Littérature scientifique sur le sujet « Aragon (Spain) – History – 18th century »

El texto aborda la evolución del análisis historiográfico que se ha llevado a cabo sobre la Cataluña moderna entre finales del siglo XVI y principios del XVIII. Aunque la frontera moderna de Cataluña puede ser múltiple, nos centramos esencialmente en aquella que va desde el Valle de Arán hasta el Mediterráneo. El texto abre con una primera reflexión sobre el camino hacia el cambio de modelo, luego evoca los efectos de las guerras con Francia, con algunos ejemplos concretos, como el de Cerdaña, y, por último, expone la realidad percibida y llevada a cabo con la nueva “fortificación” de la frontera catalana a finales del siglo XVII, cuando el control de Francia se hace evidente. Palabras clave: Frontera, fronterización, fortificaciónTopónimos: Francia, España, Cataluña,Período: época moderna ABSTRACTThe text addresses the evolution of the historiographical analysis that of modern Catalonia between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 18th century. Although the modern border of Catalonia may be multiple, the focus will essentially be upon the border that runs from the Arán Valley to the Mediterranean. The text opens with an initial reflection on the path towards a change of model, before evoking the effects of the wars with France, with some specific examples, such as that of Cerdanya, and finally presenting the reality perceived and manifested with the new “fortification” of the Catalan border at the end of the 17th century, when French control became evident. Keywords: Border, bordering, fortificationPlace names: France, Spain, CataloniaPeriod: modern era REFERENCIASAyats, A., Louis XIV et les Pyrénées catalanes de 1659 à 1681. Frontière politique et frontières militaires, Trabucaire, Canet, 2002.Bély, L., “La representación de la frontera en las diplomacias durante la Época Moderna”, Manuscrits, 26, (2008), pp. 35-51.— “Westphalie, Pyrénées, Utrecht: trois traités pour redessiner l'Europe”, en O. 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XVI-XVII), Tesis Doctoral, UNED, Madrid, 1995 (publicada por el Ministerio de Defensa en 1999).Macías Cordero, N., Tiburzio Spannocchi: su contribución a la fortificación aragonesa, TFG-Arquitectura, UPM, 2020.Martí Escayol, M. A. y Espino López, A., Catalunya abans de la Guerra de Successió: Ambrosi Borsano i la creació d'una nova frontera militar, 1659-1700, Ed. Afers, Catarroja-Barcelona, 2013.Martínez Latorre, D., Giovan Battista Calvi, ingeniero de las fortificaciones de Carlos V y Felipe II (1552-1565), Tesis Doctoral, Ministerio de Defensa, Barcelona, 2002.Muchembled, R., Le temps des supplices. De l’obéissance sous les rois absolus. XVe-XVIIIe siècles, Armand Colin, París, 1992.Nordman, D., Frontières de France, de l’espace au territoire (xvie-xixe siècles), Gallimard, París, 1998.— “La frontera: teories i lògiques territorials a França (segles XVI-XVIII), Manuscrits, 26, (2008), pp. 21-33.Paillissé, M.-A., Mont-Louis place forte et nouvelle (1679-1740), Mémoire de maîtrise, Université Paul-Valéry, Montpellier, 1982.Pernot, J.-F., “Guerre de siège et places fortes”, Guerre et pouvoir en Europe au XVIIe siècle, H. Veyrier, Kronos, Saint-Etienne, 1991, pp.129-150.Peytaví, J., “Salses”, en A. Catafau (ed.), Les celleres et la naissance du village en Roussillon (Xe-XVe siècles), Presses Universitaires de Perpignan, Perpiñán, 2014, pp. 591-601.Porras Gil, C., La organización defensiva española en los siglos XVI-XVII desde el río Eo hasta el Valle de Arán, Publicaciones Universidad de Valladolid, Salamanca, 1995.Poujade, P., Une vallée frontière dans le Grand siècle. 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In January 1556 Charles V renounced his rights to the Iberian kingdoms and passed them on to his son, Philip, who at once assumed the title of King of Spain. To his surprise and consternation, the English council refused to endorse it and pertly reminded him that the Kingdom of Spain did not exist. While the title had long been used, and almost every language had an equivalent for Spain and Spanish, the truth was that legally there was no such entity. Philip II's will reflected this judicial reality. He was, ‘by the grace of God, king of Castile, Leon, Aragon, the Two Sicilies, Jerusalem, Portugal, Navarre, Granada, Toledo, Valencia, Galicia, Mallorca, Seville, Sardinia, Cordoba, Corsica, Murcia, Jaen, Algarve, Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, the Eastern and Western Indies, the islands and terra firma of the Ocean Sea; archduke of Austria; duke of Burgundy, Bravant and Milan; count of Habsburg, Flanders, Tirol, Barcelona; Lord of Biscay, Molina etc.’. This lengthy litany partly explains why he and all his contemporaries habitually resorted to the title King of Spain as convenient short-hand. As we will see, however, there was more to it than simple utility. The terms were used because they were broadly understood and accepted. But it will be apparent at once that the concept of a specific Spanish identity in the sixteenth century is likely to be particularly problematic since Spain did not exist.

Bell towers are essential elements of religious architecture, which have been part of villagers’ lives for centuries and have marked their identity and orientation from a far distance. This research provides widens our knowledge of geometrical aspects of bell towers through a search for common building patterns. Throughout the history of construction and architecture, there have been specific studies about particular bell towers, but few have taken a more general approach, studying 18th-century architectural treatises and building warnings for ecclesiastical buildings after the Council of Trent. In the Spanish ecclesiastical territorial organisation, the Diocese of Orihuela and its region (Bajo Segura) had great importance, with outstanding social development and territorial expansion due to the colonising action of the clergy and nobility in the 18th century. In 1829, an earthquake had destructive effects on the area’s architectural heritage. This paper studies the bell towers that endured the earthquake by recording data in situ, generating a catalogue, and analysing and comparing the data obtained. The results outline a construction model that meets the established guidelines of the architectural treatises as far as geometrical proportions and building patterns are concerned.

Abstract In the 18th century, the practice of drying up the wetlands, marshy or stagnant water areas expanded throughout Europe in order to avoid the malaria fevers that the population periodically suffered and to recover land for farming. This communication describes the current knowledge about the history of the process of drying in various hydrological basins as well as the works in the endorheic lake close to the village of L'Estany, located in the district of the Moianès (Catalonia), in the northeast of Spain. The drying began in the 16th century with drainage channels driven by the Monastery of Santa Maria de L'Estany, and culminated in the 18th century with the construction, using the dry stone technique, of a 425 m long, 2.14 m high and 1.20 m wide drainage mine that diverted water to the basin of the Llobregat River. Now the mine and the canals are conserved for use in times of rain as well as a touristic objective that complements the cultural and religious concerns of the Monastery of Santa Maria with its magnificent Romanesque cloister.

Apparently, the Treaty of Tordesillas dismissed the possibility of Spanish shipping via Africa and the Cape of Good Hope. The preferred route to Asia was via Cape Horn or Acapulco. In this article we will show that access to Southern Africa was not entirely closed to the Spanish between the 16th and 18th centuries. We will analyse shipping in this period and, above all, we will discuss the enlightened reforms of the 18th century that changed the connecting routes between Spain and the Philippines, making them pass through Cape Town, as well as the hostility shown to the Hispanic presence in those waters by great powers like the Netherlands. Based on these connections, we will discuss the exchange of plants between Spain and Southern Africa.

Abstract Prophecies and apocalyptic prognostications circulated widely among the Moriscos—forcedly baptized Muslims in sixteenth-century Iberia. Messianism, however, is a phenomenon which had hitherto never been attested in traditional sources of Morisco history. This article studies the interrelated phenomena of apocalypticism and messianism among the Moriscos of the Crown of Aragon in the second half of the sixteenth century. Through a case study of a 1575 inquisitorial transcript, it analyzes an obscure messianic figure named Abrahim Fatimí, who was accused of attempting to lead the kingdom to rebellion, casting himself as the expected deliverer of Morisco tradition, el moro Alfatimí. The discovery of this case sheds light on the political and social implications of apocalyptic and messianic ideas among Moriscos in the late sixteenth century.

ABSTRACTThis article examines the marketing and distribution of foreign fabric, predominantly English, in the northern sub-plateau of Spain at the beginning of the 18th century using information from a fiscal source. The official tax record used in this study was a specific and special tax levied on cloth imported from countries with which Spain was at war. The details of this tax shed more light on a hotly debated topic with respect to transport and networks in modern Spain and make it possible to analyze and quantify the physical volume as well as the value and the destination of textiles.

Summary At the end of the 18th century Russian Empress Catherine II sent a letter to Spanish King Charles III containing two lists. The first was a list of grammars and vocabularies of American and Asian languages, while the second was a lexical compilation to be translated into as many American and Philippine languages as possible by missionaries and Spanish civil servants. The so-called List no. 2, a matrix list of around 445 words, was translated into approximately fifty languages. These translations were sent to Spain but they never left the country. Although the matrix list in Spanish has already been published, a comparative study focusing on its different translations is still to be made. The compilation and translation of these lists – Pallas’ and List no. 2 – constitute one of the first large-scale projects in comparative linguistics. They were pioneers in their selection criteria, structure and methodology. This paper is a general overview of both the original matrix list (in Spanish) and the manuscripts containing the translations in more than fifty languages, which are to the present day preserved without being studied in the Archivo General de Indias in Seville and the Real Biblioteca in Madrid. In this paper, special attention will be paid to the compilation and translation strategies followed by the missionaries.

Defence date: 28 September 2022<br>Examining Board: Prof. Pieter Judson (European University Institute); Prof. Tamar Herzog (Harvard University); Prof. Christopher Storrs (University of Dundee); Prof. Regina Grafe (European University Institute)<br>Why and how did modern states emerge in Southwestern Europe? These are the main questions that this thesis answers by examining the debt of six municipalities of the Crown of Aragon during the 18th century through a multiscale, transversal, and comparative approach. The ancient practices which constituted the Aragonese polity appeared in the mid-fourteenth century and survived at least until the mid-eighteenth century partially thanks to the debt of the municipalities. Towns and kingdoms were in many cases ruled by assemblies of creditors by virtue of debt restructuring agreements. Debt accounts for the long survival of the Aragonese polity, but also for its sclerosis. The financial situation of the debtholders, mostly ecclesiastical institutions, prevented rulers from defaulting on municipal debt and adopting drastic measures against the Church, as they feared a financial meltdown. The emergence of the modern state was an intricate process which started by 1750, mainly due to the collapse of the ancient mechanisms. The modern state appeared as a set of practices devised and implemented by a myriad of actors who tried to recompose social and political life. State formation was first and foremost a local process in which municipal debt proved crucial too. The examination of local dynamics reveals that modern states in Southwestern Europe followed similar paths during the early phases of their formation.

This thesis seeks to illuminate the nature, extent and complexity of Templar interactions with their associates, particularly non-Christians, women and Mozarabs, by examining these interactions where the most evidence exists for them---northeastern Spain. Evidence for Temple associations with both Christians and non-Christians is strongest and most prolonged here. The overall nature of these interactions was friendlier than expected in a crusading group. In fact, Templars actively competed with the secular Church, nobility and the king in the Crown of Aragon for lordship over non-Christians because non-Christians were a lucrative tax base. Some non-Christians also sought association with the Templars because the Templars were a strong, international group with friendly ties to the Aragonese kings. The Temple could therefore offer protection from other lords against excessive taxation and exploitation, and physical attack. Documentary evidence shows mutually beneficial interactions as the Temple's (and its non-Christian associates') ongoing preference over time and space. Chapter one examines Templar interactions in general, both with associates and non-associates. Chapter two looks at Templar associations in Novillas, the first Templar house founded in the Crown of Aragon. Chapter three deals with the Tortosa and the lower Ebro Valley, which has the most varied surviving Templar documentation in the areas studied. Chapter four deals with Gardeny (in Lleida/Lerida), which has the largest number of surviving documents for all of the areas in the study. Chapter five looks at Monzon and Barcelona, the main Templar houses for Aragon and Catalonia respectively. The last chapter deals with Huesca, the northernmost house in the study.

In New Spain, the professionalization of medicine followed the same pattern as in Europe and was prompted by similar intellectual and political factors. As with their European colleagues, the local medical elite of the late eighteenth century was greatly influenced by the Enlightenment, working tirelessly to advance medical science and improve the quality of treatment available to the public. Scientific developments in Europe influenced practitioners in New Spain through local and imported publications as well as through the arrival of a large number of European practitioners. While the Enlightenment played an important role from the scientific and medical points of view, international politics proved crucial to the development of surgery and its rapid rise to a professional level. The intense rivalry among nations prompted Spain to reorganize its armies and consequently, to turn its attention to military surgery. In Mexico, the establishment of formal surgical education and the reorganization of the armies resulted in the arrival of foreign practitioners and the creation of a two tiered system based on nationality. Of equal importance for the initial stages of professionalization was the rapid erosion of traditional social values in the late colonial period. As reflected by the increasing laxity in the enforcement of the limpieza de sangre requirements, race and ancestry as a measure of status were beginning to give way to personal merit. The medical professional gives a unique opportunity to analyze the fascinating world of late colonial Mexico. The hierarchical organization of the profession reflects contemporary society and offers a glance at daily life from the point of view of various socio-economic levels while the relations among its members mirror the complicated relations among the different segments of society. The growing criollo nationalism becomes patent in the attitude of some practitioners, an echo of future and more profound antagonism. From an intellectual point of view, the medical profession illustrates the achievements of local practitioners and pharmacists which have been largely ignored by scholars. Finally, it reflects the last efforts of Spain to reassert control over its colony and its powerlessness to stop the tide of history.

The northern Iberian Bishopric of Calahorra was re-founded in 1045 by Garcia 111 of Navarre. Between that date and the death of its eighth post-restoration bishop in 1190 all or part of its diocesan territory changed hands seven times between the Kingdoms of Navarre, Leon-Castile/Castile, and Aragon, as they competed over the riojan frontier- zone on which it was located. The position of the diocese on such a volatile secular frontier had consistently profound, but also steadily changing, effects on its political and institutional development. In the initial phase of Calahorra's restoration, its bishop was enormously empowered by his central role in the consolidation of Navarre's southern and western frontiers, but was held back from establishing a centralized diocesan administration by the insecurities inherent in the borderland condition of his see. Following a change of political regime in the Rioja in 1076, the bishopric suffered the severe consequences of its total identification with a defeated secular power when its embryonic diocesan structures were comprehensively dismantled and its bishops subjected to a dominant and hostile crown that effectively undermined their diocesan authority. The debilitation of royal authority in the Rioja and the region's political marginalization between 1109 and 1134 provided the context for the emergence of the see's independent political stance and its notably autonomous and rapid development of a strong cathedral. When Leonese-Castilian regional dominance was forcefully reasserted between 1134 and 1157, the Bishops of Calahorra were able to put the forceful currents of canonical reform that emanated from an increasingly comprehensive and emphatically territorial secular ecclesiastical hierarchy to use in combining their centrality to the north-eastern border politics of the Crown of Leon-Castile with the independent pursuit of a specifically diocesan agenda. When Castile ceased serving Calahorra's territorial interests towards the end of the twelfth century, the see used the political leverage it gained by its inclusion in the Aragonese Metropolitanate of Tarragona to distance itself from Castilian politics, thus revealing its maturity as a frontier power in its own right.

This thesis is dedicated to establishing ways in which the image of Calderon was perceived and constructed by the thinkers of the Enlightenment, of both conservative and reformist convictions, as part of their efforts to create and impose their own understanding of what Spanish national identity is or should be like.<br>The thesis concentrates on the writings of several of the most important intellectuals of the XVIII century who took part in the heated debate as to the value of Calderon's work: Blas Nasarre y Ferriz, Tomas Erauso y Zabaleta, Nicolas Fernandez de Moratin, Cristobal Romea y Tapia, Jose Clavijo y Fajardo and Francisco Mariano Nipho.<br>The first two chapters of the thesis deal with the way by which the image of Calderon has been used in order to support certain ideological convictions, in particular, a certain way of understanding Spanish national identity. Chapter three examines the polemics itself, from its beginning in 1749 until the mid-sixties of the XVIII century. A brief section of conclusions closes the thesis, followed by a selected bibliography.

Spanish and Portuguese organ music still remains a relatively unchartered area escaping the attention of most general assessments of European musical history. The work which has been done in this field has tended towards stylistic appreciations of the published large-scale compositions and the compilation of short biographies of prominent musicians. No extensive investigation has yet been undertaken which deals with such fundamental issues as the role of the organist and the origins and function of the extant organ repertory, of which a large proportion lies dormant in manuscripts, within the liturgy. Indeed, there is no monograph about organists and organ music in the Iberian peninsula as a whole. The overall aim of this thesis is to provide a musical background and liturgical context for short organ pieces called <u>versos</u> which were thoroughly integrated within a musical celebration of the Offices. For this end, a variety of musical and documentary material has been examined: practical sources of organ music; plainchant manuals; ceremonials and musical treatises. To an enormous extent this organ music was subject to long-standing liturgical customs and legislation, as well as to strongly defined traditions of musical composition. The prescriptions to the organist given in the ecclesiastical constitutions and how these may have been realized in the Canonical Hours and in the Mass constitutes the essence of part two of this thesis. This interpretation of musico-liturgical practices has entailed an examination of the relationship between plainchant and the organ verset and the technicalities of mode and tranposition which were involved when alternating the organ with choral plainchant. An analysis is also made of the musical development of versets based on the psalm-tones, organ hymns (the <u>Pange lingua</u> in particular) and the 'organ mass'. An anthology of transcriptions complementing this discussion is contained in a separate volume. As a counterbalance to the analytical discussion in part two, part one provides an historical and cultural background to the subject. An assessment is made of the contribution made by individual organists and organ 'schools' and some consideration is made of the extent to which both royal and ecclesiastical patronage was responsible for the livelihood of music and the arts.

Castilian law developed during the Reconquest of Spain. Women received certain legal rights to persuade them to move to the villages on the expanding frontier. These legal rights were codified in Las Siete Partidas, the monumental work of Castilian law, compiled in the thirteenth century. Under Queen Isabella, Castilian law became the law of all Spain. As Spain discovered, explored, and colonized the New World, Castilian law spread. The Recopilacidn de Los Leyes de Las Indias complied the laws for all the colonies. Texas, as the last area in North America settled by Spain, retained Castilian law. Case law from the Bexar Archives proves this for the Villa of San Fernando(present-day San Antonio). Castilian laws and customs persisted even on the Texas frontier.

Análisis de distintos aspectos de la salud pública y áreas afines en el municipio de Murcia entre 1700 y 1759 utilizándose como fuente los libros capitulares del ayuntamiento además de otros documentos depositados en el archivo municipal. Los primeros capítulos trazan el marco general demográfico, económico, cultural, institucional, científico y medico. En estos capítulos se adelantan algunos resultados de la investigación especialmente en competencias municipales en sanidad e instituciones científico-medicas. El grueso de los datos obtenidos se expone en capítulos sobre alimentación, higiene ambiental, lucha contra las epidemias, asistencia social y sanitaria y ejercicio de los profesionales. Como conclusión se muestra que la primera mitad del siglo XVIII es para Murcia un periodo realmente dinámico, aunque de realizaciones tímidas, en el que se observa una concienciación progresiva de que la salud es un asunto publico en el que la administración debe intervenir.<br>Analysis of several aspects of public health and related areas in the municipality of Murcia, between 1700 and 1759. Municipal records and other documents included in the archives of the city are used as a source. The first chapters outline the demographic, economic, cultural, institutional, scientific and medical general framework. These chapters advance some research results, especially in municipal responsibilities in fields of health and scientific and medical institutions. Most of the data obtained are discussed in chapters on nutrition, environmental health, epidemic control, health and social care and the work of health professionals. We can conclude that the first half of the eighteenth century is a really dynamic period for Murcia, with modest gains, in which there is a gradual awareness that health is a public matter where the administration must participate.

Orientadores: Paulo Miceli, Denis Menjot<br>Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciencias Humanas<br>Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-14T15:01:43Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sales_MarianaOsueIde_D.pdf: 4559872 bytes, checksum: 19d2813975bc52adfd072cfba3b9a2de (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009<br>Resumo: A tese analisa das referências imperiais na política de D. Afonso V, rei do Portugal, entre 1448 e 1481. Na primeira parte, Mutação do lmperium foi estudada a dilatação jurídica de ímperium sobre os territórios marítimos adânticos e sobre domínios que os portugueses conquistaram no Norte da África. Na segunda parte, Construção do Império, analisamos como o cronista do rei, Gomes Eanes de Zurara, estabeleceu relações entre a história de Portugal e os Impérios históricos (Romano e Visigodo) e como referências bíblicas, entre elas destacamos a noção de Reino Eleito, de forte apelo universalista, constituiu referências fundamentais à política expansionista. Na terceira parte da tese, A. Restauração do Império, apresentamos a análise das pretensões imperiais do rei D. Afonso V, através da análise de dois aspectos da política externa. O casamento de sua irmã, Leonor de Portugal, com o Imperador Frederico III, Habsburgo e sua elevação ao título de imperatriz. O siêncio sobre a união nos permitiu de compreender porque o ideal imperial, cultivado pelo rei, distancia-se da referência imperial romano-germânica. Finalmente, o estudo sobre a guerra peninsular de D. Afonso contra Isabel de Castela e Fernando I de Aragão, durante o período de 1475 a 1479, explicita sua intenção de unificar a península Ibérica, reconstituindo a unidade mítica. Neste breve período, o rei reuniu todos os meios a seu alcance e tentou assumir o governo de Coroa de Castela através do casamento de Joana. Paralelamente, uma aliança feita com Luís XI, rei de França, também alimentou os planos de divisão dos territórios de Aragão, entre Portugal e França.<br>Abstract: This study analyses de imperial aspects of the politics of D. Afonso V, king of Portugal (1448-1481). The first part of the work is composed by the study of the dilatation of the juridical notion of imperium, concerning the atlantics and africans Portuguese possessions The second part studies how the historian of the king, Zurara, presented Portugal as an heir of the Roman and Visigoth empires and how the notion of elected kingdom, that carries a strong sense of universal monarchy, made part of the fundamental political ideals that sustained the expansion in Africa and at the Atlantic islands. At the last part, we present the imperial intents of the king through the study of his external politic with the Holy Empire and the Crown of Castile. The marriage of the sister's king, Leonor, with the emperor Frederick III, Habsburg, is the first aspect analysed. The silence about this union gave us means to understand why the ideal of Empire of the Portuguese king was very different of the roman germanic reference. Finally, we study the war between Portugal and Castile, against Isabel, the future Catholic queen, during the period 1475 and 1479. The king of Portugal tried to assume the government of the Crown, by marrying Jane, princess and heir of the Castile. Also, the plains signed between Louis XI, king of France and Afonso V, in 1475, shows that the portuguese king and French king intended to prepare a war agains Crown of Aragon and share their territories. The politic of Afonso inside Iberia explicated his aim of "re-unify" the peninsula under his control.<br>Doutorado<br>Historia<br>Doutor em História

The presence of the theatre of the Spanish Siglo de Oro in the theatre and literary culture of Germany (or the German-speaking countries) in the 17th and 18th centuries is a multifaceted one, and was influenced by many factors. We have to take in account that in the second half of the 17th century and in a large part of the 18th century Spain had been a terra incognita for the Germanic world. This long lack of basic knowledge led to a decontextualization of the Golden Age theatre and sometimes to an unconditional enthusiasm that was not based on historical realities. The protagonists of the ‘construction’ of a ‘Spanish national theatre’ included Lessing, Herder, Goethe, the Schlegel brothers and the philosopher Schelling, the most prominent German intellectuals of the time. Within this ‘construction’ Lope de Vega, Rojas Zorrilla and, above all, Calderón de la Barca are the three icons that will guide both the theory and the practice of drama during the ‘two most Spanish decades’ of German literary history (1790-1810), even reaching - in the secularized world of the classics and the first generation of German Romantics - the ‘deification’ of Calderón as perfect poet and author of modern tragedies (without paying much attention to his comedias in a stricter sense and without taking account of his autos sacramentales).

The contribution concerns the relationship between Pietro Napoli Signorelli, his Storia critica de’ teatri antichi e moderni (Critical history of ancient and modern theaters), and the defense of Spanish literature by the Jesuit Francisco Saverio Lampillas, and the answer in Critical essay which Pietro Napoli Signorelli published in 1783. An Italian who spent a large period of his life in Spain and a Spaniard who lives and writes in Italy offer an observation point of extraordinary importance, almost a cross-reflection of the ideas and clichés of "Spanishism" and "Italianism” that had dominated the 18th Century. The critique of "Spanishism" and the long distance from the siglo de oro, from the triumph of metaphor and irregularity, in relation to the critique of what begins to be called the "commedia dell'arte", shows, at the turn of the century, just beyond the defense of the respective traditions and the positions of the two contenders, a change taking place of great depth that is announced on the European cultural scene, transforming the horizons of controversy into renewed myths.

‘Spain and Portugal’ highlights the key garden designs of Spain and Portugal from the 16th century to the present day. The two greatest gardens of the Spanish Golden Age were commissioned by King Philip II at Aranjuez and the Escorial, which showed the influence of both Flemish and Italian gardens. Other key Spanish gardens described include La Granja de San Ildefonso in Segovia and Antoni Gaudí’s Parc Güell in Barcelona. Portuguese gardens of the 16th and 17th centuries incorporated glazed tiles—azulejos—and Arabic water tanks. Gardens described include the Golden Age Quinta da Bacalhoa and Castelo Branco, the 18th-century garden of the Palácio Nacional de Queluz; and Jacques Gréber’s modernist Parque de Serralves.