNER, PHILIPP R. "‘New light on Whatley’s numbers': The German Market for Scots Salt in the Eighteenth Century." Scottish Historical Review 87, no. 1 (2008): 101–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/e0036924108000061.
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The eighteenth century was a watershed period for the Scottish salt industry in terms of its competitiveness. Whatley has shown a protracted and definite decline in export figures in the period c. 1700–70, and ultimately Scotland ceased to export salt. This was a considerable change from Scotland's former position as a large salt exporter. Whatley's sources, however, do not permit a break-down of exports by destination. The present article aims to solve this problem by drawing on a variety of new sources. The main results are: first, in the eighteenth century, ‘Germany’ (The Holy Roman Empire of German Nations) became the largest and then last foreign market for what at that time had become a virtually non-exportable item. Secondly, North Sea ports – mainly Bremen, Emden, and Hamburg – became the main importers of Scots salt at the expense of Baltic ports. Within a framework of declining living standards after c.1740, a cheap and competitively-priced essential such as Scots salt represented an attractive alternative to more expensive salts. Due to the short distance and modest transport costs, the northwest German market was one of the most obvious foreign outlets for Scottish salt. On top of this, various external, internal and transit tolls and customs on cross-border traffic, a product of the political fragmentation of the German empire, artificially increased the price charged by the main producer in Northern Germany (Lüneburg) and thus kept Atlantic or North Sea salt attractive on this market.
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Strotmann, Christine. "Nitrogenous Fertilisers in Germany – Paths of Distribution from Chile Saltpetre to Haber-Bosch-Ammonia and Cyanamide (ca 1914–1930)." Jahrbuch für Wirtschaftsgeschichte / Economic History Yearbook 62, no. 1 (2021): 159–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jbwg-2021-0007.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Abstract This paper focusses on nitrogenous fertilisers in Germany and how they were distributed from the First World War into the 1930s. Since the availability of the fertilisers kept changing at a fast pace in the period under discussion here, the focus lies on policies concerning the production of nitrogen and the markets for nitrogenous fertilisers. The paper discusses the impact of the development of a (nearly) entirely new domestic nitrogen industry during the First World War on the market for nitrogenous fertilisers during the war and interwar period, up until the foundation of an international nitrogen cartel in 1930.