Bibliographies thématiques / CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME

Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME »

Auteur : Grafiati
Publié le 11 septembre 2023

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Articles de revues sur le sujet "CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME"

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Gao, Song, Linyu Wang, Lei Guo, Zhifeng Qiu et Yueshuang Bao. « A two-layer model to dispatch electric vehicles and wind power ». MATEC Web of Conferences 309 (2020) : 05015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/202030905015.

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In this paper, the optimal charging and discharging schedules of electric vehicle (EV) are studied considering wind power under the condition of distribution network. In view of the uncertainty of EV charging-discharging demand and wind power output, the Markov decision process is adopted to model the randomness of supply and demand. Considering the dimensional disaster caused by dispatching a large number of EVs’ charging and discharging behavior in a centralized way, this paper proposes the two-layer dispatching model based on Markov decision process. First, the lower EV agents are responsible for collecting the real-time charging-discharging demands for EV and report to the upper dispatching center. Then the upper dispatching center gives the optimal charging and discharging power according to the real-time distribution operating status, wind power output and the EV information reported by each EV agent. Last, the lower agent gives the optimal charging-discharging sequence of each EV according to the upper optimal power. The goal of the upper dispatching center considers the power losses in the distribution network, load variance and the matching degree between EV charging-discharging and wind power output. The goal of the lower EV agent considers the EV charging-discharging fees and costs by EV battery losses. When deciding the optimal charging strategy, we design the two-layer Rollout algorithm to decide the optimal charging-discharging strategy considering the impact on future strategy decisions by current strategy decisions. Finally, the optimal results under four different strategies are simulated on the IEEE 30-bus distribution network system. The simulation results show that the proposed model and strategy can effectively reduce the distribution network losses and load variance, and greatly improve the utilization rate of wind power. Compared to the cost of uncoordinated EV charging, EV charging-discharging fees and battery loss costs by the proposed strategy have been greatly reduced.
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Wang, Ying, Gang Ma, Yixi Chen, Jian Zhang et Jiashu Wang. « Multi-objective Charging and Discharging Optimization of Electric Vehicles in Time-divided period Based on SOC Evolution ». Recent Advances in Electrical & ; Electronic Engineering (Formerly Recent Patents on Electrical & ; Electronic Engineering) 13, no 4 (5 juillet 2020) : 595–601. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/2352096512666190911144557.

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Background: With the increase of Electric Vehicle (EV), their disordered charging behaviour will put great pressure on the stable operation of the distribution network. Methods: In order to study the charging and discharging optimization scheme of EVs, firstly the EV charging and discharging load model is founded based on the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology. Results: According to the electricity price mechanism of Shanxi Province, the paper proposes a multi-target charging and discharging optimization for EVs based on the evolution of EV State of Charge (SOC) using the Modified Particle Swarm Optimization (MPSO). Conclusion: Compared with the disordered charging mode, the method proposed in this paper can simultaneously reduce the network loss of the distribution network and the cost of EV users.
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Hou, Xiao Fan, et Hong Bin Wu. « Space-Time Modeling of Plug-In Electric Vehicles ». Advanced Materials Research 860-863 (décembre 2013) : 1065–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.860-863.1065.

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With the shortage of fossil energy and the worrying about environmental problems, renewable energy and electric-vehicle get rapid development. Against this background, an overview of power characteristic of electric vehicles is presented. Monte Carlo method is used to simulate the charging and discharging behavior of electric-vehicles, and the load curve of EVs of different scale is presented. It analyses the charging load characteristic in the uncoordinated charging mode and the discharging capacity curve in the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) mode in this paper. Under the software package of Visual C++ 6.0, it verifies the availability and feasibility through comparison and analysis, which lays a foundation for the large-scale development of electric vehicles.
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Myat, Lwin Phone, Muhammad Shakeel Ahmad, Indra Neel Pulidindi, Hamed Algarni, Laveet Kumar, Abul Kalam, S. Wageh, Adarsh Kumar Pandey, Altaf Akbar et Jeyraj Selvaraj. « Effect of Polyethylene Glycol and Activated Carbon Macroparticles on Thermal Conductivity of Paraffin Wax for Thermal Storage Applications ». Polymers 14, no 19 (5 octobre 2022) : 4181. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym14194181.

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Low thermal conductivity is the major obstacle for the wide range utilization of phase change materials (PCMs), especially organic PCMs, for most practical applications in thermal engineering. This study investigates the potential of enhancing the charging and discharging rates of organic PCM (RT44HC) by introducing polyethylene glycol (PEG) and activated carbon macroparticles (ACMPs). Different concentrations of PEG and ACMPs ranging from 0.3 wt% to 2 wt% were tested separately. The optimized concentrations found were used as dual reinforcements to attain the highest possible thermal conductivity. The specimens were tested for a complete charging–discharging cycle using an improvised thermal apparatus. Use of ACMP alone resulted in a minimal reduction in complete charging–discharging time due to the settlement of ACMPs at the bottom after 2–3 heating–cooling cycles. However, the addition of PEG with ACMPs exhibited a reduction in charging–discharging time due to the formation of a stable dispersion. PEG served as a stabilizing agent for ACMPs. The lowest charging–discharging time of 180 min was exhibited by specimens containing 1 wt% PEG and 0.5 wt% ACMPs which is 25% lower compared to bare PCM.
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Shi, Weijie, Qingrong Liu, Yingjun Ruan, Fanyue Qian et Hua Meng. « Quantification and economic analysis of virtual energy storage caused by thermal inertia in buildings ». Journal of Physics : Conference Series 2474, no 1 (1 avril 2023) : 012002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2474/1/012002.

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Abstract The virtual energy storage caused by the thermal inertia of the building is the property and can participate in the demand response. However, the quantification of this virtual energy storage part is not clear. To determine the energy flexibility potential of building virtual energy storage, quantitative indicators such as charging and discharging time, and charging and discharging energy are proposed. The building model was created using the building energy simulation software EnergyPlus, and the quantification of each performance indicator of the building’s virtual energy storage was developed. Among them, the optimal charging time for this building model is 30 minutes, and the optimal discharging time is 60 minutes. Under the optimal virtual energy storage operation strategy, the charging energy is 57 kWh and the discharging energy is 84 kWh. Compared with the reference strategy, the building virtual energy storage operation strategy saves 48.76 yuan in single-day cooling electricity cost, with a 3% savings rate. The results show that building virtual energy storage has certain energy flexibility without additional investment and can generate certain economic benefits at the same time.
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Zainurin, N. A., S. A. B. Anas et R. S. S. Singh. « A Review of Battery Charging - Discharging Management Controller : A Proposed Conceptual Battery Storage Charging – Discharging Centralized Controller ». Engineering, Technology & ; Applied Science Research 11, no 4 (21 août 2021) : 7515–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.48084/etasr.4217.

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This paper describes the development of a centralized controller to charge or discharge the battery storages that are connected to renewable energy sources. The centralized controller is able to assist, control, and manage the battery storage charging when excessive power is available from renewable energy sources. At the same time, the centralized controller also performs battery storage discharging when the connected load requires a power source, especially when the renewable energy sources are unavailable. Background studies regarding battery storage charging-discharging are presented in the introduction section. Also, generally developed charging-discharging methods or techniques were applied at the system level and not specifically to the battery storage system level. Due to the limited study on battery storage system charging-discharging, this paper reviews some of the similar studies in order to understand the battery storage charging–discharging characteristics as well as to propose a new conceptual methodology for the proposed centralized controller. The battery storage State-of-Charge (SoC) is used as the criterion to develop the conceptual centralized controller, which is also used as a switching characteristic between charging or discharging when only the battery energy storages are supplying the output power to the connected load. Therefore, this paper mainly focuses on the conceptual methodology as well as explaining the functionality and operationality of the proposed centralized controller. A summarized comparison based on the studied charging–discharging systems with the proposed centralized controller is presented to indicate the validity of the proposed centralized controller.
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Yu, Zicong, Ping Gong, Zhi Wang, Yongqiang Zhu, Ruihua Xia et Yuan Tian. « Real-Time Control Strategy for Aggregated Electric Vehicles to Smooth the Fluctuation of Wind-Power Output ». Energies 13, no 3 (9 février 2020) : 757. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en13030757.

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Electric vehicles (EVs) are flexible demand-side response resources in a power distribution system. Reasonable and orderly control of charging/discharging processes of aggregated EVs can improve their coordination and interaction with the distribution system and ensure its efficient and stable operation. Aiming at the problem that the fluctuation of wind power output may affect the stable operation of distribution system, a real-time control strategy for aggregated EVs to smooth the fluctuation of wind power is proposed. Firstly, considering the dispatchability of EVs, the charging/discharging energy boundary model is established to determine the charging/discharging margin of an EV at each moment. Then, first-order low-pass filtering is used to determine the total dispatching power of aggregated EVs. Finally, the total charging power of aggregated EVs is determined and power allocation is carried out. Simulation results show that the proposed strategy can achieve real-time smoothing for the fluctuation of wind power output while meeting the charging requirements of EVs, and the proposed strategy can not only reduce the fluctuation rate of total load, but also realize peak shaving and valley filling for the distribution system.
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Zhang, Shuting, Fuqiang Tian, Jieyi Liang, Jinmei Cao et Zhaoliang Xing. « The Time, Electric Field, and Temperature Dependence of Charging and Discharging Currents in Polypropylene Films ». Polymers 15, no 14 (22 juillet 2023) : 3123. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym15143123.

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The insulating properties of polypropylene (PP) film play a very important role in the operating status of direct current (DC) support capacitors. Charging and discharging currents in PP film under high DC electric fields and temperatures correspond to charge transportation and accumulation, which significantly influence the electrical insulating properties of PP. In this paper, we have comprehensively studied the dependence of charging/discharging currents in PP film on time, electric field (150–670 kV/mm), and temperature (40–120 °C). The results showed that the charging current increased by almost an order of magnitude from 150 kV/mm to 670 kV/mm and exhibits a steep increase with temperature above 80 °C. The discharging currents are about 10 times less than the corresponding charging currents. Carrier mobility varies little with the electric field and becomes slightly larger with an increase in temperature. The quantity of the accumulated charges was calculated by the integral of the charging and discharging current differentials and showed a significant increase with the electric field and temperature. The corresponding electric field distortion becomes larger above 80 °C compared to 20–60 °C. Both electric field and temperature have an important effect on PP film and capacitors based on charge transport and accumulation and their electric field distortion. This study is innovative in that it combines the operating status of DC support capacitors with traditional methods to research synthetically charged transport mechanisms of PP film. The findings are meaningful for understanding the insulation failure mechanisms of PP film and capacitors under complex stresses.
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Yan, Tao, Zhan Zhan Qu, Peng Fei Jia, Dong Hui et Yun Jia Liu. « Establishment and Research of Semi-Physical and Real-Time Simulation Platform for V2G Electric Vehicle Charging System ». Advanced Materials Research 1070-1072 (décembre 2014) : 1625–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1070-1072.1625.

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Through constructing the battery system of electric vehicle, real-time simulation model of V2G charging converter topology, and combined with material object of hardware and software of V2G charger controller, establishing semi-physical simulation platform for V2G electric vehicle charging system based on RT-LAB real-time systems, which making use of real-time simulation platform to research the control mechanism of charger controller. The experimental results show that: the constructed semi-physical simulation platform is running well, its simulation results of charging and discharging process is relatively consistent with the actual output of V2G charging equipment, it can be used to verify the developed adjustment mechanism of V2G charger and the charging and discharging process of a variety of electric vehicle battery system, provides an ideal semi-physical simulation platform for the verification of the control strategy of electric vehicle V2G charger.
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Wang, Xuan Ze, Xu Qing Mo, Liang En Yang, Zhong Sheng Zhai, Wen Chao Liu et Zhi Xiong. « A Kind of Resistance Capacitance Measurement Method Based on Time Constant ». Advanced Materials Research 1037 (octobre 2014) : 156–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1037.156.

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This paper proposes a capacitance resistance measurement method based on time constant. Using the charging and discharging characteristics of the resistance and capacitance measures the value of the resistance and capacitance through a semi potential rise and fall time measurement. Theoretical analysis of the relationship between the value of the resistance and capacitance and the measuring time, designing the fast second charging and discharging method meeting the initial condition of charge and discharge, improving the measurement speed, expanding the measurement range of the resistance and capacitance. Realizing the effective measurement of the resistance and capacitance by the FPGA control logic and timing method.
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Thèses sur le sujet "CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME"

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Saas, Christoph [Verfasser]. « Energy Efficient Charging and Discharging of Dominant Capacitances / Christoph Saas ». Aachen : Shaker, 2007. http://d-nb.info/1170528066/34.

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Aloqaily, Osama. « Charging and Discharging Algorithms for Electric Vehicles in Smart Grid Environment ». Thesis, Université d'Ottawa / University of Ottawa, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/34562.

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Power demands will increase day-by-day because of widely adopting of Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs) in the world and growing population. Finding and managing additional power resources for upcoming demands is a challenge. Renewable power is one of the alternatives. However, to manage and control renewable resources, we need suitable Energy Storage System (ESS). PEVs have a large battery pack that is used mainly to supply electric motor. Moreover, PEV battery could be used as an ESS to store power at a certain time and use it at another time. Nevertheless, it can play the same role with electric power grids, so it can store power at a time and return it at another time. This role might help the grid to meet the growing demands. In this thesis, we propose a charging and discharging coordination algorithm that effectively addresses the problem of power demand on peak time using the PEV’s batteries as a backup power storage, namely, Flexible Charging and Discharging (FCD) algorithm. The FCD algorithm aims to manage high power demands at peak times using Vehicle to Home (V2H) technologies in Smart Grid and PEV’s batteries. Intensive computer simulation is used to test FCD algorithm. The FCD algorithm shows a significant reduction in power demands and total cost, in proportion to two other algorithms, without affecting the performance of the PEV or the flexibility of PEV owner’s trip schedule.
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Fain, Daniel Ian. « A dual input bidirectional power converter for charging and discharging a PHEV battery ». Connect to this title online, 2009. http://etd.lib.clemson.edu/documents/1252424759/.

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Wang, Dian. « Microgrid based on photovoltaic energy for charging electric vehicle stations : charging and discharging management strategies in communication with the smart grid ». Thesis, Compiègne, 2021. http://www.theses.fr/2021COMP2584.

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Le développement rapide des véhicules électriques (EVs) augmente la demande de puissance, ce qui provoque une charge supplémentaire sur le réseau public et augmente les fluctuations de la charge. Par conséquent, la forte pénétration des EVs est freinée. Un algorithme simulé en temps réel et basé sur des règles est élaboré pour les bornes de recharge des EVs alimentées par un micro-réseau DC afin de faire face aux incertitudes du comportement des utilisateurs des EVs. L'algorithme prend en considération les choix arbitraires et aléatoires proposés via l'interface homme-machine. Les résultats de simulation sont obtenus sous MATLAB / Simulink et vérifient la faisabilité de la stratégie de gestion proposée. Cette stratégie présente de bonnes performances en garantissant un contrôle précis. Par ailleurs, les algorithmes d'optimisation de délestage et de la restauration des EVs (SROA) pour la recharge de la puissance de la batterie peuvent être utilisés pour répondre aux besoins des utilisateurs. Aussi les algorithmes SROA maintiennent l'équilibre de la puissance de la station de recharge des EVs. Les algorithmes SROA prennent en compte l'intermittence de la source photovoltaïque (PV), la limitation de capacité du stockage et la limitation de puissance du réseau public. En comparant les résultats de la simulation aux algorithmes basés sur les règles, les algorithmes SROA proposés respectent le choix de l'utilisateur, réduisent le temps de charge total, augmentent le plein débit et maximisent l'utilisation de la puissance disponible. Les résultats de la simulation montrent la faisabilité et l'efficacité des algorithmes SROA. En outre, une station de charge basée sur le PV pour les EVs peut participer à la résolution de certains problèmes liés au pic de puissance. D'autre part, la technologie de véhicule à réseau (V2G) est conçue et appliquée pour fournir des services auxiliaires au réseau pendant les périodes de pointe, et V2G considère la dualité de la batterie des EVs « charge et source ». Ainsi, un algorithme de recherche dynamique des pics et de vallées est proposé pour une station de recharge des EVs afin d'atténuer l'impact sur le réseau public. Cet algorithme réduit ainsi le coût énergétique du réseau public. Les résultats de la simulation démontrent bien l'efficacité de l'algorithme de recherche des pics et des vallées. L'algorithme peut garantir l'équilibre du réseau public, satisfaire la demande de charge des utilisateurs des EVs et, surtout, réduire le coût énergétique du réseau public
The rapid development of electric vehicles (EVs) increases the power demand, which causes an extra burden on the public grid increasing the load fluctuations, therefore, hindering the high penetration of EVs. A real-time rule-based algorithm for electric vehicle (EV) charging stations empowered by a DC microgrid is proposed to deal with the uncertainties of EV users’ behaviour considering its arbitrary and random choices through the human-machine interface, meanwhile considering most of the users’ choices. The simulation results obtained under MATLAB/Simulink verify the feasibility of the proposed management strategy that presents a good performance in terms of precise control. In addition, EV shedding and restoration optimization algorithms (SROA) for battery charging power can be used to meet user needs while maintaining EV charging station power balance, taking into consideration the intermittency of the photovoltaic (PV) source, the capacity limitation of the storage, and the power limitation of the public grid. The simulation results show that compared with rule-based algorithm, the proposed SROA respect the user's choice while reducing total charging time, increasing the full rate, and maximizing the available power utilization, which shows the feasibility and effectiveness of SROA. Furthermore, a PV based charging station for EVs can participate to solve some peak power problems. On the other hand, vehicle to grid (V2G) technology is designed and applied to provide ancillary services grid during the peak periods, considering the duality of EV battery “load-source”. So, a dynamic searching peak and valley algorithm, based on energy management, is proposed for an EV charging station to mitigate the impact on the public grid, while reducing the energy cost of the public grid. Simulation results demonstrate the proposed searching peak and valley algorithm effectiveness, which can guarantee the balance of the public grid, meanwhile satisfy the charging demand of EV users, and most importantly, reduce the public grid energy cost
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Nishikawa, Kei. « Mass transfer of Li[+] ion accompanied by charging and discharging reaction of Li battery electrode ». Kyoto University, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/2433/135558.

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Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(エネルギー科学)
甲第12623号
エネ博第141号
新制||エネ||34(附属図書館)
UT51-2006-S631
京都大学大学院エネルギー科学研究科エネルギー基礎科学専攻
(主査)教授 尾形 幸生, 教授 八尾 健, 教授 福中 康博
学位規則第4条第1項該当
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Mansour, Samah. « Performance optimization of hybrid, centralized, and decentralized adaptive charging/discharging schemes for plug-in electric vehicles ». Thesis, McGill University, 2014. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=121588.

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This thesis proposes a decentralized methodology for the planning and scheduling of the charging/discharging activities of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) within the smart grids framework. The optimization formulation is then extended to a hybrid approach that can be seen as a compromise between the centralized and decentralized solutions. The optimization objective of the different proposed coordination schemes addresses peak load reduction from the system operator's perspective. The performance of the suggested algorithms is examined by means of analysis and powerful co-simulation of both power and communications perspectives, over a converged broadband fiber-wireless communication infrastructure. A comparison of the proposed decentralized and hybrid schemes to a centralized benchmark algorithm is conducted to identify the performance trade-offs between the three methods. This comparative study examines several performance metrics, such as power demand, losses, and nodal voltage magnitudes, and from the communications perspective, the required channel bandwidth and delay. The adoption of any of the three proposed algorithms depends on many factors; however the size of the fleet seems to be the main impact factor. Centralized algorithms demonstrate optimal performance for relatively low penetration levels, Whereas decentralized schemes become a necessity with increasing PEV fleets. Hybrid schemes, on the other hand, can resolve the successive demand peaks resulting from decentralized schemes with very high penetration levels.
Cette thèse propose une méthodologie décentralisée pour la planification et la coordination des activités de charge et décharge des véhicules électriques (VEs) au sein des réseaux intelligents. La formulation d'optimisation est ensuite étendue vers une approche hybride qui peut être considérée comme un compromis entre l'approche centralisée et l'approche décentralisée. La fonction objectif des différents mécanismes de coordination proposés maximise l'écrê tage de pointe du point de vue de l'opérateur du système électrique. Les algorithmes proposés sont examinés de façon multidisciplinaire par moyen d'analyse et de co-simulation de la puissance électrique et de communication intelligente, sur une infrastructure de communications basées sur des technologies convergentes haut-débit optique et sans-fil. L'objectif principal de cette thèse est de réaliser une étude comparative entre les méthodes centralisée, décentralisée et hybride. La comparaison des méthodes proposées avec un algorithme de référence centralisé révèle le compromis de performances entre les trois approches. La comparaison tient compte de plusieurs métriques du réseau, telles que la demande de puissance, les pertes, les amplitudes de tension nodale, et, du point de vue des communications, la largeur de bande requise et le délai. L'adoption d'un algorithme parmi les trois proposés dépend de plusieurs facteurs, cependant le nombre de VEs semble être le facteur principal. Les algorithmes centralisés démontrent des performances optimales pour des taux relativement faibles de pénétration des VEs, alors que les systèmes décentralisés sont nécessaires lorsqu'il y a un nombre croissant de VEs. D'autre part, les systèmes hybrides sont capables de répondre aux pics de demandes successives résultant de systèmes décentralisés avec des taux de pénétration très élevés.
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Wu, Wenzhuo. « Charging time estimation and study of charging behavior for automotive Li-ion battery cells using a Matlab/Simulink model ». Thesis, KTH, Skolan för elektro- och systemteknik (EES), 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-194490.

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An accurate estimation of the charging time of an automotive traction battery is possible only with the knowledge of different parameters of the battery and the vehicle. If this information is not available to the driver, the full time needed for charging of the battery may have to be assessed only from experience. A long route planning and estimation of required service life of the vehicle are therefore only roughly possible. Furthermore, with a better knowledge of estimated charging time, better management of public charging stations and better utilization of charging equipment can be achieved. An algorithm based on Matlab/Simulink model is made in the present thesis to estimate the charging time of a Li-ion battery pack which consists of 32 cells with 40 Ah each, as well as to investigate the impact of different cell balancing methods and different charging strategies on charging process. The theoretical background of the battery and charging modelling is investigated and different battery models are compared to get the best trade-off between the model accuracy and computation complexity. In the end, an electrical equivalent circuit model from reference [1], consists of a series resistor and two ZARC elements, is chosen to represent the battery cell. The parameters of the equivalent circuit are updated according to the SOC, current and temperature changes during the charging process. The whole simulation model of the algorithm consists of a charging controller (implementing the charging strategy), cell balancing logic controller, and cell balancing hardware simulation circuit and battery cell models. Different balancing criteria: based on SOC (with PWM drive) and based on terminal voltage (with/without advance) are implemented in the cell balancing logic controller, as well as different balancing windows, to investigate their impact on charging time. As for charging strategy, traditional CCCV is investigated, further investigation is conducted into improved CCCV method. The impact of initial SOC, charging rate and aging factor on charging behavior are investigated as well. Experiment results are validated by the comparison of the results with the ones got from a Hardware-in-the-loop simulation system.
En noggrann estimering av laddtiden hos batterier avsedda för traktionsapplikationer kräver kunskap kring batteriets och dess tillhörande laddsystems parametervärden. Utan tillgång till denna information kan laddtiden endast uppskattas från fordonsägarens tidigare erfarenheter vilket försvårar t.ex. ruttplanering. En estimering av laddtiden med tillräcklig noggrannhet kan även möjliggöra bättre utnyttjade av laddutrusting inklusive nyttjandet av publika laddstationer. I detta examensarbete har en algoritm, implementerad i Matlab/Simulink, för att estimera laddtiden hos ett litiumjonbatteripack bestående av 32 celler på vardera 40 Ah tagits fram. Med hjälp av modellen har olika laddstrategier och metoder för att balansera cellerna studerats. Ett antal olika batterimodeller har jämförts i termer av noggrannhet och krav på beräkningsprestanda. En elektriskt ekvivalent krets från referens [1], bestående av en serieresistans samt två ZARC-element, valdes slutligen för att representera battericellen. Den ekvivalenta kretsens parametrar uppdateras vid förändringar i SOC, ström och temperatur. Hela simuleringsmodellen består av en laddregulator (i vilken laddstrategin är implementerad), cellbalanseringregulator och modeller för cell och cellbalanseringens hårdvara. Ett antal metoder för att balanser cellerna har jämförts med hänsyn till påverkan på den resulterande laddtiden. En traditionell samt modifierad CCCV laddstrategi har implementerats och jämförts med avseende på variationer i inledande SOC, total laddtid samt åldring. Experimentella resultat från en hardware-in-the-loop simulering har använts för att delvis kunna verifiera de framtagna resultaten.
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Huttin, Magalie [Verfasser], et M. [Akademischer Betreuer] Kamlah. « Phase-field modeling of the influence of mechanical stresses on charging and discharging processes in lithium ion batteries / Magalie Huttin. Betreuer : M. Kamlah ». Karlsruhe : KIT-Bibliothek, 2014. http://d-nb.info/1049730585/34.

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Dudley, Paul. « Optimal time-related charging in competitive markets with particular reference to electricity ». Thesis, Loughborough University, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.297117.

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Dresler, Jan. « Tester akumulátorů s modulem ESP32 ». Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta elektrotechniky a komunikačních technologií, 2019. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-400923.

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This thesis focuses on design of printed circuit board and programming of ESP32 module. This module communicates with discharging circuit which allows testing of battery properties. With help of voltage and current sensors it is possible to test and print results of battery on display. The testing device also allows control over web user interface thanks to ESP32.
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Livres sur le sujet "CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME"

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Services, Great Britain Office of Water. Paying for water : A time for decisions : a consultation paper issued by the Director General of Water Services on future charging policy for water and sewerage services. Birmingham : OFWAT, 1991.

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Great Britain. Office of Water Services. Paying for water : A time for decisions : a consultation paper issued by the Director General of Water Services on future charging policy for water and sewerage services. Birmingham : Ofwat, 1990.

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Wang, Miao, Ran Zhang et Xuemin (Sherman) Shen. Mobile Electric Vehicles : Online Charging and Discharging. Springer London, Limited, 2015.

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Wang, Miao, Ran Zhang et Xuemin (Sherman) Shen. Mobile Electric Vehicles : Online Charging and Discharging. Springer, 2015.

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Wang, Miao, Ran Zhang et Xuemin (Sherman) Shen. Mobile Electric Vehicles : Online Charging and Discharging. Springer, 2019.

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Thompson, Scott E. Trap generation-annihilation and charging-discharging processes in thin oxides. 1992.

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Dudley, Paul Spencer. Optimal time-related charging in competitive markets with particular reference to electricity. 1995.

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Pascal, Pichonnaz. Ch.8 Set-off, Art.8.5. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198702627.003.0168.

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This commentary analyses Article 8.5 of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC) concerning the effect of set-off. According to Art 8.5, set-off discharges the obligations; if obligations differ in amount, set-off discharges the obligations up to the amount of the lesser obligation; set-off takes effect as from the time of notice. In order for the discharging effect of set-off to take place, the requirements of Art 8.1, as well as notice by the first party under Art 8.3, must be fulfilled. This commentary discusses the principle underlying the discharging effect of set-off, the scope of the discharging effect, and the prospective effect of set-off, specific consequences of set-off, and burden of proof relating to set-off.
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Pascal, Pichonnaz. Ch.8 Set-off, Art.8.3. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198702627.003.0166.

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This commentary analyses Article 8.3 of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC) concerning set-off by notice. Under Art 8.3, the right of set-off is exercised by notice to the other party. This means that set-off can operate outside a courtroom and has a discharging effect on the obligation of the first party without the intervention of a judge or arbitrator. This commentary discusses the principle of set-off by notice, the form of notice of set-off, and time to give notice (‘anticipatory notice’). It also considers two other modes of set-off, set-off within insolvency proceedings and set-off by agreement, and concludes by explaining the burden of proof relating to set-off by notice.
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Chapitres de livres sur le sujet "CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME"

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Meerimatha, Gadaram, et B. Loveswararao. « Analytical Approach Optimal Sizing and Time Scheduling of ESS Charging-Discharging Energy in Distribution Networks ». Dans Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, 381–95. Singapore : Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8942-9_32.

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Wang, Miao, Ran Zhang et Xuemin Shen. « Charging/Discharging for EVs ». Dans Wireless Networks, 15–20. Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25130-1_2.

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Ma, Zhongjing. « Decentralized Charging and Discharging Coordination ». Dans Decentralized Charging Coordination of Large-scale Plug-in Electric Vehicles in Power Systems, 131–61. Singapore : Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-7652-8_5.

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Qin, Jiahu, Yanni Wan, Fangyuan Li, Yu Kang et Weiming Fu. « Extensions to PEVs Charging/Discharging Scheduling ». Dans Distributed Economic Operation in Smart Grid : Model-Based and Model-Free Perspectives, 175–237. Singapore : Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8594-2_5.

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Chauhan, Bhaskar, et Sachin K. Jain. « Scheduling of Electric Vehicle’s Charging–Discharging : An Overview ». Dans Energy Systems in Electrical Engineering, 109–52. Singapore : Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-2800-2_6.

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Nguyen, Hung Khanh, et Ju Bin Song. « Noncooperative Energy Charging and Discharging Game for Smart Grid ». Dans Game Theory for Networking Applications, 187–201. Cham : Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93058-9_14.

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Uchiyama, Ryo, Hiroaki Miyake, Yasuhiro Tanaka et Tatuo Takada. « Charging and Discharging Characteristic on PI Films Irradiated by Protons ». Dans Protection of Materials and Structures From the Space Environment, 459–67. Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-30229-9_42.

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Su, Guangning, Da Xie, Yusheng Xue, Chen Fang, Yu Zhang et Kang Li. « Information Fusion for Intelligent EV Charging-Discharging-Storage Integrated Station ». Dans Communications in Computer and Information Science, 434–48. Berlin, Heidelberg : Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-45286-8_46.

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Suganthi, D., et K. Jamuna. « Charging and Discharging Characterization of a Community Electric Vehicle Batteries ». Dans Springer Proceedings in Energy, 213–23. Singapore : Springer Singapore, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0719-6_17.

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Vorotyntsev, M. A., E. Vieil et J. Heinze. « Charging — Discharging Process of Polypyrrole Films in Solutions of Tetraphenylborate Anions ». Dans New Promising Electrochemical Systems for Rechargeable Batteries, 333–46. Dordrecht : Springer Netherlands, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1643-2_27.

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Actes de conférences sur le sujet "CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME"

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Nakayamada, Noriaki, Takashi Kamikubo, Hirohito Anze et Shuichi Tamamushi. « Advancing the charging effect correction with time-dependent discharging model ». Dans Photomask and NGL Mask Technology XVIII, sous la direction de Toshio Konishi. SPIE, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1117/12.899905.

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Graf, Christian, Thorben Hoffstadt et Jürgen Maas. « Optimization of the Charging Process for Dielectric Elastomer Generators ». Dans ASME 2012 Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures and Intelligent Systems. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/smasis2012-8179.

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Energy harvesting using dielectric elastomers is an upcoming possibility to convert ambient energy into electric energy. So far energy harvesting cycles are known and described, in which the charging and discharging of the polymer is realized during a constant stretch phase. In real applications a continuously changing stretch must be assumed, so that the time frames of the charging- and discharging-intervals have a considerable influence on the amount of harvested energy. The contribution of this paper is related to the calculation of the optimal charging- and discharging-intervals to maximize the energy gain. Therefore the physical model of a lossy generator is investigated to derive the converted energy as a function of the timing of the charging- and discharging-interval. Afterwards the optimization is carried out for the most significant harvesting cycles with constant electric field and constant charge. The achievable energy gain of these optimized harvesting cycles are compared to each other and control laws for the realization of harvesting cycles are quoted.
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Liu, Chang, Robynne E. Murray et Dominic Groulx. « Experimental Study of Cylindrical Latent Heat Energy Storage Systems Using Lauric Acid as the Phase Change Material ». Dans ASME 2012 Heat Transfer Summer Conference collocated with the ASME 2012 Fluids Engineering Division Summer Meeting and the ASME 2012 10th International Conference on Nanochannels, Microchannels, and Minichannels. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/ht2012-58279.

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Phase change materials (PCMs) inside latent heat energy storage systems (LHESS) can be used to store large amounts of thermal energy in relatively small volumes. However, such systems are complicated to design from a heat transfer point of view since the low thermal conductivity of PCMs makes charging and discharging those systems challenging on a usable time scale. Results of experiments performed on both a vertical and a horizontal cylindrical LHESS, during charging, discharging and simultaneous charging/discharging, are presented in this paper. Both LHESS are made of acrylic plastic, the horizontal LHESS has one 1/2″ copper pipe passing through its center. The vertical LHESS has two 1/2″ copper pipes, one through which hot water flows, and the other through which cold water flows. Each of the pipes has four longitudinal fins to enhance the overall rate of heat transfer to and from the PCM, therefore reducing the time required for charging and discharging. The objective of this work is to determine the phase change behavior of the PCM during the operation of the LHESS, as well as the heat transfer processes within the LHESS. Natural convection was found to play a crucial role during charging (melting) and during simultaneous charging/discharging (in the vertical LHESS). However, during discharging, the effect of natural convection was reduced in both systems.
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Mhaisen, Naram, Noora Fetais et Ahmed Massoud. « Real-Time Scheduling for Electric Vehicles Charging/Discharging Using Reinforcement Learning ». Dans 2020 IEEE International Conference on Informatics, IoT, and Enabling Technologies (ICIoT). IEEE, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/iciot48696.2020.9089471.

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Abdelhafiz, Shahenda M., A. M. AbdelAty, M. E. Fouda et A. G. Radwan. « Time-domain Li-ion Battery Modeling Under Staircase Charging and Discharging ». Dans 2021 International Conference on Microelectronics (ICM). IEEE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/icm52667.2021.9664909.

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Elatar, Ahmed, Kashif Nawaz, Bo Shen, Van Baxter et Omar Abdelaziz. « Characterization of Wrapped Coil Tank Water Heater During Charging/Discharging ». Dans ASME 2017 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2017-71818.

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Heat pump water heaters (HPWH) are an energy efficient method for water heating compared to conventional electric water heaters. A wrapped coil around the water tank is often used as the condenser for the heat pump for such applications. Thermal stratification, caused by varying heat transfer rate from the condenser to the water depending on the phase of the refrigerant and the wrap configuration, is often observed inside the tank, especially for HPWHs using CO2 as the refrigerant. The current study investigates the impact of the charging/discharging process on thermal stratification. A series of simulations were conducted based on the draw patterns recommended by the DOE method of test for rating water heater performance. We also analyzed the water circulation patterns during charging/discharging process. The thermal stratification was adversely affected because of the circulation even when the Heat Pump (HP) was operational. It was observed that a relatively higher charge/discharge flow rate disrupts the thermal stratification quickly and thus lowers the supply water temperature. Furthermore, the duration of charging/discharging also plays an important role. It was noticed that the back flow has insignificant effect on the supply water temperature if charging/discharging time is relatively small. However, the effect was obvious for larger water draw flow rates that last for longer time.
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Zhang, Zixuan, Yuning Jiang, Yuanming Shi, Ye Shi et Wei Chen. « Federated Reinforcement Learning for Real-Time Electric Vehicle Charging and Discharging Control ». Dans 2022 IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps). IEEE, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/gcwkshps56602.2022.10008598.

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Yu Ru, Jan Kleissl et Sonia Martinez. « Battery sizing for grid connected PV systems with fixed minimum charging/discharging time ». Dans 2012 American Control Conference - ACC 2012. IEEE, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/acc.2012.6314783.

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Siddiquee, Abu Nayem Md Asraf, et Kwangkook Jeong. « Conjugated Dynamic Modeling on Vanadium Redox Flow Battery With Non-Constant Variance for Renewable Power Plant Applications ». Dans ASME 2016 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/imece2016-67462.

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A parametric modeling study has been carried out to investigate the effect of change in operating conditions on VRFB performance. The objective of this research is to develop a computer program to predict the dynamic behavior of single cell VRFB combining fluid mechanics, reaction kinetics, and electric circuit. This paper deals with the exact solutions obtained by solving the governing differential equations of VRFB by using Maple 2015. Calculations were made under electrolyte concentrations of 1M–3M of V2+, charging-discharging current of 1.85A–3.85A, and tank to cell ratio of 5:1 to 10:1. Results show that the discharging time increases from 2.2 hours to 6.7 hours when the value of electrolytes concentration of V2+ increases from 1M to 3M. However, the charging time decreases from 6.9 hours to 3.3 hours with the increment of applied current from 1.85A to 3.85A. Additionally, when the tank to cell ratio is increased from 5:1 to 10:1, the charging-discharging time increased from 4.5 hours to 8.2 hours. Ampere-hour capacity of the cell was found to increase when molar concentration of vanadium and, tank to cell ratio were increased.
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Qureshi, Ubaid, Arnob Ghosh et Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi. « Real-Time Control for Charging Discharging of Electric Vehicles in a Charging Station with Renewable Generation and Battery Storage ». Dans 2021 International Conference on Sustainable Energy and Future Electric Transportation (SEFET). IEEE, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/sefet48154.2021.9375717.

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Rapports d'organisations sur le sujet "CHARGING AND DISCHARGING TIME"

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Kozumplik, Brian J. Electric Vehicle Recharge Time, Reliability, and Interoperability. 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA, United States : SAE International, décembre 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/epr2022028.

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<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">As more consumers and operators adopt electric vehicles (EVs) as personal and fleet vehicles, questions regarding recharge time, reliability, and interoperability of EV supply equipment and charging systems currently in use across North America and Europe remain. The current lack of understanding has led to consumer anxiety and, in some cases, inadvertent abuse and mishandling of electric supply equipment.</div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Electric Vehicle Recharge Time, Reliability, and Interoperability</b> navigates issues such as charging equipment reliability; the complexity Interoperability concerning charging networks, EVs, and payment systems; various public and private charging network issues; and lagging regulations and standards. While many challenges need to be addressed, this report also identifies the improvements made since early adoption of EV charging technology as well as ongoing efforts to improve it further. </div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/edge-research-reports" target="_blank">Click here to access the full SAE EDGE</a><sup>TM</sup><a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/edge-research-reports" target="_blank"> Research Report portfolio.</a></div></div>
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Kozumplik, Brian J. Electric Charging Intended Functionality, Availability, and Equity Inclusion. 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA, United States : SAE International, janvier 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4271/epr2023001.

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<div class="section abstract"><div class="htmlview paragraph">As unprecedented growth in EV sales is expected, and the number of public charging stations must be planned accordingly as charger up-time and functionality (i.e., availability) is the number one factor for users once the charging system is installed. </div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><b>Electric Vehicle Intended Functionality, Availability, and Equity Inclusion</b> informs current customers and potential purchasers of functionality, availability, and equity inclusion issues with EV charging systems currently in production and in use across North America and Europe. Note that if shortages of available chargers are recognized and exposed across the US, this could then have a negative impact on future potential EV customers from making the “leap” from traditional ICE vehicles to EVs. </div><div class="htmlview paragraph"><a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/edge-research-reports" target="_blank">Click here to access the full SAE EDGE</a><sup>TM</sup><a href="https://www.sae.org/publications/edge-research-reports" target="_blank"> Research Report portfolio.</a></div></div>
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Huatian, Xu, et Bi Wuxi. PR469-183600-R01 The Influence of Solid State Decouplers on Pipeline CP Surveys. Chantilly, Virginia : Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), octobre 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0011935.

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The objectives of this research are to figure out how solid state decouplers (SSDs) influence the surveys related to pipeline cathodic protection (CP) and provide corresponding field guidelines on how to mitigate the adverse effects of SSDs. Firstly, by combining the classical capacitor discharge theory and the equivalent circuit of the CP system, a four-stage physical model is built to explain how SSDs' discharge current pulse influences the CP related readings. From the physical model, we can obtain the following conclusions: (1) The driving force behind the discharging of an SSD's capacitor, after CP currents are cut off, is the voltage drop in the pipeline; (2)There are two contributors to the CP instant-off potential spikes: self-induced pipeline current and SSD discharge current; (3) The time constant ( and tau;=RC) of an SSD installation determines how fast the SSD finishes its discharging process; (4) The adverse effects of SSDs can be mitigated by making the SSD discharge time constant and tau; small enough (3 and tau; Before performing numerical modeling, some commonly used SSDs are tested for their capacitances in the lab according to the classical capacitor impedance theory. The test results show that the typical SSD capacitance is between 0.15 F and 0.36 F. The target pipeline for numerical modeling is a 50 km pipeline with different levels of coating quality, SSD grounding resistance, and SSD capacitance. An equivalent circuit model with ten parallel branches is built accordingly, and solved by an open-source electrical circuit software module. The numerical modeling results firmly support the primary conclusions drawn from the four-stage physical model. Moreover, the parallel analog circuit tests in the lab further prove the rationality of the four-stage model. Finally, comprehensive field tests are performed to study how SSDs influence the CP install-off potential survey, close interval potential survey, direct current voltage gradient, and alternating current voltage gradient. Practical field guidelines on how to mitigate SSDs' influence are proposed.
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Kamp, Bart, Carmen Vallverdu et Eduardo Sisti . The servitization of business among industrial companies in Catalonia. Sous la direction de Patricia Canto. Universidad de Deusto, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.18543/bieu8943.

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The concept of servitization refers to the trend among manufacturing companies to base their business not only on produced goods, but increasingly on services. This implies expanding the portfolio of value propositions in the market, integrating and linking them in the form of complete solutions. In turn, it implies generating revenue from the provision of services and/or charging for products as if they were services. This study conceptualizes the phenomenon of servitization, presents the state of the art among the Catalan industry (meso-economic perspective) and collects experiences of 8 Catalan companies (micro-economic perspective) to investigate barriers and benefits of servitization. At this time when all territories in the world are facing complex challenges, among which the climate emergency stands out, there is a need for profound social transformations. Moreover, the requirement that these transformations should be of a democratizing nature is also proving to be a relevant topic.
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Law, Edward, Samuel Gan-Mor, Hazel Wetzstein et Dan Eisikowitch. Electrostatic Processes Underlying Natural and Mechanized Transfer of Pollen. United States Department of Agriculture, mai 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.32747/1998.7613035.bard.

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The project objective was to more fully understand how the motion of pollen grains may be controlled by electrostatic forces, and to develop a reliable mechanized pollination system based upon sound electrostatic and aerodynamic principles. Theoretical and experimental analyses and computer simulation methods which investigated electrostatic aspects of natural pollen transfer by insects found that: a) actively flying honeybees accumulate ~ 23 pC average charge (93 pC max.) which elevates their bodies to ~ 47 V likely by triboelectrification, inducing ~ 10 fC of opposite charge onto nearby pollen grains, and overcoming their typically 0.3-3.9 nN detachment force resulting in non-contact electrostatic pollen transfer across a 5 mm or greater air gap from anther-to-bee, thus providing a theoretical basis for earlier experimental observations and "buzz pollination" events; b) charge-relaxation characteristics measured for flower structural components (viz., 3 ns and 25 ns time constants, respectively, for the stigma-style vs. waxy petal surfaces) ensure them to be electrically appropriate targets for electrodeposition of charged pollen grains but not differing sufficiently to facilitate electrodynamic focusing onto the stigma; c) conventional electrostatic focusing beneficially concentrates pollen-deposition electric fields onto the pistill tip by 3-fold as compared to that onto underlying flower structures; and d) pollen viability is adequately maintained following exposure to particulate charging/management fields exceeding 2 MV/m. Laboratory- and field-scale processes/prototype machines for electrostatic application of pollen were successfully developed to dispense pollen in both a dry-powder phase and in a liquid-carried phase utilizing corona, triboelectric, and induction particulate-charging methods; pollen-charge levels attained (~ 1-10 mC/kg) provide pollen-deposition forces 10-, 77-, and 100-fold greater than gravity, respectively, for such charged pollen grains subjected to a 1 kV/cm electric field. Lab and field evaluations have documented charged vs. ukncharged pollen deposition to be significantly (a = 0.01-0.05) increased by 3.9-5.6 times. Orchard trials showed initial fruit set on branches individually treated with electrostatically applied pollen to typically increase up to ~ 2-fold vs. uncharged pollen applications; however, whole-tree applications have not significantly shown similar levels of benefit and corrective measures continue. Project results thus contribute important basic knowledge and applied electrostatics technology which will provide agriculture with alternative/supplemental mechanized pollination systems as tranditional pollen-transfer vectors are further endangered by natural and man-fade factors.
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Cialone, H., D. N. Williams et T. P. Groeneveld. L51621 Hydrogen-Related Failures at Mechanically Damaged Regions. Chantilly, Virginia : Pipeline Research Council International, Inc. (PRCI), septembre 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.55274/r0010313.

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Leaks attributed to hydrogen-stress cracking (HSC) initiating in regions of mild mechanical damage have been reported in cathodically protected pipe lines constructed from high-strength, microalloyed, controlled-rolled steels. The hydrogen is believed to be present in service from the cathodic potential applied. Laboratory studies were initiated to determine the factors that contributed to those unexpected failures. Strain aging at ambient temperatures as a result of deformation introduced during the mechanical damage, was found to be a significant factor. Smooth-bar specimens that were strained and then aged failed by HSC within one week, whereas specimens that were not strain aged did not fail by HSC. Result: The findings of this research indicate a potential sequence of events which may lead to hydrogen-related failures in regions of mild mechanical damage: (1) Following the damage, ambient-temperature strain aging which promotes sensitivity to HSC takes place in the mechanically damaged region, in a surface layer of the pipe wall which has been subjected to a critical level of strain. The time period for this step would be on the order of several years. (2) Electrochemical conditions which promote hydrogen charging develop at the pipe surface from the cathodic current applied (or possibly corrosion). (3) Local stresses in the mechanically damaged region are elevated above the threshold stress for HSC by the moderate stress concentration provided by the mechanical damage. For the X70 pipe studied, the stress elevation should be at least 20 percent above the nominal hoop stress. (4) An HSC crack initiates and grows in the strain-aged surface layer. (5) The crack propagates further by HSC, through the non-strain-aged portion of the wall, as a result of the high stress concentration at the crack tip. (6) When the crack grows to a critical depth, it propagates rapidly through the wall by overload and causes a leak.
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