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1
Poh, Angela. Sanctions with Chinese Characteristics. NL Amsterdam : Amsterdam University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789463722353.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The view that China has become increasingly assertive under President Xi Jinping is now a common trope in academic and media discourse. However, until the end of Xi Jinping’s first term in March 2018, China had been relatively restrained in its use of coercive economic measures. This is puzzling given the conventional belief among scholars and practitioners that sanctions are a middle ground between diplomatic and military/paramilitary action. Using a wide range of methods and data — including in-depth interviews with 76 current and former politicians, policy-makers, diplomats, and commercial actors across 12 countries and 16 cities — Sanctions with Chinese Characteristics: Rhetoric and Restraint in China’s Diplomacy examines the ways in which China had employed economic sanctions to further its political objectives, and the factors explaining China’s behaviour. This book provides a systematic investigation into the ways in which Chinese decisionmakers approached sanctions both at the United Nations Security Council and unilaterally, and shows how China’s longstanding sanctions rhetoric has had a constraining effect on its behaviour, resulting in its inability to employ sanctions in complete alignment with its immediate interests.
2
Valjakka, Minna, et Meiqin Wang, dir. Visual Arts, Representations and Interventions in Contemporary China. NL Amsterdam : Amsterdam University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789462982239.
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This edited volume provides a multifaceted investigation of the dynamic interrelations between visual arts and urbanization in contemporary Mainland China with a focus on unseen representations and urban interventions brought about by the transformations of the urban space and the various problems associated with it. Through a wide range of illuminating case studies, the authors demonstrate how innovative artistic and creative practices initiated by various stakeholders not only raise critical awareness on socio-political issues of Chinese urbanization but also actively reshape the urban living spaces. The formation of new collaborations, agencies, aesthetics and cultural production sites facilitate diverse forms of cultural activism as they challenge the dominant ways of interpreting social changes and encourage civic participation in the production of alternative meanings in and of the city. Their significance lies in their potential to question current values and power structures as well as to foster new subjectivities for disparate individuals and social groups.
3
Kang, Jin-A. The Guangdong Model and Taxation in China. Nieuwe Prinsengracht 89 1018 VR Amsterdam Nederland : Amsterdam University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5117/9789463729833.
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This book explores the formation, development, and characteristics of modern China's finance, focusing especially on Guangdong province as a case study to illustrate both the macro-level trends and the micro-level reality. The chronological range of this book is mainly from the late Qing period to the early Republican Era ending in 1937, when the full-scale Second Sino-Japanese War broke out. After the concept of modern finance was introduced to China for the first time in the late Qing period, the efforts to build modern finance continued in the Republican Era both nationally and locally. But this process was interrupted by the outbreak of the war against Japan in 1937 and, having been derailed, did not subsequently recover due to the subsequent civil war between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. This interrupted process of financial modernization was resumed with Reform and Opening-up, launched in 1978. Therefore, in order to illustrate the structural transformation and persistent characteristics of China’s fiscal system, this book also includes discussions of the early Qing period and current Chinese finance.
4
Zhukov, S., dir. The Current Energy Crisis : Economic, Technological and Environmental Risks. Primakov National Research Institute of World Economy and International Relations, Russian Academy of Sciences (IMEMO), 23, Profsoyuznaya Str., Moscow, 117997, Russian Federation, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.20542/978-5-9535-0608-3.
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The compendium of works presented at the international conference of young scholars, organized by the Center of Energy Studies, IMEMO RAS and Faculty of International Energy Business of Gubkin Russian State University (NRU) of Oil and Gas, covers problems of transformation of national energy systems in China, France, Iceland, Singapore, Uzbekistan and Vietnam. Problems of nuclear and hydrogen energy development and decarbonization of fuel-energy complex are analyzed.
5
Kante, Justīne. Latvia and China : Entering the Post-Optimism Period. Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.25143/china-in-the-baltic-states_2022_isbn_9789934618154_32-54.
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TIn order to demonstrate the changes in behaviour and the current policy goals from Latvia’s perspective, this chapter of the book "China in the Baltic States – from a Cause of Hope to Anxiety" covers the historic relations between Latvia and China, followed by an overview of economic cooperation, and an insight of how the relations have been perceived recently from the Annual Reports of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia and Annual Reports on the Activities of Latvian State Security Service, additionally explaining survey data reviewed in recent years on the Latvian perception of China.
6
Norah, Gallagher, et Shan Wenhua. Chinese Investment Treaties. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law:iic/9780199230259.001.1.
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China's success in attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) in the last decade is undisputed and unprecedented. It is currently the second largest FDI recipient in the world, a success partially due to China's efforts to enter into bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and other international investment instruments. This book is a comprehensive commentary on Chinese BITs. Chinese investment treaties have typically provided international forums for settling investment disputes such as the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). Given the continuous growth of FDI in China, the emergence of state-investor disagreements in China, and the dramatic rise of investment treaty based arbitrations world wide in recent years, it is anticipated that there will be an increasing number of investment arbitrations involving the central and local governments of China. This book reviews and analyzes China's approach to foreign investment. It considers the current role of investment treaties in China's foreign economic policy, analyzes and interprets the key provisions of the BITs, and discusses the future agenda of China's investment program. It looks at how this investment regime interconnects with the domestic system and considers the implications for a foreign investor in China.
7
Ruizhuang, Zhang. Despite the “New Assertiveness,” China Is Not Up for Challenging the Global Order. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190675387.003.0012.
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History shows that the rise and fall of great powers are conducive to conflict and war, while realist international theories try to prove there is an irresistible logic to this historical lesson. If China has indeed risen to a full-fledged great power, the rest of the world does have reason to worry about its intentions and strategy toward the current global order. But does that premise hold up? Despite China’s phenomenal economic growth and the widespread “second place” bubble, China’s economy is not as strong as it appears. The chapter argues that China still has a long way to go to catch up to the current superpower, the United States, but its growth is more unsustainable than analysts tend to assume. China has neither the capability nor the intention to destabilize the current world order, and this defines China as not a revisionist but rather as a status quo state.
8
Layne, Christopher. The Sound of Distant Thunder. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190675387.003.0007.
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The chapter compares the pre-1914 Anglo-German antagonism with the current Sino-American relationship to address two issues. First, does the rise of new great powers lead to war? Second, are rising great powers prone to challenge the existing international order into which they emerge—that is, are rising great powers “revisionists”? China’s rapid ascent has pushed these two questions to the top of the agendas of both international relations scholars and policy makers alike. This chapter shows that the United States and China are on a collision course. Like Britain and Germany before World War I, the United States and China seem fated, at best, to engage in an intense security competition; at worst, war between them is a real possibility. One reason the Sino-American rivalry is intensifying is because a rising China inevitably will seek to revise the current international order that the United States established after World War II.
9
Bolsover, Gillian. China. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190931407.003.0010.
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Computational propaganda is a growing concern in Western democracies, with evidence of online opinion manipulation orchestrated by robots, fake accounts, and misinformation in many recent political events. China, the country with the most sophisticated regime of Internet censorship and control in the world, presents an interesting and under-studied example of how computational propaganda is used. This chapter summarizes the landscape of current knowledge in relation to public opinion manipulation in China. It addressees the questions of whether and how computational propaganda is being used in and about China, whose interests are furthered by this computational propaganda; and what is the effect of this computational propaganda on the landscape of online information in and about China. It also addresses the issue of how the case of computational propaganda in China can inform the current efforts of Western democracies to tackle fake news, online bots, and computational propaganda. This chapter presents four case studies of computational propaganda in and about China: the Great Firewall and the Golden Shield project; positive propaganda on Twitter aimed at foreign audiences; the anti–Chinese state bots on Twitter; and domestic public opinion manipulation on Weibo. Surprisingly, I find that there is little evidence of automation on Weibo and little evidence of automation associated with state interests on Twitter. However, I find that issues associated with anti-state perspectives, such as the pro-democracy movement, contain a large amount of automation, dominating Chinese-language information in certain hashtags associated with China and Chinese politics on Twitter.
10
Jacob, Jabin T. China’s Evolving Strategy in the Indian Ocean Region. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199479337.003.0013.
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Jabin T. Jacob, an Indian analyst on China, provides a more skeptical view on the MSR and the risks China faces in that initiative. Jacob argues that the challenge of the MSR initiative for China is not just the obvious strategic benefits, but also the consequences of the potential failure of the strategy. This might happen due to China’s current economic slowdown which would affect China’s neighbours too. The potential failure of Xi Jinping’s grand foreign policy project also has consequences for his own credibility at home and for the Communist Party of China. If the cash runs out and the going gets tough, might China resort to tested methods of focusing on military assistance, not only in Pakistan, but in other South Asian countries, with potential adverse consequences for India?
11
Bolt, Paul J., et Sharyl N. Cross. Emerging Non-traditional Security Challenges. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198719519.003.0005.
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Chapter 5 focuses on three emerging non-traditional security challenges identified as critical concerns or “main threats” for both Russia and China: color revolutions, cyber and information security, and terrorism and violent extremism. There is a high degree of coincidence between Russian and Chinese perspectives on these issues, recognizing the vulnerabilities that each presents for state security. Russia and China oppose color revolutions, strongly argue that authoritarian regimes have full international legitimacy, and resist attempts to undermine sovereignty in promoting democratization or regime transition. China and Russia attempt to influence international standards on freedom of expression in cyberspace by urging greater UN control over the Internet and engaging in censorship to protect state stability over free expression. While Russia, China, and the West struggle against terrorists who use violence to reshape the international order, China and Russia define terrorism more broadly to include all who might threaten to undermine the current government.
12
Balding, Christopher, et Kevin Chastagner. The China Investment Corporation. Sous la direction de Douglas Cumming, Geoffrey Wood, Igor Filatotchev et Juliane Reinecke. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198754800.013.17.
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China’s sovereign wealth fund (SWF), the China Investment Corporation (CIC), was established in 2007 and has grown to become the fourth largest SWF in the world with assets and offices spanning the globe. This chapter looks at the range of unique factors that need to be understood in order to place the CIC in context. When China decided to form its own SWF, it decided to do so by borrowing from the central bank in a complicated swap transaction in order to highlight the CIC’s independence from existing entities like the People’s Bank of China and the State Administration of Foreign Exchange. While most SWFs grow from an excess of natural resource wealth, the Chinese SWF is unique in that it grew out of years of current account surpluses accumulated from ensuring a fixed exchange rate. The chapter discusses the macroeconomic interplay between China and the CIC.
13
Kehoe, Séagh, et Gerda Wielander, dir. Cultural China 2020 : The Contemporary China Centre Review. University of Westminster Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.16997/book58.
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Cultural China is a unique annual publication for up-to-date, informed, and accessible commentary about Chinese and Sinophone languages, cultural practices, politics and production, and their critical analysis. It builds on the University of Westminster’s Contemporary China Centre Blog, providing additional reflective introductory pieces to contextualise each of the eight chapters. The articles in this Review speak to the turbulent year that was 2020 as it unfolded across Cultural China. Thematically, they range from celebrity culture, fashion and beauty, to religion and spirituality, via language politics, heritage, and music. Pieces on representations of China in Britain and the Westminster Chinese Visual Arts Project reflect our particular location and home. Many of the articles in this book focus on the People’s Republic of China, but they also draw attention to the multiple Chinese and Sinophone cultural practices that exist within, across, and beyond national borders. The Review is distinctive in its cultural studies-based approach and contributes a much-needed critical perspective from the Humanities to the study of Cultural China. It aims to promote interdisciplinary dialogue and debate about the social, cultural, political, and historical dynamics that inform life in Cultural China today, offering academics, activists, practitioners, and politicians a key reference with which to situate current events in and relating to Cultural China in a wider context.
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Ebenstein, Avraham, et Ethan J. Sharygin. Demographic Change, Prostitution, and Sexually Transmitted Infection Rates in China. Sous la direction de Scott Cunningham et Manisha Shah. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199915248.013.23.
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China has experienced an explosion in the sex ratio at birth, with 25 million more men than women younger than 20 (2005 census). This chapter examines the implications of large numbers of men failing to marry on the supply-and-demand dynamics of sex work, with a focus on how this affects the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). The chapter begins with a history of prostitution in China and describes the massive increase in sex work following economic reforms in the late 1970s. It then analyzes the current dynamics of demand and supply for sex work in China, using national census data and detailed microdata on sex workers. The authors find a clear link between high-population sex ratios, the prevalence of sex work, and STI rates. The analysis concludes with projections for the future and a discussion of policy responses in light of an anticipated increase in sex work.
15
Dean, Austin. China and the End of Global Silver, 1873-1937. Cornell University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501752407.001.0001.
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In the late nineteenth century, as much of the world adopted some variant of the gold standard, China remained the most populous country still using silver. Yet China had no unified national currency; there was not one monetary standard but many. Silver coins circulated alongside chunks of silver and every transaction became an “encounter of wits.” This book focuses on how officials, policy makers, bankers, merchants, academics, and journalists in China and around the world answered a simple question: how should China change its monetary system? Far from a narrow, technical issue, Chinese monetary reform is a dramatic story full of political revolutions, economic depressions, chance, and contingency. As different governments in China attempted to create a unified monetary standard in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the United States, England, and Japan tried to shape the direction of Chinese monetary reform for their own benefit. This book argues convincingly that the silver era in world history ended owing to the interaction of imperial competition in East Asia and the state-building projects of different governments in China. When the Nationalist government of China went off the silver standard in 1935, it marked a key moment not just in Chinese history but in world history.
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Brazelton, Mary Augusta. Mass Vaccination. Cornell University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501739989.001.0001.
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While the eradication of smallpox has long been documented, not many know the Chinese roots of this historic achievement. This book examines the People's Republic of China's public health campaigns of the 1950s to explain just how China managed to inoculate almost six hundred million people against this and other deadly diseases. The book tells the story of the people, materials, and systems that built these campaigns, exposing how, by improving the nation's health, the Chinese Communist Party quickly asserted itself in the daily lives of all citizens. This crusade had deep roots in the Republic of China during the Second Sino-Japanese War, when researchers in China's southwest struggled to immunize as many people as possible, both in urban and rural areas. But its legacy was profound, providing a means for the state to develop new forms of control and of engagement. The book considers the implications of vaccination policies for national governance, from rural health care to Cold War-era programs of medical diplomacy. By embedding Chinese medical history within international currents, the book highlights how and why China became an exemplar of primary health care at a crucial moment in global health policy.
17
Huang, Yukon. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190630034.003.0001.
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Few countries get the public’s attention to the extent that China does. And few generate such diverging views concerning its economic, social, and political evolution. This chapter sets the context by noting China’s impressive economic achievements as well as current financial difficulties. Markets are questioning whether China can survive the threat of looming debt and property-market bubbles, while the general public is more concerned with the country’s political stability and security as Beijing becomes more aggressive in its claims over neighboring islands. How does one explain such extreme variation in views? Many factors are involved, which makes it difficult to be ideologically neutral regarding this emerging great power. If the diagnosis is wrong, then likely so are the policy prescriptions.
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Zou, Hongyan. Western China on Screen. Edinburgh University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474477857.001.0001.
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This book examines how films set in western China have represented cities since the 1980s by drawing on spatial theories first proposed by Henry Lefebvre and further developed in Edward Soja’s Thirdspace theory. Focusing on the cinematic representation of urban centres located in western China, this book breaks the long-standing stereotypes of the region established in the ethnographic films of China’s Fifth Generation filmmakers. The twelve films examined in this book record and represent a dynamic space transforming from enclosed spaces of production, traditional values, political inertia and socialist capsules to heterogeneous spaces of consumption, modern practices, national power and disappearance under the discourses of urbanisation and modernisation. This spatial transformation of western China diversifies the glamourised images of the post-socialist, technocratic metropolises of Beijing and Shanghai. Analysing the real and imagined spaces represented in and by the films, this book advances the current research on China’s urban cinema by orchestrating space, class, gender, post-colonialism and post-socialism in discussion. It concludes that cinematic western China acts as a space of resistance that reflects the political and ideological power imposed on urban development and lives of the residents in the region; This space of resistance also breaks down such dichotomies as China’s developing west-developed east, countryside-city, tradition-modernity and submission-domination by preserving and presenting multi-layered realities in contemporary western China.
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Duggan, Niall, Wei Shen et Jörn-Carsten Gottwald. Global Governance with Chinese Characteristics ? Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793342.003.0008.
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The socio-economic development of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) can be seen as a tectonic shift in the global order. One of the oldest civilizations, which had withdrawn from the pillars of the international system, China has tentatively rejoined organizations of global governance, yet, in spite of its huge population and its growing economic clout, it has not fully embraced the concept. This chapter analyses China’s changing foreign policy attitude and approach in light of the changing global economic order following the 2008 financial crisis, as well as its contributions to reform of global governance, especially in the context of the G20. The cultural and ideological roots of Chinese proposals and critiques of G20 policies are outlined and compared with the underlying Western principles of the current system of global governance.
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Slingerland, Edward. Mind and Body in Early China. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190842307.001.0001.
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Drawing upon cutting-edge knowledge and techniques from the sciences and digital humanities, Mind and Body in Early China employs the lens of mind-body concepts to critique Orientalist accounts of early China. Views of China as the radical, “holistic” Other are unsupportable for a variety of reasons. The idea that the early Chinese saw no qualitative difference between mind and body (the “strong” holist view) has long been contradicted by traditional archaeological and qualitative textual evidence. New digital humanities methods, such as large-scale textual analysis, make this position even less tenable. Finally, a large body of empirical evidence suggests that “weak” mind-body dualism is a psychological universal, and that human sociality would be fundamentally impossible without it. More broadly, this book argues that the humanities need to move beyond social constructivist views of culture and embrace instead a view of human cognition and culture that integrates the sciences and the humanities. Methodologically, it attempts to broaden the scope of humanistic methodologies by employing team-based qualitative coding and computer-aided “distant reading” of texts, while also drawing upon current best understanding of human cognition to transform the basic interpretative starting point. It has implications for anyone interested in comparative religion, early China, cultural studies, digital humanities, or science-humanities integration.
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Cynthia, Roberts, Leslie Armijo et Saori Katada. Global Power Shift. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190697518.003.0002.
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This chapter evaluates multiple dimensions of the global power shift from the incumbent G5/G7 powers to the rising powers, especially the members of the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa). Taking note of alternative conceptualizations of interstate “power,” the text maps the redistribution of economic capabilities from the G7 to the BRICS, most particularly the relative rise of China and decline of Japan, and especially Europe. Given these clear trends in measurable material capabilities, the BRICS have obtained considerable autonomy from outside pressures. Although the BRICS’ economic, financial, and monetary capabilities remain uneven, their relative positions have improved steadily. Via extensive data analysis, the chapter finds that whether one examines China alone or the BRICS as a group, BRICS members have achieved the necessary capabilities to challenge the global economic and financial leadership of the currently dominant powers, perhaps even the United States one day.
22
Wang, Zhizheng. Systematic Government Access to Private-Sector Data in China. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190685515.003.0011.
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This chapter focuses on China’s systematic government access to private-sector data. In accordance with facilitating Chinese e-government construction, many laws made for the purpose of state security, public security, censorship, and taxation have granted the Chinese government extensive power of access to private-sector data generated in such businesses as information, finance, trade, travel, entertainment, and so on, operated in China. There are no laws or practices related to governmental systematic access currently found in China. However, this kind of systematic data access will certainly find itself anytime in the future enforcement and ensuing legislation once the Chinese government realizes it is necessary with the evolution of e-government strategy.
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Whittaker, D. Hugh, Timothy Sturgeon, Toshie Okita et Tianbiao Zhu. Compressed Development. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198744948.001.0001.
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This book highlights the importance of time and timing in economic and social development. ‘Compressed development’ consists of two key features and their interaction: the tendency for development processes to unfold more rapidly (compression) and the institution-shaping influences of major periods of change and growth, especially when countries become integrated into the global economy (era). Using an interdisciplinary conceptual framework of state–market and organization–technology co-evolution, the authors contrast the experiences of ‘early’ and ‘late’ developers such as the United Kingdom and Japan, with countries–most notably China–which have become more deeply integrated with the global economy since the 1990s. Compressed developers experience ‘thin industrialization’, layered types of employment, and ‘double burdens’ or challenges in social development. National development strategies must accommodate global value chains and powerful international actors on the one hand, and decentralization on the other. To cope, and thrive, states must remain developmental, whilst being increasingly engaged and adaptive in multiple levels of governance. Compressed Development explores the historical and contemporary features of economic and social development at the intersection of development studies and studies of globalization. By bringing a new perspective on the ‘middle-income trap’, as well as the emerging digital economy, and the state–market and geopolitical tensions that are currently upending conventional wisdoms, the book offers timely insights that will be useful, not only for students of development, but for policymakers, business, and labour organization seeking to navigate the rushing currents of contemporary capitalism.
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Grare, Frédéric. India and Australia’s Paradoxical Strategic Relationship. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190859336.003.0006.
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After decades of mutual indifference, India’s and Australia’s strategic interests are converging. Both countries share increasing apprehension about China’s rise. Yet, despite a common concern regarding Chinese assertiveness and growing trade between the two countries, engagement remains limited. Both states see a lot of risk but few security benefits in appearing confrontational toward China. Moreover, their respective partnerships with the United States constrain the development of their bilateral security relations as they feel no need to deviate from their current parallel trajectory. In that sense the relations between India and Australia illustrate the limits of the Look East Policy. Deep ambivalence persists between the two countries and defence cooperation is largely restricted to soft security and dialogue. Both sides remain cautious about giving the relationship a strategic significance that could be interpreted as the beginning of a coalition against China.
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Minh, Pham Quang, et Detlef Briesen, dir. Collaboration in Water Resource Management in Vietnam and South-East Asia. Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft mbH & Co. KG, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.5771/9783748908760.
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Water, water resources and water resource management have become one of the most challenging non-traditional cross-border security problems for humankind today. In this anthology, based on first-hand documents, experts try to provide an insightful understanding of why the Greater Mekong Subregion is important from a geo-strategic perspective, what historical and current challenges the region faces, how great powers, including China, India, Japan and the US, are involved in the Greater Mekong Subregion, and what that region can learn from other regions with regard to water resource management.
26
Larson, Deborah Welch, et Alexei Shevchenko. Quest for Status. Yale University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.12987/yale/9780300236040.001.0001.
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This book argues that the desire for world status plays a key role in shaping the foreign policies of China and Russia. Applying social identity theory—the idea that individuals derive part of their identity from larger communities—to nations, the book contends that China and Russia have used various modes of emulation, competition, and creativity to gain recognition from other countries, and thus validate their respective identities. To make this argument, the book analyzes numerous cases, including Catherine the Great's attempts to westernize Russia, China's identity crises in the nineteenth century, and both countries' responses to the end of the Cold War. The book employs a multifaceted method of measuring status, factoring in influence and inclusion in multinational organizations, military clout, and cultural sway, among other considerations. Combined with historical precedent, this socio-psychological approach helps explain current trends in Russian and Chinese foreign policy.
27
Bui, Ngoc Son. Constitutional Change in the Contemporary Socialist World. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198851349.001.0001.
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This book explores and explains how and why the five current socialist countries (China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam) have changed their constitutions since the fall of the Cold War and the rise of globalization. It demonstrates that constitution-making, replacement, and amendment in the contemporary socialist world display the dynamic constitution, party institutionalization, power distribution, rights universalization, and economic marketization. The function of this progressive constitutional change is to facilitate the active role of the party-state in improving the living conditions of local residents. Integrating comparative constitutional law and social sciences, this book explains the intellectual foundations, legal-institutional aspects, and political economy of socialist constitutional change. This book identifies five divergent models of socialist constitutional change depending on the prominence of influential factors: universal convergence (Vietnam), ethnic integration (Laos), historical reservation (Cuba), exceptional attitude (China), and personal rule (North Korea).
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Houlden, Gordon, Scott N. Romaniuk et Nong Hong, dir. Security, Strategy, and Military Dynamics in South China Sea. Policy Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529213454.001.0001.
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This book provides fresh perspectives on geopolitical concerns in the South China Sea (SCS). It considers the interests and security strategies of each of the nations with a claim to ownership and jurisdiction in the Sea. The SCS disputes are multidimensional and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is selectively involved in some aspects of these dimensions. The book addresses the major pillars of conflict and geostrategic interest in the SCS, beginning with territorial sovereignty disputes among claimant parties over various land features in the South China Sea. It also covers maritime area claims and maritime rights claims by the disputant parties. Examining contexts including the region's natural resources and China's behaviour, the book also assesses the motivations and approaches of other states in Asia and further afield. It is an accessible, even-handed and comprehensive examination of current and future rivalries and challenges in one of the most strategically important and militarized maritime regions of the world.
29
Redding, Gordon. The Smaller Economies of Pacific Asia and Their Business Systems. Sous la direction de Alan M. Rugman. Oxford University Press, 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199234257.003.0024.
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What came to be known as the Asian miracle took place in a number of quite varied contexts in countries outside the major states Japan and China, and the way in which these smaller economies have built their development trajectories in the years after 1960 has been a matter of serious attention among policymakers worldwide. Japan and China are given specific attention elsewhere in this volume and so this article considers the rest of Pacific Asia. It aims to outline the systems of business which have come to characterize the following clusters of countries: first, South Korea which stands on its own as a distinct case; second, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore which are essentially Chinese in their ethnic make-up, their current political structures, and their business behaviour, but which nevertheless display great differences among themselves; third, the ASEAN group outside Singapore, again containing variety but with certain key common denominators.
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Fawcett, Louise, dir. International Relations of the Middle East. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hepl/9780198809425.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
International Relations of the Middle East provides a guide to the subject of international relations in this important region. It combines the analysis of the key themes, actors, and issues with the history of the region, and insights from international experts. The text provides a thematic overview of the subject, combining history with analysis, as well as topical material and perspectives. The text also offers a wide range of perspectives, encouraging readers to think critically to formulate their own arguments and opinions. Finally, it provides current, topical insights, including developments such as the Syrian conflict, the increasing importance of Russia and China in the region, and the impact of the Trump administration. One chapter looks at Russia, China, and the Middle East and examines the role of these increasingly important actors in the region. The text also includes coverage of the most recent developments, including those relating to the conflict in Syria, the refugee crisis, so-called Islamic State, and the impact of Trump.
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Murray, Chris. China from the Ruins of Athens and Rome. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198767015.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Fascinated and often baffled by China, Anglophone writers turned to classics for answers. In poetry, essays, and travel narratives, ancient Greece and Rome lent interpretative paradigms and narrative shape to Britain’s information on the Middle Kingdom. While memoirists of the diplomatic missions in 1793 and 1816 used classical ideas to introduce Chinese concepts, Roman history held ominous precedents for Sino–British relations according to Edward Gibbon and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. John Keats illuminated how peculiar such contemporary processes of Orientalist knowledge-formation were. In Britain, popular opinion on Chinese culture wavered during the nineteenth century, as Charles Lamb and Joanna Baillie demonstrated in ekphrastic responses to chinoiserie. A former reverence for China yielded gradually to hostility, and the classical inheritance informed a national identity-crisis over whether Britain’s treatment of China was civilized or barbaric. Amidst this uncertainty, the melancholy conclusion to Virgil’s Aeneid became the master-text for the controversy over British conduct at the Summer Palace in 1860. Yet if Rome was to be the model for the British Empire, Tennyson, Sara Coleridge, and Thomas de Quincey found closer analogues for the Opium Wars in Greek tragedy and Homeric epic. Meanwhile, Sinology advanced considerably during the Victorian age, with translations of Laozi and Zhuangzi placed in dialogue with the classical tradition. Classics changed too, with not only canonical figures invoked in discussions of China, but current interests such as Philostratus and Porphyry. Britain broadened its horizons by interrogating the cultural past anew as it turned to Asia: Anglophone readers were cosmopolitans in time as well as space, aggregating knowledge of Periclean Athens, imperial Rome, and many other polities in their encounters with Qing Dynasty China.
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Nyman, Jonna. The Energy Security Paradox. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198820444.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The decisions we make about energy shape our present and our future. From geopolitical tension to environmental degradation and an increasingly unstable climate, these choices infiltrate the very air we breathe. Energy security politics has direct impact on the continued survival of human life as we know it, and the earth cannot survive if we continue consuming fossil energy at current rates. The low carbon transition is simply not happening fast enough, and change is unlikely without a radical change in how we approach energy security. But thinking on energy security has failed to keep up with these changing realities. Energy security is primarily considered to be about the availability of reliable and affordable energy supplies—having enough energy—and it remains closely linked to national security. The Energy Security Paradox looks at contemporary energy security politics in the United States and China, demonstrating that current energy security practices actually lead to a security paradox: they produce insecurity. Based on in-depth empirical analysis, it develops the ‘energy security paradox’ as a framework for understanding the interconnected insecurities produced by current practices. However, it also goes beyond this, examining resistance to current practices to highlight that we not only can do energy security differently: this is already happening. In the process, it demonstrates that the value of security depends on the context. Based on this, it proposes a radical reconsideration of how we approach and practice energy security.
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Silva, Peri da. Brazil, the BRICS, and the Changing Landscape of Global Economic Governance. Sous la direction de Edmund Amann, Carlos R. Azzoni et Werner Baer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190499983.013.31.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This chapter investigates the current as well as the potential degree of cooperation among the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) economies. It shows that the increasing degree of economic interdependency among these economies is not a result of cooperative measures implemented by this group of nations. Moreover, the chapter suggests that the potential degree of cooperation among the BRICs is limited due to the presence of several economic asymmetries among these countries. The chapter concludes that the Brazilian diplomatic efforts to use the BRICs as a platform to pursue the national interests of Brazil has not yet generated concrete results.
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Poling, Gregory B. On Dangerous Ground. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197633984.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The book explores the history of U.S. involvement in the South China Sea disputes from the late nineteenth century through the present day. The work seeks to explain which U.S. national interests best explain its positions on the disputes over the course of more than a century. It determines that two have been most abiding: defense of freedom of the seas and the credibility of U.S. alliance commitments, particularly to the Philippines. As a result, the book examines not just the evolution of the South China Sea disputes but how those intersected with monumental shifts in the law of the sea and the state of the U.S.-Philippines alliance over the course of the twentieth century. The book also serves as a general history of the territorial and maritime disputes, providing a comprehensive overview of the factors that drove each party to stake claims, undertake new occupations, and occasionally resort to the threat or use of force. These threads come together in a forward-looking analysis of the current state of play and options for the United States and like-minded partners to pursue their long-standing interests in the face of a status quo which China has radically altered in just a few short years.
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Lapsia, Vijay, Bernard Jaar et A. Ahsan Ejaz, dir. Kidney Protection. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190611620.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Kidney disease is a crippling disease that affects approximately ten percent of the population worldwide, with more than 2.6 million individuals estimated to receive renal replace therapy. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is fast becoming a major public health issue even in resource poor settings, with some estimates predicting a disproportionate increase in countries such as China and India. Consequently, renal protection has become a vital and critical component of prevention. While observational data suggests that awareness remains low, the concept of renal protection is currently under-recognized in promoting recovery as well as preventing further renal loss. Kidney Protection: Strategies for Renal Preservation is a clinically applicable review of the current medical care and research that aims to address the awareness gap. The authors combine renal protection research and clinical practices with an interdisciplinary approach that is inclusive of nephrology,urology, critical care, anesthesia, emergency medicine and clinical medicine.Written by experts in the field of nephrology, the authors have also included applicable photographs and line drawings. The specific topics covered include: protection of the kidneys in hypertension, diabetes and heart disease, exposure to contrast including coronary angiogram, atherosclerosis, and more. This handbook is formatted to emphasize clinical practice points and major systemic illnesses. Additionally, it features the latest evidence-based practice guidelines for optimal renal outcomes, thus, making it a concise reference for the busy clinician interested in understanding the basics of kidney disease assessment, renal injury prevention, and renal preservation.
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Bacha, Carlos José Caetano. The Agricultural Sector. Sous la direction de Edmund Amann, Carlos R. Azzoni et Werner Baer. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190499983.013.13.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This chapter analyzes the evolution of agriculture in Brazil from the early sixteenth century until the second decade of the twenty-first century. It focuses on seven domestic and external conditioning factors that have stimulated and supported the sector’s expansion in Brazil. These factors and the way that they have impacted agricultural expansion and will continue to drive Brazil’s agricultural sector for at least the next two decades. Given the availability of fallow arable land, at current productivity levels, this idle area could be used to double crop production. The transference of road operation to the regulated private sector will lead to improved road surfaces and maintenance, thereby facilitating the transportation of agricultural production to exporting ports. The reduction of agricultural sector subsidies and the increased forest conservation efforts by the European Union should improve Brazilian agriculture’s competitive position in many foreign markets currently served by EU farmers. The increasing share of Brazil’s agricultural production sold in world markets makes the country’s agricultural sector more vulnerable than ever to uncontrollable outside forces. World economic growth, especially that of China and the European countries, is a necessity if the Brazilian agricultural sector is to continue expanding and improving efficiencies. Most Brazilian agricultural inputs continue to be produced by foreign companies or their Brazilian subsidiaries. These overseas entities are a very strong force in the domestic inputs market and represent another uncontrollable factor that affects local farmers’ earnings and Brazil’s balance of trade.
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Han, Enze. Asymmetrical Neighbors. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190688301.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Asymmetrical Neighbors explains the variations in state building across the borderland area between China, Myanmar, and Thailand. It presents a comparative historical account of the state and nation-building processes in the ethnically diverse and geographically rugged borderland area where China meets Southeast Asia. It argues the failure of the Myanmar state to consolidate its control over its borderland area is partly due to the political and military meddling by its two more powerful neighbors during the Cold War. Furthermore, both China and Thailand, being more economically advanced than Myanmar, have exerted heavy economic influence on the borderland area at the cost of Myanmar’s economic sovereignty. The book provides a historical account of the borderland that traces the pattern of relations between valley states and upland people before the mid-twentieth century. Then it discusses the implications of the Chinese nationalist KMT troops in Burma and Thailand and Burmese and Thai communist insurgencies since the mid-1960s on attempts by the three states to consolidate their respective borderland areas. The book also portrays the dynamics of the borderland economy and the dominance of both China and Thailand on Myanmar’s borderland territory in the post-Cold War period. It further discusses the comparative nation-building processes among the three states and the implications for the ethnic minority groups in the borderland area and their national identity contestations. Finally, the book provides an updated account of the current ethnic conflicts along Myanmar’s restive borderland and its ongoing peace negotiation process.
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Bolt, Paul J., et Sharyl N. Cross. Historical Foundations, Strategic Visions, and World Order. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198719519.003.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Chapter 1 explores perspectives on world order, including power relationships and the rules that shape state behavior and perceptions of legitimacy. After outlining a brief history of the relationship between Russia and China that ranged from cooperation to military clashes, the chapter details Chinese and Russian perspectives on the contemporary international order as shaped by their histories and current political situation. Chinese and Russian views largely coincide on security issues, the desirability of a more multipolar order, and institutions that would enhance their standing in the world. While the Chinese–Russian partnership has accelerated considerably, particularly since the crisis in Ukraine in 2014, there are still some areas of competition that limit the extent of the relationship.
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Heine, Steven. Traditions. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190637491.003.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Chapter 1 provides an overview of major trends and movements leading up to and contributing to the successful transmission of the Chinese Chan tradition to Japan while considering methodological problems that arise in conducting research on East Asian religion and culture in the post–World War II era. Set against the historical context of Song-dynasty China and Kamakura-era Japan, the chapter shows how and when Zen took hold in Japan with the rise of the shogun government by highlighting the differences between Chinese and Japanese societies during the period of transplantation. The chapter also explains current methods and scholarly developments involving the study of Zen by various leading researchers on both sides of the Pacific.
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Krzywdzinski, Martin. Theory and State of the Research. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198806486.003.0002.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This chapter discusses the state of the current research on workplace consent in authoritarian states. It reviews the existing empirical studies of factory regimes in Russia and China and existing theories of workplace consent. The core of the chapter focuses on developing the theoretical approach used in the study. This approach centers on three consent-generation mechanisms: socialization, incentives, and participation. Taken together, these mechanisms are referred to as the factory regime. Based on the assumption that participation mechanisms are absent or underdeveloped in authoritarian societies, the chapter develops the thesis that, to generate consent and compensate for the lack of participation, authoritarian societies need to rely on very intensive organizational socialization processes (including social engineering) and material incentives.
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Democracy in Asia and the Pacific Outlook 2023 : Discussion Paper 1/2023. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA) and Perludem, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.31752/idea.2023.7.
Texte intégralRésumé :
On 5–6 December 2022, International IDEA gathered 30 leading experts on democracy, anti-corruption and human rights at the inaugural Democracy in Asia and the Pacific Outlook Forum. Representing 23 institutions and organizations from 12 countries, attendees discussed key trends in democracy in the Asia and the Pacific region over the course of seven topical sessions. The sessions were previously defined by a round of consultations and interviews with several experts on democracy and human rights. The sessions—on human rights; regional cooperation; climate change; China; disinformation; electoral authoritarianism and militarization; and political finance—attempted to take stock of the current state of democracy in the region and forecast the determining factors in the year to come.
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Acharya, Amitava. India’s ‘Look East’ Policy. Sous la direction de David M. Malone, C. Raja Mohan et Srinath Raghavan. Oxford University Press, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198743538.013.33.
Texte intégralRésumé :
India’s relationship with its eastern neighbours has evolved from pan-Asian romanticism and assertive leadership in the late 1940s and 1950s, to isolation and neglect following its defeat in the 1962 war with China, and finally to a more pragmatic resolve since the early 1990s to seek integration with the region and to benefit from its economic dynamism. But while the economic dimension of India’s ‘look east’ policy remains far from realizing its full potential, a strategic dimension has emerged, namely India’s role as a useful political and diplomatic counterweight to Chinese influence in the Asian security architecture. Another dimension of India’s ‘look east’ policy, its participation in Asian regionalism, has New Delhi pursuing a somewhat passive role under ASEAN’s leadership. The ‘look east’ policy faces new challenges as India must reconcile its role as an emerging power, with its traditional tendency to isolate itself from external economic and geopolitical currents.
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Chung, Jae Ho. Centrifugal Empire. Columbia University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7312/columbia/9780231176200.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Despite the destabilizing potential of governing of a vast territory and a large multicultural population, the centralized government of the People’s Republic of China has held together for decades, resisting efforts at local autonomy. By analyzing Beijing’s strategies for maintaining control even in the reformist post-Mao era, Centrifugal Empire reveals the unique thinking behind China’s approach to local governance, its historical roots, and its deflection of divergent interests. Centrifugal Empire examines the logic, mode, and instrument of local governance established by the People’s Republic, and then compares the current system to the practices of its dynastic predecessors. The result is an expansive portrait of Chinese leaders’ attitudes toward regional autonomy and local challenges, one concerned with territory-specific preoccupations and manifesting in constant searches for an optimal design of control. Jae Ho Chung reveals how current communist instruments of local governance echo imperial institutions, while exposing the Leninist regime’s savvy adaptation to contemporary issues and its need for more sophisticated inter-local networks to keep its unitary rule intact. He casts the challenges to China’s central–local relations as perennial, since the dilution of the system’s “socialist” or “Communist” character will only accentuate its fundamentally Chinese—or centrifugal—nature.
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Biscop, Sven. Grand Strategy in 10 Words. Policy Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529217506.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In a world that has returned to great power rivalry, understanding the grand strategy of these powers is crucial. This book introduces ten key terms for analysing grand strategy: simple, competitive, rational, allied, comprehensive, creative, agile, courageous, dirty, and proactive. Analysing both historical examples and current strategies, the book shows how the world’s great powers – the United States, China, Russia and the European Union (EU) – shape their strategic decisions today. Outlining the steps needed for a less confrontational grand strategy and a more peaceful and stable world order, this lively and accessible introduction, peppered with insights from world leaders, generals, and strategists, shows how the choices made in each of these ten areas will determine the course of international politics in the first half of the 21st century.
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Cynthia, Roberts, Leslie Armijo et Saori Katada. BRICS Collective Financial Statecraft. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190697518.003.0003.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This chapter examines four ideal types of collective financial statecraft of the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) in four case studies occurring between 2007 and mid-2016. The first type is inside reforms of existing institutions, illustrated by the BRICS’ attempt to gain greater influence within the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank. A second type is inside reforms of markets, defined as resisting or reallocating the political power accruing to states that possess currency and financial market power. The associated case profiles the BRICS’ opposition to sanctions against Russia over its intervention in Ukraine. A third type of BRICS collective action occurs via the outside option to create new parallel institutions such as the New Development Bank (NDB) and Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA). Finally, a fourth type combines the choice of an outside option with a market-based venue. The chapter examines BRICS support of greater internationalization of China’s currency, rivaling the U.S. dollar and thus altering international financial markets. The BRICS have cooperated successfully in most of their attempts.
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Zhang, Yingjin. Structure and Rupture in Literary History and Historiography. Sous la direction de Carlos Rojas et Andrea Bachner. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199383313.013.34.
Texte intégralRésumé :
In rethinking modern Chinese literary history, we may draw on insights from two relatively new approaches in the West: postmodern literary history as represented by the Harvard University Press’s “new history” series, and comparative literary history as realized in two multivolume literary histories on Central-Eastern Europe and Latin America, respectively. It is time to move research forward beyond the current divergence between a persistent lack of interest in Chinese literary history in English scholarship and an inundation of literary histories in Chinese. Recent calls in China for defamilarization and microhistories demonstrate the desire to break away from the orthodox model of comprehensive historiography, and a comparative examination of literary historiography in Chinese will further develop a new structural view of modern Chinese literary history in terms of rupture, diversity, and heterogeneity rather than the previous emphasis on continuity, singularity, and homogeneity.
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Sidel, John T. Republicanism, Communism, Islam. Cornell University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501755613.001.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This book provides an alternate vantage point for understanding the variegated forms and trajectories of revolution across the Philippines, Indonesia, and Việtnam, a perspective that is de-nationalized, internationalized, and transnationalized. The book positions this new vantage point against the conventional framing of revolutions in modern Southeast Asian history in terms of a nationalist template, on the one hand, and distinctive local cultures and forms of consciousness, on the other. The book's comparative analysis shows how — in very different, decisive, and often surprising ways — the Philippine, Indonesian, and Việtnamese revolutions were informed, enabled, and impelled by diverse cosmopolitan connections and international conjunctures. It addresses the role of Freemasonry in the making of the Philippine revolution, the importance of Communism and Islam in Indonesia's Revolusi, and the influence that shifting political currents in China and anticolonial movements in Africa had on Việtnamese revolutionaries. Through this assessment, the book tracks how these forces, rather than nationalism per se, shaped the forms of these revolutions, the ways in which they unfolded, and the legacies which they left in their wakes.
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Gao, Qin. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190218133.003.0001.
Texte intégralRésumé :
Chapter 1 introduces the Chinese case of welfare, work, and poverty in the global context. It provides an overview of China’s social assistance system, which centers around the Minimum Livelihood Guarantee, or Dibao, currently the world’s largest such program and the focus of this book. The chapter then discusses the four core values and principles that guide the design, implementation, and development of Dibao, including family and community, work and self-sufficiency, paternalist role of the government, and social harmony. It outlines the scope of the book, which is to provide a systematic evaluation of the impact and effectiveness of China’s primary social assistance program, Dibao, and to draw useful policy lessons for China and other countries. The chapter also previews the main findings.
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Rademacher, Heidi E., et Kathleen M. Fallon. The Historical Roots of a Global Feminist Perspective and the Growing Global Focus among U.S. Feminists. Sous la direction de Holly J. McCammon, Verta Taylor, Jo Reger et Rachel L. Einwohner. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190204204.013.9.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This chapter examines the emergence and existence of a global feminist perspective within the United States. The authors argue that the foundation of the relationship between U.S. feminists and global understandings is rooted in women’s international organizing and activism. Examining U.S. feminists’ involvement in international women’s movements from the end of the nineteenth century until post Beijing 95 (the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China), the chapter explores the influence of activism on the evolution of feminist thinking in the United States. The authors conclude by discussing the opportunities, obstacles, and challenges of women’s movements, global feminism, and contemporary feminist scholarship, as it currently affects women and girls within the United States and across the globe.
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Hayward, Keith. Space Capabilities. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790501.003.0046.
Texte intégralRésumé :
This chapter assesses the current state of European military space capabilities as of 2017. Cooperative programmes have become more prominent, but national concerns are still predominant. While European institutions have acquired some military space interests, intergovernmental policymaking is still critical. Europe has a wide range of technological capabilities, but there are gaps in some security critical areas. The European space industrial base is partially integrated but with some tensions stemming from residual national industrial interests. The chapter examines the leading European national military space capabilities as well as a representative sample of other medium and lesser European powers. Europe is compared with other mid-range space powers such as India and Japan, as well as benchmarking against the United States, Russia, and China. While European military space has made significant progress, it is still impeded by political divisions that reflect wider weaknesses in European security policy.