Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Chemical industry – Government policy – International cooperation »

The examination of the U.S.—Japan conflicts from the mid-1980s to early 1990s over the space industry sheds light on our understanding of the Japanese political economy. The Japanese response to U.S. pressure was not so strategic as conventional wisdom suggests. Under U.S. pressure, Japan shifted to international cooperation, abandoning the autonomous development policy it had sought for four decades. This unexpected policy change primarily resulted from the lack of clear jurisdictional authority among the government actors over the rapidly changing space industry. This study's findings will apply to other high technology industries such as telecommunications and information technology, where bureaucratic boundaries are ambiguous and technological change is rapid.

Rising use of digital technologies in the service sector is altering the rules of economic governance and of international trade. Theories of economic development and political economy, such as world-systems theory and Petty’s Law, are being contested by the digital revolution. As technological advances bypass old theory, the service sector is locating globally, with decreasing regard for geography and the assumptions of the old international economic order. This presents new challenges for a legal, commercial and international trade norms and system, which are designed to facilitate tangible cross-border commerce. Old theories of political economy must be revisited to account for the rise of digitally traded services and some, like Petty’s Law, may not survive emergent conditions. The services trade itself is inadequately considered in official government policy, and by international organizations seeking to promote trade, investment and greater cooperation. This work critically evaluates the policy initiatives of major players in trade in light of these trends in the digital economy. While economic institutions claim to advocate policies that are up to date with the new reality of trade, their approaches are still grounded in the superseded economic theories of the twentieth century.

The evolution of the development of the German chemical and pharmaceutical industry from technology borrowing to endogenous innovations and becoming a global leader is shown. It is substantiated that the government of the country promoted the development of a new industry by increasing budget allocations for the training of scientific and industrial personnel; research subsidies; subsidies for transportation and raw materials. It is shown that the formation of large companies has provided economies of scale and accelerated development. The creation of specialized research institutes under the auspices of the government initiated public-private partnerships in research funding, industry associations helped mobilize the public to support the industry, and competent company managers and industry representatives together with prominent statesmen provided concerted action to strengthen its innovation potential. Cultivating the national consciousness that the purchase of German goods is the key to the welfare of the state has determined consumer preferences and has become a powerful stimulus to expand supplies to the domestic market. The introduction of high customs tariffs on finished medicines has provided protection for the new industry in its infancy. The close cooperation of banks with pharmaceutical companies has contributed to the implementation of investment and innovation projects and external expansion. The creation of cartels by chemical and pharmaceutical companies was an institutional response to the unprecedented phenomenon of industrialization and catching up in Germany. It is revealed that at the present stage the Government of Germany through national and regional programs continues to promote the development of technological and innovative potential of pharmaceuticals. The expediency of introduction of mechanisms of endogenization of production development of medicines and medical devices in Ukraine, and also expansion of sales in the domestic market through introduction of preferences at public purchases in the context of protection of essential interests of safety and health of the nation is proved.

This workshop was convened to address common issues and concerns associated with risk management of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs). The talks described the tools and policies for key Japanese, Australian, German, and U.S. regulatory agencies. The agencies participating in the workshop were responsible for the regulation of various substances including: chemicals, pesticides, environmental contamination, pharmaceuticals, and food additives. The panel also described the role of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in standardizing the tools and validation of testing and screening methods. The panel also included nongovernmental organizations presenting the views of the World Wildlife Fund, and the chemical industry from industrialized nations; each organization described its concerns and proposed approaches to risk management of EDCs. This summary highlights the most important areas of common points of view of government, industry, and environmentalists. We also try to identify issues upon which viewpoints diverge.

ABSTRACT New Zealand has embarked upon a new direction in marine oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response. The new direction was driven by a parliamentary review of the Marine Pollution Act that found New Zealand ill prepared to respond to a marine oil spill. The new program put together four key components that depended on government and industry cooperation in a user-pays environment. First, the Marine Pollution Act of 1974 was reformatted into a new Maritime Transport Act (MTA), which brought into focus broad policy guidelines. Second, Marine Protection Rules now provide detailed ongoing program information that changes with updates to industry practice and technology. Third, a Crown entity, the Maritime Safety Authority, was established as the main engine of change. Lastly, oil pollution response was redistributed from the central government into a four-tiered response mechanism. The tiers start with commercial facilities and ships, progress to regional government and then to the national government, and ultimately provide an avenue for international assistance.

German economic policy is a special model of a coordinated market economy, which is based on the tradition of ordoliberalism. This theoretical concept is at the core of the regulation of most economic processes in Germany, and its energy markets are no exception. The article analyses the present state of German gas industry, its transformation in connection with the introduction of the Third Energy Package, the liberalization and development of gas projects. The authors compare the main results of the reforms and the stipulations of the ordoliberal theory. The conclusion is that the German government generally upholds this concept, although sometimes the consequences are of negative nature, manifested in rising prices, added complexity of international natural gas trade, especially with the largest supplier – the Russian Federation. Using the Bertrand competition model, the article justifies the conditions under which the export of liquefied natural gas is beneficial for the Russian Federation.

China has accelerated the pace of shale gas development from 2010. A series of policies were issued by the Chinese government to motivate and regulate shale gas exploration and exploitation. In order to investigate the effectiveness of these policies and provide reference to the policymakers, the most relevant policies from 2010 to 2016 were collected and analyzed. Our study summarized that, in total, eight government agencies issued 25 related policies, which cover all the main problems that impede China’s shale gas industry. With the aid of these policies, the approved research and development (R&D) funds exceed 350 million Chinese yuan (CNY) ($55 million), and over 80 domestic companies participated in exploration rights bidding and nine foreign companies initiated thirteen international cooperation projects. In 2016, China’s shale gas production reached 7.88 × 109 m3, ranking third in the world. However, these policies still have some shortcomings, such as low environmental concerns, weak financial stimulus, and inefficient implementation. Therefore, we suggest that future policy should put particular emphasis on (1) formulating special environmental regulations and determining development scale based on water resource; (2) providing detailed implementation plans and maintaining stable subsidy; (3) enhancing communication and supervision; and (4) establishing a public big data platform.

Yearly, tobacco use kills about 8 million people globally, 80% of whom live in low/middle-income countries. Given sub-Saharan Africa’s (SSA) rapidly increasing and youthful population, growing incomes and the increased presence of the tobacco industry, the number of tobacco users is growing. The region is predicted to face a heavier burden of tobacco-related diseases and deaths in the future. We examined the policy, advocacy, economic and media landscapes of tobacco control as well as tobacco industry interference in SSA. We also highlighted key challenges and priorities for intervention in the region. Their vast financial power has enabled transnational tobacco companies to interfere in tobacco control and slow down policy implementation efforts in SSA. Despite recent gains, inadequate investment in tobacco control has prevented effective tobacco control implementation in SSA. Other challenges include limited locally generated evidence and limited support from mainstream media to back policy and advocacy efforts. Finally, taxation, which is one of the most effective tools for tobacco control, is not yet adequately used in SSA partly due to non-harmonised taxation rates as well as exaggerated and false claims about the potential impacts of increasing taxes, especially that it will increase smuggling. Key priorities to address these challenges include continued strategic funding, capacity building of government and advocacy personnel to strengthen tobacco control governance, regional and institutional cooperation, harmonisation of subregional tax policies, cooperation among international funders, and increased industry monitoring and research in SSA.

ABSTRACT The States/British Columbia Oil Spill Task Force was established in 1989 to enhance spill coordination among the West Coast states and British Columbia, and to address a number of issues that became apparent during the Nestucca barge and Exxon Valdez oil spills. Task Force members are the directors of the oil spill prevention and response agencies in Alaska, British Columbia, California, Oregon, and Washington. The Task Force has become a national model for facilitating cooperation and building consensus between coastal states and provinces and their federal governments. In October of 1990, the task force issued a report containing a comprehensive set of recommendations addressing oil spill prevention, preparedness, and response. The group had achieved remarkable consensus, and many of the report's recommendations have been included in recent legislation enacted by the member states. The success of the task force's approach to regional coordination has also reduced the need for a proposed Pacific Oceans Resources Interstate Compact, which has been proposed to expand the states' role in areas of regulation that are otherwise federally preempted. The task force has become an effective mechanism for developing vigorous, productive relationships between government agencies, industry, and the public in both the United States and Canada. It has created important linkages between state/provincial and federal regulatory activities; for example, by providing input to Coast Guard and EPA rulemaking that implemented the Oil Pollution Act of 1990. It also assisted in assuring a well-coordinated international response to the July 1991 Tenyo Maru oil spill outside the Strait of Juan De Fuca between Washington and British Columbia. The task force is continuing to advance its goals of promoting public policy on oil spill prevention; cooperative management of major spills by government and industry; protection of the states/provincial rights and their natural and economic resources; and inter-governmental consistency in regulations adopted for oil spill prevention, contingency planning, and resource damage assessment.

Relevance of research topic. The potential of international cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and Ukraine in the areas of tourism, resorts and hotel industry is underutilized. In particular, according to experts, the volume of reciprocal tourist visits, despite their positive dynamics, is rather insignificant. Consequently, the study of organizational and economic incentive mechanisms for the promotion of the Chinese People’s Republic and Ukraine in the field of tourism and resorts is of considerable scientific and applied interest. Formulation of the problem. Potential consumers of tourism services in both countries note poor awareness of tourism products and the possibility of traveling to the partner countries. Visa restrictions affect, is an objective factor constraining international tourism. Ukraine is not effectively using the potential of cooperation in the use of the experience of China in the development and modernization of tourism infrastructure. Analysis of recent research and publications. The problems of Ukrainian-Chinese cooperation in various areas, including in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry, are investigated by Ukrainian scientists A. Antonishnin, Goncharuk, V. Porovoznik, V. Perebiynis, E. Yaroshenko, as well as foreign scientists M. Kachmarsky, I. Li, L. Zuokui and others. Selection of unexplored parts of the general problem. The problems of enhancing international cooperation between the PRC and Ukraine in the areas of tourism, resorts and hotel industry should be understood from the latest positions, taking into account the contemporary challenges of global development and the difficult political and economic situation in Ukraine. Setting the task, the purpose of the study. The purpose (key task) of this study is to develop conceptual proposals aimed at improving the existing and creating new mechanisms and levers for activating the development of tourism and resorts in the Chinese People's Republic and Ukraine. Method or methodology for conducting research. In carrying out the study, general scientific (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analytical groups, etc.) and special (abstraction, economic comparisons, statistical, etc.) methods and techniques of knowledge of economic phenomena and processes were used. Presentation of the main material (results of work). The main direction of the organization of international cooperation of China and Ukraine in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry is the legal regulation of the relevant forms and tools of cooperation. Ukraine unilaterally made a decision on a substantial easing of visa restrictions for citizens of the PRC. During 2013-2017 (Excluding 2014) the number of Chinese citizens who entered Ukraine increased. In 2015, 2016 and 2017, not only the number of Chinese citizens who entered Ukraine, but also the volume of growth increased. The Memorandum of Understanding between the State Agency of Ukraine for Tourism and Resorts and the National Tourist Administration of the People’s Republic of China on promoting group trips of Chinese tourists to Ukraine has a positive impact not only on the organization of increasing prices, but also on other economic activities that are involved in the production of tourist services . In the Ukrainian market of tourist services, an increase in the number of tourist products, involving visits to the People's Republic of China, is observed. In the process of international cooperation of the People’s Republic of China in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry, attention should be paid to enhancing the development of mutual trips of citizens in the so-called “thematic segments”. We are talking about business tourism, educational tourism, shopping tourism and the like. A promising area of ​​international cooperation between the PRC and Ukraine in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry is monitoring and studying the experience of the other party in promoting tourism development, as well as implementing this experience in accordance with international law and national legislation. Several objective problems that hinder the full realization of the potential of international international cooperation of China and Ukraine in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry are highlighted. The field of application results. The results of the study can be used in intergovernmental and intergovernmental negotiations between representatives of the People’s Republic of China and Ukraine on expanding cooperation in tourism, resorts and the hotel industry, as well as in shaping state policy to stimulate the development of tourism infrastructure in Ukraine (taking into account the best world experience). Conclusions according to the article: 1. It is advisable to create a mechanism for monitoring the international cooperation of the People’s Republic of China and Ukraine in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry. 2. A managerial decision should be taken on the creation in the PRC of a Ukrainian trade and economic mission, one of whose tasks is to carry out non-commercial marketing of Ukrainian tourist facilities among Chinese audiences. 3. The authorities of Ukraine (first of all, the Foreign Ministry and the Ministry of Economic Development) should study and propose specific pragmatic solutions aimed at joining the Ukrainian side to the One Belt - One Way project initiated by the PRC, including in terms of attracting the capabilities of Chinese partners ( first of all investments and technologies) for the creation of new and modernization of existing objects of tourism, resort and hotel infrastructure. 4. It is advisable to hold a Summit (conference) on cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and Ukraine in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry, including with an exhibition of promising investment projects. 5. Further expansion of cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and Ukraine in the scientific and educational fields will be useful. 6. The agenda of the work of the subcommittee on trade and economic cooperation of the Commission on Cooperation between the Government of Ukraine and the Government of the PRC should include topical issues of international cooperation of the People’s Republic of China and Ukraine in the field of tourism, resorts and hotel industry. 7. An important direction of enhancing mutual tourist flows is the elimination of visa restrictions. 8. One of the directions of the intensification of international cooperation between China and Ukraine is the development of thematic (special) types of tourism, primarily educational tourism.

This thesis draws on David Harvey’s concept of “accumulation by dispossession” and an international political economy (IPE) approach centred on the institutional arrangements and power structures that privilege certain actors and values, in order to critique current capitalist practices of primitive accumulation by the global corporate extractive industry. The thesis examines how accumulation by dispossession by the global extractive industry is facilitated by the “free entry” or “free mining” principle. It does so by focusing on Canada as a leader in the global extractive industry and the spread of this country’s mining laws to other countries – in other words, the transnationalisation of norms in the global extractive industry – so as to maintain a consistent and familiar operating environment for Canadian extractive companies. The transnationalisation of norms is further promoted by key international institutions such as the World Bank, which is also the world’s largest development lender and also plays a key role in shaping the regulations that govern natural resource extraction. The thesis briefly investigates some Canadian examples of resource extraction projects, in order to demonstrate the weaknesses of Canadian mining laws, particularly the lack of protection of landowners’ rights under the free entry system and the subsequent need for “free, prior and informed consent” (FPIC). The thesis also considers some of the challenges to the adoption and implementation of the right to FPIC. These challenges include embedded institutional structures like the free entry mining system, international political economy (IPE) as shaped by international institutions and powerful corporations, as well as concerns regarding ‘local’ power structures or the legitimacy of representatives of communities affected by extractive projects. The thesis concludes that in order for Canada to be truly recognized as a leader in the global extractive industry, it must establish legal norms domestically to ensure that Canadian mining companies and residents can be held accountable when there is evidence of environmental and/or human rights violations associated with the activities of Canadian mining companies abroad. The thesis also concludes that Canada needs to address underlying structural issues such as the free entry mining system and implement FPIC, in order to curb “accumulation by dispossession” by the extractive industry, both domestically and abroad.

This section approaches the political issues that concerned Norwegian shipping as part of the international shipping industry, from four separate angles. The first explores the Norwegian Health Policy as it related to merchant seamen between 1890 and 1940. The second explores the establishment of the Norwegian-American line between 1908 and 1913 and the extent to which the government played a supportive role through intervention, incentives, and nation-building strategies. The third continues to explore government support of maritime activity, by looking at the successes of Norwegian shipping in the Interwar period and the factors which enabled large-scale modernisation such as the re-evaluated tax regime that worked in favour of maritime expansion. The final segment examines the visibility of the small nation of Norway on the international maritime stage - particularly the formation of international organisations and networks, and cooperation between shipowners and government with the end goal of promoting Norwegian shipping to the international community. Overall, it determines that the cohesion between politics and trade helped strengthen Norwegian maritime endeavors during the early-twentieth century.

This chapter examines various developments in economics that are part of the present and will contend against the neoclassical tradition for recognition in the future. Industrial countries, including the United States, have already become deeply concerned with the economic ideas and more especially their practice in Japan. The chapter considers some of the lessons to come and that are coming from Japan, such as the industry–government cooperation and investment in human capital, It also discusses a number of ways to escape market discipline and deal with competition, including a return to tariff protection, and how the distinction between microeconomics and macroeconomics will blur and disappear due to factors such as the dynamic of prices and wages as a determinant of both inflation and unemployment. Finally, it comments on the future of domestic monetary and fiscal policy in relation to a nation's international position.

The importance of nanotechnology standardization is to reach the main topic in developing standards, which is “uniformity in manufacturing and facilitating the commercialization of nano-products.” According to this goal, activities on standardization in nanotechnology have been started in Iran, where development of nanotechnology is assigned to National Nanotechnology Committee of Iran. This committee is working under direct supervision of presidency office. As written in the committee’s official website [http://www.nano.ir], one of the long term goals of this movement, according to the “fourth development program of Iran” is to reach appropriate share of world trade based on nanotechnology. For this purpose standard developing and quality management system is needed for facilitating industrial and technological cooperation and decreasing costs raised from quality unawareness. So our workgroup has selected nanotechnology standardization as one of its research topics. We have studied current state of different active countries in this field and find out that one can categorize these activities into two major groups, General and Specific. The general activities refer to those looking from the regulatory and nomenclature point of view. In the other side specific activities have done according to local contracts signed between manufacturers, organizations and business start-ups. As examples of the activities started in Iran we can mention: 1. Establishing National Laboratory Network for Nanotechnology by National Nanotechnology Committee of Iran. 2. Collaboration of the Institute of Standards and Industrial Research of Iran (ISIRI) with, International Standard Organization (ISO) for starting the new Nanotechnology TC (technical committee). Today, Iran is one of the 23 active members of ISO TC 229 on Nanotechnologies. 3. Academic research on standardization of measurement procedures used for nano-scale materials. We have gathered or proposed in our research some opportunities specifically for Iran, which may also be helpful for other developing countries to enhance their market position in the upcoming era of nanotechnology. These proposals can be listed as below: 1. Establishing a national committee for managing and regulating of nanotechnology standards; 2. Starting nanotechnology technical committee in Iranian Standard and Industrial Research Organization; 3. Actively collaborating with other countries and international standard institutes, insisting on the country’s core competencies; 4. Introducing Iran’s specific needs to international standard institutes; 5. Equipping national laboratories; 6. Collaborating with international laboratory networks; 7. Developing specific standards based on casual contracts; 8. Activation of researchers to focus on measurement procedures and methods; 9. Participation in regional seminars and workshops and initiation of such activities. With paying attention to these activities, we can find the opportunity of holding a highly referenced database and information center for nanotechnology related commerce. To organize the “nanotechnology technical committee” inside the ISIRI [http://www.isiri.org/], which is responsible for all standardization activities in Iran, we decided to follow the common inter organizational disciplines of this institute, but we suggested assigning 2 or 3 members of this committee, despite others, as full time members. These members would track international standardization activities, and would be the administrators of such activities within Iran. Actively collaboration with other countries and international standard institutes, insisting on the country’s core competencies, would have lots of benefits for country. Taking into consideration that, there is no comprehensive and global accepted nano-standard in the world, through these efforts we can introduce our main interested topics of standardization to international standard institutes (e.g. during our correspondences with Dr. Hatto from UK committee for standardization in Nanotechnologies, we received an offer to notice them our priorities in Nano-standards). To do so, ISIRI has announced his full support of new ISO TC on Nanostandards. To be able to play an appropriate role in this field, having laboratories with advanced equipments is something essential. Because of the reason that these facilities are costly, we decided to take the advantages of National Laboratory Network for Nanotechnology. The laboratories within this network can support nanostandardization process through measurement at nano scale, identifying characterization of nano structures and materials, and their physical and chemical properties (for more information about this network you can visit the following website http://nanolab.nano.ir). Having a well-known and advanced national laboratory network, Iran can provide services to other countries too, and also can become a member of international laboratory networks to develop it activities. The other activity that Iran is interested in is to take part in joint works with international standard making organizations to develop specific standards (e.g. characterization of nanoparticles in ceramics industry). After developing such standards they could be certified through authority standard making organization. Universities also can play an active role in nanotechnology standardization from different aspects. For instance they can do surveys to study priorities of country in this field, and also can study on measurement at nanoscale, characterization of nanomaterilas, test method subjects and etc. Also, some activities in this field have been done in some first rated universities in the country. Participating in regional seminars and making good connections between scientists who are working at this task is another way to have a good background about nano standardization and developing special standards in nano technology. Scientists can co-work in regional universities and laboratories and they can present their research results in such kind of seminars. The goal of such program is making a new task in science and a good relationship between researchers who are working at laboratories on nano standardization and governments. Developing specific standards based on casual contracts makes our universities, laboratories and industries strong for developing standards for special cases. Being strong in such contracts give our industries and universities a powerful goal for developing standards in special cases. Equipping national laboratories and Collaborating with international laboratory networks gives our industries and universities a wide range of abilities for making precision measurements and being in touch with other institutes. The researchers and engineers can use the results of each laboratory for their researches and measurements. In this way the special contracts can be stronger and appearance of Iran in seminars, workshops and commercial relations will be more effective. One of the most important decisions can be finding a proper industry in Iran which can compete in world trade. For this kind of industry using nano materials as the primary materials or in other steps of process and developing standards will be very helpful. This kind of researches will helpful for developing a long range policy for nanotechnology in Iran.

ANSI/NCSL Z540.3-2006 and ISO/IEC 17025:2005 are voluntary consensus standards which prescribe requirements for the calibration of measuring and test equipment and for the technical competency of the performing laboratories. Many agencies in the U.S. which are part of, or regulated by, the Federal Government are required to use instruments which have been calibrated in accordance with one or both of these standards. The National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act (NTTAA) of 1995 compels all federal agencies to use technical standards that are developed by consensus standards bodies, in lieu of "government-unique" standards. ISO 17025 and ANSI Z540.3 have evolved over a half-century of metrological advancement, drawing upon expertise in the public and private sector. They are now supported by a mature infrastructure that facilitates mutual recognition and global trade, ensuring calibrations are accepted worldwide. However, some federal agencies and regulatory bodies in the U.S. have not yet adopted these standards. Calibrations are routinely performed on instruments, utilized in some government-regulated industries, which may not conform to these requirements. This paper discusses risks imparted to products and services produced in such environments. Particular focus is given to the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) regulation of calibration requirements in the Quality System Regulation (QSR) found in Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). Currently, a paucity of official guidance exists with respect to what constitutes an acceptable calibration program in medical device and pharmaceutical industries. Ambiguities persist due to lack of agreement upon voluntary consensus standards such as ISO 17025 and ANSI Z540.3. Fundamental requirements such as traceability, measurement uncertainty, measurement decision-rules, as well as basic metrological definitions are ill-defined in the CFR. The objective of this paper is to provide relevant background information and to encourage constructive dialogue between government agencies, standards writing committees, industry partners, and third party assessment/accreditation bodies. Cooperation of this type is consistent with public law and White House policy objectives. Ultimately, such dialogue may foster agreement on the use of these voluntary consensus standards for calibration in regulated industries, resulting in improved quality and reduced risk to consumers and patients.

In November 2001 the UK Government issued a statement on the future management of public sector nuclear liabilities and in its white paper “Managing the nuclear legacy” proposed the establishment of a Liabilities Management Authority, or the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA) as it is now called. With the advent of the NDA, whose aim will be to safely and cost effectively reduce nuclear liabilities, and existing Government Policy which requires systematic and progressive reduction in hazard, there is a need for some form of index to demonstrate progress. Although there are many indices in use, mainly within the chemical industry, none of these are considered suitable for this purpose. A Waste Conversion Index is currently being developed to satisfy these needs. The Waste Conversion Index will reflect an emphasis on passive safety rather than the more traditional safety analysis which focuses on risk. It is intended to be applicable across all UK civil nuclear sites and may act as one of a number of long-term performance indicators. This paper describes how the index is formulated, and the various factors used in the calculation together with its main uses including its use as a predictive tool to demonstrate progressive hazard reduction as nuclear liabilities are reduced. In addition the paper warns against the misuse of the index as a sole means of decision making in developing hazard reduction strategies, prioritising projects and allocating funding. Finally, some examples are given of its application to existing facilities.