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Articles de revues sur le sujet "British standard (1857)"
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Heitz, Jesse A. « British Reaction to American Civil War Ironclads ». Vulcan 1, no 1 (2013) : 56–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/22134603-00101004.
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By the 1840’s the era of the wooden ship of the line was coming to a close. As early as the 1820’s and 1830’s, ships of war were outfitted with increasingly heavy guns. Naval guns such as the increasingly popular 68 pounder could quickly damage the best wooden hulled ships of the line. Yet, by the 1840’s, explosive shells were in use by the British, French, and Imperial Russian navies. It was the explosive shell that could with great ease, cripple a standard wooden hulled warship, this truth was exposed at the Battle of Sinope in 1853. For this reason, warships had to be armored. By 1856, Great Britain drafted a design for an armored corvette. In 1857, France began construction on the first ocean going ironclad, La Gloire, which was launched in 1859. This development quickly caused Great Britain to begin construction on HMS Warrior and HMS Black Prince. By the time HMS Warrior was commissioned in 1861, the Royal Navy had decided that its entire battle fleet needed to be armored. While the British and the French naval arms race was intensifying, the United States was entering into its greatest crisis, the United States Civil War. After the outbreak of the Civil War, the majority of the United States Navy remained loyal to the Union. The Confederacy, therefore, gained inspiration from the ironclads across the Atlantic, quickly obtaining its own ironclads. CSS Manassas was the first to enter service, but was eventually brought down by a hail of Union broadside fire. The CSS Virginia, however, made an impact. Meanwhile, the Union began stockpiling City Class ironclads and in 1862, the USS Monitor was completed. After the veritable stalemate between the CSS Virginia and USS Monitor, the Union utilized its superior production capabilities to mass produce ironclads and enter them into service in the Union Navy. As the Union began armoring its increasingly large navy, the world’s foremost naval power certainly took notice. Therefore, this paper will utilize British newspapers, government documents, Royal Naval Reviews, and various personal documents from the 1860’s in order to examine the British public and naval reaction to the Union buildup of ironclad warships.
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Saleem, Umar, et Muhammad Saeed Shafiq. « Educational Status of Women in Mughal Era and British Empire in Sub-Continent ». Fahm-i-Islam 2, no 2 (30 décembre 2019) : 99–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.37605/fahm-i-islam.2.2.7.
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In the era of Mughals & Britishers, the women of the sub-continent performed notable services in the field of education. Not only did they gain knowledge of religious affairs but also used to work for promoting education. We can see women discussed alongside men by the poets of sub-continent. In this paper, I will discuss the education related affairs in the sub-continent before and after 1857, the comparison of the standard of education before and after the arrival of Britishers and the role of women under both governments.
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Mokyr, Joel. « Is There Still Life in the Pessimist Case ? Consumption during the Industrial Revolution, 1790—1850 ». Journal of Economic History 48, no 1 (mars 1988) : 69–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050700004150.
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Recent research on the standard-of-living controversy has argued that a marked improvement in the economic well-being of British workers began shortly after 1815 and continued unabated until 1850. I test that new optimism by generating a synthetic annual “standard-of-living variable” for the period 1790 to 1850. The variable is based on estimating a relation between living standards and the consumption of some key commodities for 1855 to 1900 and then using that relation to “retrocast” living standards for 1790 to 1850. The results strongly suggest that the hypothesis of no or little improvement cannot be rejected.
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Chan, Ryan James, Rasna Gupta, Sindu Mary Kanjeekal, Mohammed Jarrar, Amin Kay, John Mathews, Indryas Lemma Woldie et Caroline M. Hamm. « Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma : A single-institution experience of patient outcomes. » Journal of Clinical Oncology 34, no 7_suppl (1 mars 2016) : 271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/jco.2016.34.7_suppl.271.
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271 Background: The Windsor Regional Cancer Program (WRCP) was determined to have consistently been a top performer in time to treatment of diffuse large B cell lymphoma in this Canadian province (http://www.csqi.on.ca/by_type_of_cancer/lymphoma/lymphoma_treatment/). We endeavored to determine whether faster time to diagnosis and treatment for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) influenced the IPI score (International Prognostic Score), thereby predicting an improved clinical outcome in these presenting patients. Methods: The WRCP services a catchment area of 650,000 people. A retrospective chart review was conducted for patients diagnosed with DLBCL at the Windsor Regional Cancer Program (WRCP) between 2006-2012. Information collected included the five factors for scoring by the International Prognostic Index (IPI) – age, performance status, LDH, stage, and number of extranodal sites – chemotherapy regimen, relapses, existence of second malignancies, cause of death, and dates of diagnosis, last follow-up, and death. We analyzed the relationship between prognostic factors and these clinical outcomes, and also compared the IPI scores for this cohort of patients against a similar population in another Canadian province, British Columbia. Results: It is established that compared to other cancer centres in Ontario, the WRCP is consistently reporting a shorter diagnosis to treatment metric when compared to their counterparts in Ontario, Canada. When compared to historical Canadian data, presenting IPI scores for DLBCL patients were lower on average for patients treated at the WRCP than those reported in British Columbia, Canada by Sehn et al. [Sehn, L. H., et al. (2007). The revised International Prognostic Index is a better predictor of outcome than the standard IPI for patients with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma treated with R-CHOP. Blood, 109(5), 1857-1861.]. Conclusions: A lower presenting IPI score is known to be correlated improved lymphoma related outcome. With attention to the metric of diagnosis to treatment < 30 days for diffuse large B cell lymphoma, we expect an improved lymphoma related outcome for our patients. We recommend ongoing attention to this metric, in order to improve outcomes for our patients.
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Twidale, C., et Jennie Bourne. « International Science ‘Down Under’ : The British Association Meeting in Australia, August 1914, with Special Reference to Related Activities in Adelaide ». Earth Sciences History 21, no 2 (1 janvier 2002) : 166–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.17704/eshi.21.2.781x2353l6320534.
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From 8-12 August 1914, the British Association for the Advancement of Science, meeting in Australia, descended on Adelaide. The meeting included delegates from a dozen overseas countries, including many from the United Kingdom. Amongst the visiting geologists were Arthur Philemon Coleman (1852-1939) and William Morris Davis (1850-1934), Rollin Thomas Chamberlin (1881-1948) and John Walter Gregory (1864-1932), Albrecht Penck (1858-1945) and Johannes Walther (1860-1937), Alexander du Toit (1878-1948) and Hartley Travers Ferrar (1879-1932), George William Lamplugh (1859-1926) and Sydney Hugh Reynolds (1867-1949), as well as the home-based T. W. Edgeworth David (1858-1934) and Ernest Willington Skeats (1875-1953). The proceedings created immense public interest and brought science to the people in a way never before achieved in Australia. That the meeting proceeded at all is a tribute to the Australian Government, the Association, and the conference organisers, as well as the participants, for the First World War had been declared only a few days before the meeting. The interactions between the home population and the delegates, and between delegates, provide an enlightening commentary on the values and standards of our world almost a century ago.
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Aba shaar, Mohammed Yassin. « Self-reconstruction through the Sense of Guilt : A Study of Select Masterpieces in the American Fiction ». British (Jurnal Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris) 9, no 2 (26 septembre 2020) : 48. http://dx.doi.org/10.31314/british.9.2.48-62.2020.
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Abstract:Reconstruction is considered as a comprehensive transformation of one’s attitude with respect to one’s ego; one’s action; the object of guilt and the temporal-existential experience. The process of reconstruction stems from the need for improvement of the self. Any human being gets exposed to the feelings of sadness, despair, envy, shame, embarrassment and many other emotions that could leave him psychologically disabled. Anyway, guilt is a part of self-conscious emotions that the individual involves for the sake of self-evaluation. It is developed when the person feels that he doesn’t live up to the standard behaviours that are appropriate, good or correct. The feelings of guilt spur the process of reparation that reduces the consequences of negative actions. Feelings of guilt are produced as emotions of social control; they are different from one place to another depending on the culture, norms, social context and structure. This paper aims to study the feelings of guilt and their influence on self-reconstruction in three prominent, famous fictional works which are Toni Morrison’s Beloved (1987), Khalid Hosseni’s The Kite Runner (2003) and Nathenial Hawthorn’s The Scarlet Letter (1850). It is going to inspect how the feelings of guilt foster the development of a stable trend towards order and improvement.
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Reisenauer, Eric Michael. « “The Battle of the Standards” : Great Pyramid Metrologyand British Identity, 1859–18901 ». Historian 65, no 4 (1 juin 2003) : 931–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1540-6563.00043.
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Yallop, Henry. « The Sword Exercises of the British Cavalry : 1796-1858 ». Acta Periodica Duellatorum 8, no 1 (15 octobre 2020) : 123–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.36950/apd-2020-008.
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From the late eighteenth century the British military produced official ‘fight books’ outlining the methods with which the cavalry were to use their swords. As these ‘fight books’ were military manuals for instructors, designed to turn trainees into effective soldiers they are, for the most part, clear and precise compared to the sometimes esoteric nature of earlier ‘fight books’. In addition, as they coincided with the introduction of standard patterns of cavalry swords the exact types of swords employed can be established. Hence, unusually in fight book studies, a full picture of why these works were produced, who they were aimed at, how widely they were disseminated and what exact forms of weapons these precise techniques were to be employed with can be known. The existence of contemporary accounts and other supplementary evidence can also help us understand how such ‘fight books’ were received and how effectively the theory contained within was borne out in practice on the battlefield. Over the first sixty years of British cavalry sword exercises, the role of cavalry and the threats they faced from other arms and weapon technologies did not drastically alter; but the way they fought with swords, and the swords themselves, did undergo considerable change.
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TOLAND, CHRISTOPHER. « GEORGE BELLAS GREENOUGH’S GENERAL SKETCH OF THE PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL FEATURES OF BRITISH INDIA (1854, 1855) : ITS PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION, VARIANTS AND SURVIVORSHIP ». Earth Sciences History 41, no 2 (1 juillet 2022) : 285–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.17704/1944-6187-41.2.285.
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ABSTRACT Greenough’s large-scale geological map of India (1854) represents a significant landmark in the history of geological cartography in India, it being the first geological map of the entire Indian sub-continent. This paper attempts to provide an account of the production, distribution, variants and survivorship of this pioneering map. The geological information contained on the map is based almost entirely on published data sources, Greenough never having visited India, yet the map is far more than a mere compilation. Its construction required the preparation of a topographic base map, geological interpolation over large swathes of unmapped territory, the organizing of mainly lithological descriptions into a unified chronostratigraphic order, and the integration of palaeontological information. By modern standards the delineation of strata on the map is imprecise, stratigraphic resolution is poor, and structural data are entirely lacking, yet it remained unrivalled as the only available geological map of all-India until the Geological Survey of India produced a smaller-scale map some twenty-four years later. In terms of areal coverage and paucity of reliable information, Greenough’s India map represents a far more ambitious and pioneering undertaking than his more famous geological map of England and Wales. 202 copies of the map were produced, sixty of which were purchased by the East India Company, while a further forty or so were gifted by Greenough to various public institutions and distinguished geologists. Edward Stanford acquired publishing rights to the map in 1855 and continued to offer copies for sale until at least 1898. A recent survey has identified three variant states of the map and has confidently located thirty-four surviving copies. For reasons outlined here, Greenough’s India map has languished in obscurity since its publication. It deserves to be better known.
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Pryke, Kenneth. « The Woolwich Arsenal and Acadian Mines ». Scientia Canadensis 34, no 1 (16 décembre 2011) : 25–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.7202/1006927ar.
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In 1856 the Royal Arsenal undertook to locate a British source for high grade ore that would be suitable for purposes of ordnance. Early reports indicated that one of the irons being evaluated, an iron from Nova Scotia, was comparable to Swedish iron. Having adopted a rigid policy of modernization, the Arsenal insisted that all irons had to meet the standards established by the analytical chemists. When the Acadian iron was subsequently rejected, critics claimed that the chemists were promoting dogma, not science. The procedures being used by the chemists were certainly flawed, and the Arsenal project incident illustrated that at that time analytical chemistry had relatively little to offer the metal trades.
Livres sur le sujet "British standard (1857)"
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Lengel, Edward. The Irish through British Eyes. Praeger, 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798400672736.
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The mainstream British attitude toward the Irish in the first half of the 1840s was based upon the belief in Irish improvability. Most educated British rejected any notion of Irish racial inferiority and insisted that under middle-class British tutelage the Irish would in time reach a standard of civilization approaching that of Britain. However, the potato famine of 1846-1852, which coincided with a number of external and domestic crises that appeared to threaten the stability of Great Britain, led a large portion of the British public to question the optimistic liberal attitude toward the Irish. Rhetoric concerning the relationship between the two peoples would change dramatically as a result. Prior to the famine, the perceived need to maintain the Anglo-Irish union, and the subservience of the Irish, was resolved by resort to a gendered rhetoric of marriage. Many British writers accordingly portrayed the union as a natural, necessary and complementary bond between male and female, maintaining the appearance if not the substance of a partnership of equals. With the coming of the famine, the unwillingness of the British government and public to make the sacrifices necessary, not only to feed the Irish but to regenerate their island, was justified by assertions of Irish irredeemability and racial inferiority. By the 1850s, Ireland increasingly appeared not as a member of the British family of nations in need of uplifting, but as a colony whose people were incompatible with the British and needed to be kept in place by force of arms.
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Col. Playfair's letter on the seat of government : Ottawa, February 10, 1859, to the editor of the "British Standard". [Bathurst, Ont. ? : s.n., 1986.
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Alborn, Timothy. All That Glittered. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190603519.001.0001.
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From the early eighteenth century into the 1830s, Great Britain was the only major country in the world to adopt gold as the sole basis of its currency, in the process absorbing much of the world’s supply of that metal into its pockets, cupboards, and coffers. During the same period, Britons forged a nation by distilling a heady brew of Protestantism, commerce, and military might, while preserving important features of its older social hierarchy. All That Glittered argues for a close connection between these occurrences, by linking justifications for gold’s role in British society—starting in the 1750s and running through the mid-nineteenth century gold rushes in California and Australia—to contemporary descriptions of that metal’s varied values at home and abroad. Most of these accounts attributed British commercial and military success to a credit economy pinned on gold, stigmatized southern European and subaltern peoples for their nonmonetary uses of gold, or tried to marginalize people at home for similar forms of alleged misconduct. This book tells a primarily cultural origin story about the gold standard’s emergence after 1850 as an international monetary system, while providing a new window on British exceptionalism during the previous century.
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Rationalization, standardization, and control in design : A cognitive historical study of architectural design and planning in the Public Works Department of British India, 1855-1901. Delft : Publikatieburo Bouwkunde, Technische Universiteit Delft, 1994.
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Holmes, Andrew R. Confession, Subscription, and Revival, c.1800–1914. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198793618.003.0002.
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Chapter 1 considers how Presbyterians in Ireland responded to the challenge of liberal theology and how that changed over time. Though Irish Presbyterianism remained conservative, the meaning of conservatism fluctuated between creedal distinctiveness and general evangelical principles. The discussion begins with the expansion of evangelicalism in the early nineteenth century and how this prompted a return to the Westminster Standards. The second section explores the consolidation of confessional identity in both colleges of the church and how they harnessed the spiritual energy unleashed by the 1859 revival by using the resources of the Westminster Confession and Princeton Theology to meet the challenges posed by British threats to confessional principles and subscription. The chapter concludes with a discussion of whether the Irish church suffered what some contemporaries referred to as a theological ‘downgrade’ in the decades before the outbreak of the Great War.
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Sripati, Vijayashri. Constitution-Making under UN Auspices. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199498024.001.0001.
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As an 18th century ‘standard of civilization,’ the Western liberal constitution has since been integral to public international law and colonial trusteeship. This book is the first comprehensive treatment of the ostensible purposes why international organizations have internationalized this Constitution: from the League of Nations in Danzig, to the UN starting from Libya in 1949, and from 1989-2018, in more than forty poor states including most recently in Colombia and The Gambia. This pioneering study sets the Constitution’s internationalization via United Nations Constitutional Assistance (UNCA) at centre-stage. The Constitution’s salience makes its post-1989 rise via UNCA the most significant post-Cold War development, one which has spawned and shaped all other legal and political developments. For example, the internationalization of this Constitution (subsumed under the ‘rule of law’ label) drives the famed post-1989 rule of law movement, shaping all sectors from electoral, judicial, security, and parliamentary to international criminal and transitional justice. This Constitution’s internationalization is traced, from France’s drafting of Turkey’s 1856 monetary laws, British lawyer, Travis Twiss’ drafting of Congo’s 1885 constitution to the constitutional assistance offered by the League of Nations during the inter-war period and from 1949, by its successor, the United Nations and through a combined historical international constitutional framework, UNCA’s legitimacy is appraised. Through this new constitutional history of trusteeship, Sripati demonstrates that creating an equitable order requires considering seriously why sovereign states’ constitution-making is being internationalized. The book concludes by arguing that UNCA continues its trusteeship role. UNCA makes a new fiscally oriented addition to the ‘standards of civilization’: ‘transparent, inclusive and participatory’ constitution-making.
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Moore, James. High culture and tall chimneys. Manchester University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781784991470.001.0001.
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During the nineteenth century industrial Lancashire became a leading national and international art centre. In 1857 Manchester hosted the international Art Treasures Exhibition at Old Trafford, arguably the single most important art exhibition every held. By the end of the century almost every major Lancashire town possessed an art gallery, while Lancashire art schools and artists were recognised nationally and internationally. This book examines the reasons for the remarkable rise of visual art in Lancashire and its relationship to the rise of the commercial and professional classes who supported it. Lancashire is rarely seen by outsiders as a major cultural centre but the creation of a network of art institutions facilitated a vibrant cultural life and shaped the civic identity of its people. The modern industrial towns of Lancashire often looked to the cultural history of other great civilisations to understand the rapidly changing world around them. Roscoe’s Liverpool of the late eighteenth century emulated Medici’s Florence, Fairbairn’s Manchester looked to Rome, while a century later Preston built an art gallery as a tribute to Periclean Athens. Yet the art institutions and movements of the county were also distinctively modern. Many embraced the British fashions of the time, while some looked to new art movements abroad. Art institutions also became a cultural battleground for alternative visions of the future, from those that embraced modern mass production technologies and ‘commercial art’ to those that feared technology and capitalism would destroy artistic creativity and corrode standards of excellence.
Chapitres de livres sur le sujet "British standard (1857)"
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O'Connor, Anne. « Swanscombe : A Standard Stone-Age Sequence for Britain ? » Dans Finding Time for the Old Stone Age. Oxford University Press, 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199215478.003.0016.
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In the early twentieth century, Palaeolithic research seemed to be flourishing on the Continent. Commont was carrying out groundbreaking work in the Somme, and rich hauls were being recovered from the reindeer-caves of France and Spain. France could also boast a research centre: the Institute of Human Palaeontology, where Boule, Breuil, and Obermaier held posts. Britain, though, was weighed down by nostalgia: unfavourable contrasts were being drawn between current research and the glorious decades of the past when Evans and Prestwich had brought such renown to British investigations. This apparent loss of impetus was noted abroad. Boule considered the British to have sunk into insularity after 1875, never to regain their early brilliance; in 1912, Breuil remarked at a luncheon party in Cambridge that no one in England knew anything about prehistory. The British Museum’s Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age, published in 1911 at the height of Commont’s work, declared: ‘the French system has now been revised in the light of recent discoveries, and is the basis of all Continental classifications’. It was regretted that the English river drifts had still not received any systematic excavations, and that the implements in these sediments still lay in confusion. This Guide was produced by Reginald Smith of the British Museum under the direction of Charles Hercules Read (1857–1929). In 1912, the same year that Breuil made his disparaging comment, Read arranged for Smith to excavate in one of the most productive Palaeolithic localities of the Thames Valley: Swanscombe village. Smith was assisted by Henry Dewey (1876–1965) of the Geological Survey, but the negotiations that gained Dewey’s help would also reveal differences of opinion between their two respective institutions about the value of Palaeolithic research. The connections drawn by Smith to the Continental sequence after working at Swanscombe would lift the gloom about British backwardness. These connections would also help draw the Palaeolithic and geological sequences closer together.
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Shaikh, Fariha. « Emigration Paintings : Visual Texts and Mobility ». Dans Nineteenth-Century Settler Emigration in British Literature and Art, 130–60. Edinburgh University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474433693.003.0005.
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Chapter Four looks at representations of emigration in narrative paintings. The chapter explores how even in the visual realm, emigration is rendered into its textual components. It focusses in particular on five paintings of the mid-century: Ford Madox Brown’s The Last of England (1855), Richard Redgrave’s The Emigrant’s Last Sight of Home (1858), Thomas Webster’s A Letter from the Colonies (1852), James Collinson’s Answering the Emigrant’s Letter (1850) and Abraham Solomon’s Second Class–the Parting (1854). In each of the paintings, emigration manifests itself through the texts of emigration literature, be it an emigrant’s letter, a map, a shipping advertisement or the name of the ship. However, the chapter argues that these emigration paintings eschewed the standard emigrant success story that circulated in print. Instead, these paintings construct a dynamic between image and text in order to emphasise the pain and uncertainty of emigration.
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Kane, Eileen. « Extraterritorial Entanglements ». Dans Russian-Arab Worlds, 23—C2P51. Oxford University PressNew York, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197605769.003.0003.
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Abstract Standard histories of how the Eastern Question erupted into the Crimean War (1853–1856) highlight the Europeans’ extension of extraterritorial protections to Christians in Palestine, which undermined Ottoman sovereignty and intensified competition among the powers. This chapter integrates Jews into that history, looking at how British and Russian officials made competing claims to protect Jewish subjects in Palestine. Correspondence between tsarist consular officials posted in Palestine traces how they responded to the surprise discovery of Russian-subject Jews who had migrated to and resettled in Ottoman Palestine. Though fewer in number compared to later Zionist-era migrants, these Jews were the largest community of tsarist subjects in Palestine at the time, and thus seen by Russian officials as strategic assets. Ironically, tsarist officials valued Jews in Palestine for the same alleged traits that made them distrust them back home: transnational networks, tribal loyalties, and spying skills.
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Beier, Zachary J. M. « Everyday Entanglements ». Dans British Forts and Their Communities. University Press of Florida, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.5744/florida/9780813056753.003.0007.
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The policy of incorporating enslaved Africans into colonial military installations throughout the Caribbean was standard British military policy by the eighteenth century. The Cabrits Garrison, located on the northwestern coast of the Caribbean island of Dominica, was occupied by the British Army between 1763 and 1854. Using available archival and archaeological evidence from structures occupied by lower status military personnel, including enslaved laborers and soldiers of African descent serving in the West India Regiments (WIR), this chapter compares these residential quarters to provide a vantage point exploring lived experience within the formal landscape of British imperialism. Findings demonstrate the connection between these living areas and wider developments across the British Empire and Caribbean plantation culture while also revealing the varied and contradictory nature of identities resulting from dynamic labor relations and daily practices.
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August, Andrew. « Poverty, wealth and standards of living in Britain and its Empire ». Dans Routledge Historical Resources - 19th Century British Society. London : Routledge, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780367030278-hobs1-1.
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Since the 1950s, historians have debated whether early industrialization improved British working people’s standards of living. Aggregate data favours the pessimist position, that most people did not see the benefits of industrialization until after 1850. Recent research, though, has stressed regional, gender, and age variation within these overall trends. After mid-century, broad trends show significant improvement in standards of living, yet high rates of poverty persisted. Amidst these social and economic changes, families across the social scale adopted strategies to maximize their resources and protect their status, but many people in Britain entered the twentieth century insecure in their social and economic status.
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Van Hulle, Inge. « British Legal Strategies and the Abolition of the Slave Trade ». Dans Britain and International Law in West Africa, 73–111. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198869863.003.0003.
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Chapter 2 connects abolitionist efforts to induce the British government to reinvigorate its efforts to suppress the transatlantic slave trade from the 1840s onwards as the catalyst for the creation of new legal tactics. First, within the confines of the Foreign Office, a model standard agreement was devised that was to be concluded with African rulers, which furthered an agenda based on the idea of replacing the slave trade with ‘legitimate commerce’. The model agreement built on an existing tradition of including abolition clauses in treaties since the abolition of the slave trade in 1807. Second, the implementation of the model agreement ran parallel to the increase in commercial power and the use of force to suppress the slave trade through the use of naval blockades and the bombardment of the coastline of West Africa.
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« Stelling, R. "Standard costs, with particular reference to the Sheffield industries," The Cost Accountant (January 1924) : 277-81 ». Dans British Cost Accounting 1887-1952 (RLE Accounting), 303–7. Routledge, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315886473-49.
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« Staniforth, L. "The measurement and control of industrial activity by cost standards-(b) application and interpretation," The Cost Accountant (December 1923) : 183-87 ». Dans British Cost Accounting 1887-1952 (RLE Accounting), 367–71. Routledge, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315886473-59.
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Goldman, Lawrence. « The International Statistical Congress, 1851–1878 ». Dans Victorians and Numbers, 241–56. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192847744.003.0013.
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This chapter shows how the liberal internationalism of the statistical movement at mid-century was undermined by the subsequent growth of nationalism and social conservativism across Europe. It concerns the history of the International Statistical Congress which held nine meetings in major European cities, 1853–78. The ISC has not attracted much historical attention but has generally been presented as embodying the noble aim of international social collaboration as articulated at its London Congress in 1860. In reality, however, there were many international political tensions, and wars of national unification, which undermined the organization, especially after the unification of Germany in 1871. The new German state was unwilling to cooperate with the Congress and to accept its policies and standards. Eventually, in the late 1870s, the ISC collapsed, though it was followed by a more successful professional forum for statisticians, the International Statistical Institute. This case study examines the international politics of statistics and the conflict between liberal practitioners and conservative statesmen and state structures. It also counterposes the continental European model of statistical organization under the control of the state, with the independence from government enjoyed by British statisticians.
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Bonner, Thomas Neville. « Toward New Goals for Medical Education, 1830-1850 ». Dans Becoming a Physician. Oxford University Press, 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195062984.003.0011.
Texte intégralRésumé :
The years around 1830, as just described, were a turning point in the movement to create a more systematic and uniform approach to the training of doctors. For the next quarter-century, a battle royal raged in the transatlantic countries between those seeking to create a common standard of medical training for all practitioners and those who defended the many-tiered systems of preparing healers that prevailed in most of them. At stake were such important issues as the care of the rural populations, largely unserved by university-trained physicians, the ever larger role claimed for science and academic study in educating doctors, the place of organized medical groups in decision making about professional training, and the role to be played by government in setting standards of medical education. In Great Britain, the conflict over change centered on the efforts of reformers, mainly liberal Whigs, apothecary-surgeons, and Scottish teachers and practitioners, to gain a larger measure of recognition for the rights of general practitioners to ply their trade freely throughout the nation. Ranged against them were the royal colleges, the traditional universities, and other defenders of the status quo. Particularly sensitive in Britain was the entrenched power of the royal colleges of medicine and surgery— “the most conservative bodies in the medical world,” S. W. F. Holloway called them—which continued to defend the importance of a liberal, gentlemanly education for medicine, as well as their right to approve the qualifications for practice of all other practitioners except apothecaries. Members of the Royal College of Physicians of London, the most elite of all the British medical bodies, were divided by class into a small number of fellows, almost all graduates of Oxford and Cambridge, and a larger number of licentiates, who, though permitted to practice, took no part in serious policy discussions and could not even use such college facilities as the library or the museum. “The Fellows,” claimed a petition signed by forty-nine London physicians in 1833, “have usurped all the corporate power, offices, privileges, and emoluments attached to the College.”