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1
Gaidarov, Gaidar M., Tatyana I. Alekseevskaya, Tatyana V. Demidova et Oleg Yu Sofronov. « Ways of spread, detection, clinical course of syphilis and leprosy among the population of the north-eastern districts of Eastern Siberia in the 19th century ». Medical academic journal 2, no 2 (6 novembre 2022) : 65–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/maj108403.
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BACKGROUND: In the 19th century, the process of annexation of lands in the north-east of the Russian Empire was completed. The influx of newcomers, political exile, criminal hard labor created the prerequisites for an aggravation of the epidemiological situation in the newly annexed territories. The morbidity of the population began to acquire an epidemic character. Syphilis, which spread in the 19th century, leprosy struck foreign communities in the northern and eastern regions of the Pacific Ocean, the Sea of Okhotsk, the Kamchatka Peninsula and the alien population from other territories.
AIM: Systematize, as well as identify certain trends in the prevalence and forms of manifestation of syphilis and leprosy among the population of the north-eastern districts of Eastern Siberia of the 19th century. according to the reporting materials of doctors and authorities of that time. Let us explain: in this article, the authors quote from the documents, preserving (if possible) the style and punctuation of the originals, and also use geographical names and names of territories adopted in the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
MATERIALS AND METHODS: On the basis of archival materials, the article discusses the ways of importation and spread of syphilis among representatives of individual foreign communities, the clinical course and forms of manifestation. The multiplicity of ways of penetration of syphilis to the outskirts of Eastern Siberia is noted. The reports of seconded staff physicians, doctors, paramedics during the examination of the population and the treatment of patients in hospitals provide the first statistical information on the incidence of men, women, their nationality, and the outcome of treatment. The reports of seconded staff physicians, doctors, paramedics during the examination of the population and the treatment of patients in hospitals provide the first statistical information on the incidence of men, women, their nationality, and the outcome of treatment.
RESULTS: The article highlights the issues of studying the role of factors contributing to a high level of the spread of syphilis and leprosy among inorodtsy (indigenous dwellers), describes the symptoms of manifestation, and especially chronic syphilis, and notes the role of unsanitary living conditions and household arrangements in the spread of diseases.
CONCLUSIONS: Observation of the clinical manifestations of syphilis allowed doctors to isolate leprosy as an independent form of the disease, and to investigate its causes. These observations were the basis for the development of measures aimed at stopping the spread of the disease among the population. The beginning of the emergence of medical and police supervision aimed at identifying patients, registering them and treating them is noted.
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Zinoviev, V. P. « Interethnic Division of Labor in the Irkutsk Province According to the Census of 1897 ». Bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series History 40 (2022) : 40–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2222-9124.2022.40.40.
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The interethnic division of labor in the Irkutsk province at the end of the 19th century is considered. The author believes that the Russian model of the conquest of Siberia, in contrast to the American frontier, aimed at the destruction of barbarians, assumed the “pacification” of foreigners and their inclusion through tributary relations in the Moscow Kingdom, and later in the Russian Empire. Since Russian warriors went to Siberia not for lands, but for taxable heads, this implied their unconditional preservation. This is one of the main reasons for the relatively peaceful and bloodless annexation of Siberia. The author considers interethnic division of labor to be another factor in the relatively conflict- free cohabitation of Russians and other European newcomers with the local population. Russians were mainly farmers, nomads of the south of Siberia were cattle breeders, the indigenous population of the taiga and Arctic zones were hunters and fishermen, reindeer herders. Siberian historians pay less attention to this aspect than to other subjects of the history of interaction between the alien and the indigenous population of Siberia. The process of inclusion of the indigenous inhabitants of Siberia into the imperial space is studied in the most detailed way in the works of L. M. and I. L. Dameshek, L. I. Sherstovа. E. V. Karikh has studied the interethnic division of labor of Russians and indigenous peoples of Siberia in its western part. The author, based on the census data of 1897, proves that hunting and fishing were the main occupation of the indigenous inhabitants of the north of the Tungus Of Irkutsk province, while cattle breeding was still the main occupation of the Yakuts. The peculiarity of the economy of the Buryat population of the southern Irkutsk province, unlike the Turks of southern Siberia, was that nomadic cattle breeding had already ceased to be the main thing in their lives, and agriculture became the main occupation, as well as the alien population – Russians and other immigrants from European Russia. Their nomadic past was evidenced by the fact that cattle breeding remained an essential addition to agriculture as the main and secondary occupation.
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Lezginсev, Y. M. « Some Aspects of Economic Diplomacy of Latin American countries in the XIX century ». Diplomaticheskaja sluzhba (Diplomatic Service), no 3 (7 juin 2022) : 218–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.33920/vne-01-2203-06.
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This brief survey of 19th century Latin America countries economy offered for reader’s attention represents the second article within a series of papers thought by the author in order to follow historical genesis of economical complex of regional states. The indicated period is to be of special interest due to the fact that within it happened development of its specialization accompanied by fundamental processes in commodity production based on destructing of communal Indian land ownership, abolition of slavery and stimulating of European immigration. The experience obtained during application of liberal conceptions in Latin America’s states at the beginning of capitalist economy clearly showed senselessness to borrow alien ideology without taking into consideration local specifics, because this fact frequently contradicted the needs of authentic development in the receiving countries. As a rule these conceptions represented requirements of foreign agents as well as interests of small part of local society aimed at intensification in exploitation of labour and natural resources. Moreover, its implementation led to strengthening of financial and political dependence, imposing rapid economic transformation and converting young creole republics into pseudo-state political formations («banana republics» in Central America, Puerto Rico, Cuba). Submitting more advanced South American areas (La Plata, Brazil, Peru) neocolonial methods have been tested: ruinous foreign loans, direct and indirect control of local industries and change of its structure in the interests of overseas investors. Here could be mentioned artificial boom of raw material export, control and destruction of local processing works. The said economic paradigm conditioned convulsive forms of social life: appearance of caudillos, dictatorships and authoritarian regimes as well as interregional conflicts (Pacific «Salitre» War between Chile, Peru and Bolivia, intervention of Triple Alliance in Paraguay, separation of Panama for constructing of interocean channel etc.). In particular, dynamics and correlation of these events in context of struggle for real national emancipation laid foundations for contemporary state of economic situation in each country including its alliances and determined its peripheral position in international division of labour. This phenomenon should be considered for building effective cooperation with the most of regional partners.
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Barnhurst, Kevin G., et Andrew W. Nightingale. « Time, realism, news ». Journalism 19, no 1 (22 janvier 2017) : 7–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1464884916689150.
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News time has since the late 19th century moved away from storytelling to embrace modern progress. But time in news is elusive. The digital era splinters time, leaving news practice and research behind. A project to track US news into the 21st century documents a history of time in news: the realism of ‘who’, ‘where’, and ‘what’ declined, and the modernism contexts of ‘when’ and ‘why’ expanded. All five Ws moved contrary to expectation. Modernism tries to map time, but its definition is undecidable – even among logicians. Practitioners of news grapple with their topic: the realist now, and try to fit it into the modernist ‘standard time’, a time regime that imposes a big-picture interpretation onto their readers. The modern view equates clock time, a purely social invention, to quantifiable nature. Clock time offers an artificial view of the passage of time, but scientists dictated another big picture. ‘For us’, wrote Einstein, ‘who are convinced physicists, the distinction between past, present, and future has no other meaning than that of an illusion, though a tenacious one’. Time, although quantifiable, does not pass; its passing is an illusion and the objective view of the world is an immutable one. Coming to grips with the elusiveness of time, as it slips away from reporters and the grasp of scientists, creates opportunities for practitioners of news to align with contemporary mediated experiences. Facing the problem of time is done through Alfred North Whitehead, in whom the present moments is not a point of infinitessimal length on a single modernist time-line but an indivisible event that ‘grows literally by buds or drops’ of experience (William James in Whitehead), a landing ground which he calls the ‘actual occasion.’ Past, present, and future are not illusions, but symptoms of the subjective experience of process, which is not only real; it is part of the fundamental actual occasion. Weaving in Arendt’s distinction between ephemeral labor and permanent work illustrates how process philosophy can be grounded in both the labor and work of journalists, allowing news practitioners to adapt to digital times.
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Karpova, O. A. « «ONE’S OWN» AND «ALIEN» SPACE IN P. LETNEV’S NOVEL «ALIEN CRIME» ». Culture and Text, no 48 (2022) : 134–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.37386/2305-4077-2022-1-134-142.
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The article is devoted to the works of the forgotten writers of the 19th century Praskovya Alexandrovna (1829-1892) and Anna Alexandrovna (1833-1914) Lachinovs, published under the pseudonym P. Letnev. The question of the peculiarities of the spatial characteristics of the characters, which is considered on the example of the novel “Alien Crime” (1875) is of considerable interest. The article shows that spatial characteristics play a decisive role in depicting two different behaviors of not only female but also male characters.
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Millionshchikova, Tatiana. « BORDER AS A SYMBOLIC MODEL IN THE WORKS OF THE 19TH-CENTURY RUSSIAN LITERATURE : RECEPTION IN USA LITERARY STUDIES ». RZ-Literaturovedenie, no 2 (2021) : 148–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.31249/lit/2021.02.12.
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The review concentrates on the Slavic literary studies of the USA that analyze the symbolic spatial models in the works by Russian writers of the 19th century. The main focus is on the symbolic model of the border . The aim of the review is to demonstrate how this national symbolic model embodied in the Russian writer’s texts of the 19th century is interpreted in the alien cultural environment of contemporary American Slavic studies.
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Dias, Felipe. « Racial Articulation and Labor in the 19th Century Brazil ». Comparative Sociology 13, no 4 (1 octobre 2014) : 445–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341315.
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This article seeks to explain how economic and local political structures shaped the ways in which public officials articulated ideas of race and labor in the nineteenth century Brazil. Employing a comparative historical method, this work advances the literature in two ways. First, it suggests that what we have come to view as a positive valuation of blackness has roots in the economic development prior to the centralized nation-building processes. Second, the findings of this study point to the effects of intra-national factors, such as economic structures and patterns of labor incorporation, in shaping how regional public officials articulated notions of “race,” labor, and progress.
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Cuno, Kenneth M. « African Slaves in 19th-Century Rural Egypt ». International Journal of Middle East Studies 41, no 2 (mai 2009) : 186–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743809090588.
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By all accounts, the population of enslaved Africans in Egypt increased in the 19th century compared to earlier times. An estimated 5,000 African slaves were imported annually during the 1840s and 1850s, and as few as 1,000 in 1860. However, during the cotton boom (1861–64), some 25,000 to 30,000 slaves were brought to Egypt each year to satisfy the demand for labor generated by the rapid expansion of cotton cultivation.
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Rai, Janak. « Malaria, Tarai Adivasi and the Landlord State in the 19th century Nepal : A Historical-Ethnographic Analysis ». Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology 7 (17 mai 2014) : 87–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/dsaj.v7i0.10438.
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This paper examines the interplay between malaria, the Tarai Adivasi and the extractive landlord state in the 19th century Nepal by focusing on Dhimal, one indigenous community from the easternmost lowlands. Throughout the 19th century, the Nepali state and its rulers treated the Tarai as a state geography of extraction for land, labor, revenue and political control. The malarial environment of the Tarai, which led to the shortage people (labor force), posed a major challenge to the 19th century extractive landlord state and the landowning elites to materialize the colonizing project in the Tarai. The shortage of labor added pressure on the malaria resistant Tarai Adivasi to reclaim and cultivate land for the state. The paper highlights the need for ethnographically informed social history of malaria in studying the changing relations between the state and the ?div?si communities in the Tarai DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/dsaj.v7i0.10438 Dhaulagiri Journal of Sociology and Anthropology Vol. 7, 2013; 87-112
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Joustra, Robert. « Rerum Novarumand the Right to Work : 19th-Century Lessons for 21st-Century Labor ». Review of Faith & ; International Affairs 15, no 4 (2 octobre 2017) : 39–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2017.1392165.
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KENNEDY, ALAN H. « Voters in a Foreign Land : Alien Suffrage in the United States, 1704–1926 ». Journal of Policy History 34, no 2 (avril 2022) : 245–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0898030622000021.
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AbstractAs early as 1704, noncitizen immigrants were legally allowed to vote in what would become the United States. By the end of the eighteenth century, noncitizens could legally vote in most states. State lawmakers offered the franchise as an incentive for white, male, Europeans of working age to migrate. However, rising immigration and nativism led states to reconsider alien suffrage, as noncitizen voting was known, and alien suffrage nearly disappeared by the 1840s. Revived by territorial expansion, demands for cheap labor, urbanization, racism, and sexism, alien suffrage expanded in the mid-to-late nineteenth century, peaking a century after the nation’s founding. However, resurgent nativism, wartime xenophobia, and corruption concerns pushed lawmakers to curtail noncitizen voting, and citizenship became a voting prerequisite in every state by 1926.
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Shyriaieva, D. V., et N. M. Shyian. « Trifolium vesiculosum (Fabaceae) in Ukraine : a new find and historical overview ». Ukrainian Botanical Journal 78, no 2 (30 avril 2021) : 83–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/ukrbotj78.02.083.
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Trifolium vesiculosum is listed in the current floristic inventories as a species native to Ukraine. In order to clarify the native versus alien status of this taxon, we studied historical and recent literature and herbarium data.We also report here our new record of the species. We found T. vesiculosum in 2020 in Mykolayiv Region (Mykolayiv District, Andriivka village, on the alluvial terrace of the Southern Bug River valley), in a disturbed habitat with predominantly synanthropic and alien species. Previous finds of T. vesiculosum in Ukraine were reported mainly in publications of the 19th century and were based on a few herbarium specimens from the present-day territory of Odesa Region. Due to characteristics of these records, dates and localities of the finds of T. vesiculosum in Ukraine, we have traced its probable introductions during the 19th century in the port of Odesa, on the sand deposits of the Danube River, in the German settlements, and therefore we can confirm the conclusion of Paczoski (1921) who assumed the alien status of the species in Ukraine. Thus, T. vesiculosum is classified as a kenophyte (introduced before 1808). Taking into account the current climatic changes in Ukraine, we emphasize the need for further monitoring of the species, changes in its dispersal strategy, and for registration of its introduction and dispersal pathways.
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Derr, Jennifer L. « LABOR-TIME : ECOLOGICAL BODIES AND AGRICULTURAL LABOR IN 19TH- AND EARLY 20TH-CENTURY EGYPT ». International Journal of Middle East Studies 50, no 2 (mai 2018) : 195–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743818000028.
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AbstractBeginning in the second decade of the 19th century, Egyptian agriculture began a process of transformation from basin to perennial irrigation. This shift facilitated the practice of year-round agriculture and the cultivation of summer crops including cotton whose temporalities did not match that of the annual Nile flood. One facet of the perennially irrigated landscape was an increase in the prevalence of the parasitic diseases bilharzia (schistosomiasis) and hookworm, the symptoms of which came to constitute normative experiences of the body among those engaged in perennially irrigated agriculture. Male agricultural laborers, who most often performed the work of irrigation, were at the greatest risk of infection. This article considers the significance of agricultural labor in the continuous making and maintenance of perennially irrigated agriculture and the role of parasitic disease in producing temporal experiences of this labor.
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Teubner, Melina. « Cooking at Sea. Different forms of labor in the era of the Second Slavery ». Población & ; Sociedad 27, no 2 (1 décembre 2020) : 54–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.19137/pys-2020-270204.
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This paper deals with various forms of labor in the 19th century. Although Brazil officially banned the slave trade, the first half of the 19th century did no t bring a decline of this business. Rather, until at least 1851, large numbers of slaves were brought to Brazil. The structure of the slave trade was based on the labor needed to carry out the abduction of several million people. Slave ship cooks were resp onsible for feeding the people during their voyages, thus contributing to the infrastructure and reproduction of the slave trade. By using a micro - historical approach to examine the example of slave ship cooks, different forms of forced labor can be shown
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Kokdas, Irfan, et Yahya Araz. « The Changing Nature of the Domestic Service Sector in 19th-Century Istanbul ». Archiv orientální 90, no 1 (26 juin 2022) : 61–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.47979/aror.j.90.1.61-91.
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Istanbul, a power nexus in the Ottoman world, witnessed a proliferation of female child labor in domestic service over the course of the 19th century. This study shows that slave ownership and the recruitment of girl domestics were highly class-sensitive phenomena. This means that 19th-century Istanbul groups of middling economic means, who could not easily access the slave market, could recruit girl domestics with lower wages. The study claims that the rising presence of girl child labor in domestic service did not in itself bring about the immediate disappearance of domestic female slaves, as these two types of labor were not substitutes for each other in the labor market. The study also shows that a diversification in the zones supplying girls after the 1840s, as well as the rising demand for girl child labor, affected the wage levels of girls, which, however, does not appear to have had a noticeable impact on the fluctuations of prices for female slaves—both for Africans and Caucasians—and ownership.
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Sunderland, Willard. « Alien Transgressions : Notes on Lèse-Majesté from the Russian Imperial Borderlands ». Russian History 44, no 1 (28 avril 2017) : 98–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/18763316-04401005.
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Insulting the person and dignity of the ruler (lèse-majesté) was considered a state crime in 19th-century Russia and was investigated across the empire. This article draws on a small sample of cases from provincial archives to examine how factors of ethnicity and religion affected the way such cases were reported in local communities as well as how they were then investigated and prosecuted by state authorities.
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Michael, Rodney R., et Paul A. Nelson. « A LABOR-BASED EXPLANATION FOR ACCOUNTING INNOVATION IN A LATE NINETEENTH CENTURY AMERICAN CORPORATION ». Accounting Historians Journal 25, no 1 (1 juin 1998) : 93–114. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/0148-4184.25.1.93.
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In 1888, the Quincy Mining Company changed its payroll accounting practices. Although efficiency was almost certainly a contributing factor, the nature and timing of this accounting innovation cannot be fully explained by efficiency alone. Instead, this paper attributes the new procedures to the transformation of American labor that characterized the last part of the 19th century. It is argued that the accounting changes reflect a realignment of the organizational relationship between management and labor. Through a contextual examination of a 19th century accounting innovation, this paper provides insights to the social and cultural influences upon accounting processes.
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Zhang, Chunyan. « The Theme of “Alien Other” and “Imagined” Landscape in Australian Literary Tradition ». English Language and Literature Studies 6, no 1 (26 février 2016) : 109. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ells.v6n1p109.
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<p>In Australian culture, framed by both Western conceptions of nature and Australian colonial experience, traditional aesthetics and ideologies had negative attitudes towards the “wilderness”. Therefore in the major 19th century Australian literary tradition, the antagonistic relationship between man and nature was prevalent, which is demonstrated through the theme of “wild” nature, in which the Australian “wild”landscape was constructed as “alien other” and “imagined”.</p>
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Nockleby, John T. « Two Theories of Competition in The Early 19th Century Labor Cases ». American Journal of Legal History 38, no 4 (octobre 1994) : 452. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/845445.
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Loshakova, Galina A., et Lyudmila E. Smirnova. « Slavic Allusions of the Austrian Literature of the 19th Century ». Vestnik slavianskikh kul’tur [Bulletin of Slavic Cultures] 66 (2022) : 214–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.37816/2073-9567-2022-66-214-223.
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Slavic narrative of the Austrian literature of the 19th century was an important part of the author's worldview and the structure of the texts of many works. These are folk songs of Slovenes arranged by A. Gruen, allusions of Czech and Moravian legends and tales in the works of A. Stifter and M. Ebner-Eschenbach. Austrian writers intuitively rejected the “friend — foe” dilemma. Since childhood, the artistic world of Slavic culture was not alien to them, since they were actively attached to it. This circumstance can be explained by the peculiarity of the evolution of the Austrian Empire, which developed in the course of a long historical development. Because of this, Austrian literature was open not only to genetic and linguistic penetration, but also to the perception of other cultural layers, in particular, those associated with Slavic mythology. Slovenian semantics is introduced into the texts by A. Gruen (a Christmas carol as a wish for good, a dove as a symbol of love, King Marko as a public defender). A. Stifter implicitly refers to the Czech legends (Vitiko is a just ruler, the Field as an expression of the spirit of the forest and the world). Ebner-Eschenbach tells about the morals and problems of the Moravian village through the structure of a folk tale.
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Pivovarova, Irina. « Features of labor relations in the industrial sphere in Russia in the 19th century ». OOO "Zhurnal "Voprosy Istorii" 2022, no 3-2 (1 mars 2022) : 164–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.31166/voprosyistorii202203statyi47.
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The article shows that the development of industrial sectors and peasant crafts in the first quarter of the 19th century. it contributed to the spread of freelance labor, the share of which by the beginning of the 1861 reform was 87% of the total number of workers employed in industry. The reasons determining the long-term preservation of the feudal-serf system in the management of factories and plants of the studied period after the abolition of serfdom are indicated. It was revealed that in order to reduce labor costs, as well as in conditions of shortage of premises and equipment, manufacturers used handicraft industry. It is shown that the end of the 19th century was a turning point in the labor relations of manufacturers and workers, the requirements for which were now fixed in multiple legislative acts adopted during this period.
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Tomich, Dale. « Sugar technology and slave labor in Martinique, 1830-1848 ». New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids 63, no 1-2 (1 janvier 1989) : 118–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/13822373-90002035.
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Examination of the transformation of the world and national sugar markets during the first part of the 19th century. At that time conditions for improvements in productive technique that developed this integration of agricultural and manufacturing processes to its fullest extent were created.
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Vorobyova, Irina. « Dubrovnik Republic in Russian Historiography in the 19th — the Beginning of the 20th Century ». ISTORIYA 12, no 9 (107) (2021) : 0. http://dx.doi.org/10.18254/s207987840017096-4.
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This article concerns the initial period of the phenomena of Dubrovnik Republic, who kept its independence during centuries in the alien ethnic and confessional surroundings. This item seldom appeared in the sphere of attention of the specialists upon the European urban studies. The historian V. V. Makushev (1837—1883), being at the diplomatic service in Dubrovnik, studied the resources and published the scientific results in his articles and monographs. He created his author classification of the sources of the urban problems, evaluated their informational capability, proved the historical value of the imaginative literature. This approach is actual for the analysis of the medieval history of the Mediterranean and other European cities.
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Gural-Sverlova, Nina, et Roman Gural. « History of the penetration of anthropochorous mollusc species to western Ukraine ». Proceedings of the State Natural History Museum, no 37 (1 janvier 2022) : 161–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.36885/nzdpm.2021.37.161-172.
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Analysis of literary sources and materials of the malacological collection of the State Museum of Natural History of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in Lviv revealed that at the end of the 19th century in western Ukraine could be present only some anthropochorous species of slugs, especially Limax maximus. Instead, mentions of a number of species not belonging to the indigenous malacofauna of Ukraine and its western region, made from the second half of the 19th to the middle of the 20th century, could most likely be based on the erroneous identification of other, native species. The process of intensive penetration into western Ukraine of alien species of land molluscs began, apparently, not earlier than the middle – second half of the 20th century and significantly accelerated at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. The latter could be due to both climate change, which facilitated adaptation to local climatic conditions for more thermophilic species, and the active import of seedlings of ornamental plants from other European countries. In particular, a dangerous pest from the complex Arion lusitanicus s.l. could enter the territory of Ukraine in this way. No less indicative are the relatively young colonies of Cepaea nemoralis, which are increasingly found in western Ukraine. Since the end of the 20th century, species of Caucasian origin and those that were previously observed only for the southern part of the country are increasingly registered in western Ukraine. Compared to the great taxonomic diversity of land anthropochorous molluscs and the widespread distribution of some of them, a relatively small number of freshwater species (up to 8), alien to this area, are still known in western Ukraine. For most of them, only a few finds are still known, made in the early 21st century. The exception is only one species (Physella acuta), which began to be mentioned for various areas in western Ukraine in the second half of the 20th century. Among the alien freshwater molluscs are a group of small species imported to Europe from other continents: New Zealand Potamopyrgus antipodarum, North American Menetus dilatatus, Physella heterostropha and possibly also Physa skinneri and Physella acuta. Representatives of the Dreissena genus came here from the Black Sea territories in the south of Ukraine.
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Jackowiak, Bogdan, Zbigniew Celka, Julian Chmiel, Karol Latowski et Waldemar Żukowski. « Checklist of the vascular flora of Wielkopolska (Poland) : casual alien species ». Biodiversity Research and Conservation 46, no 1 (1 juin 2017) : 35–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/biorc-2017-0008.
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Abstract The list of alien vascular plant species only temporarily occurring in Wielkopolska refers to the previously published list of native and permanently established plants. Together, these two lists document the vascular flora of this region at the beginning of the 21st century. The current list, like the previous one, is a result of critical analysis of both contemporary and historical data, collected since the beginning of the 19th century. All information accessible in herbarium collections, publications and unpublished materials was used. A critical analysis was conducted at the taxonomic, nomenclatural, chorological and habitat levels, based on the verification of negative information not supported by sufficient arguments. The list is presented in an alphabetical order. Information on each species includes: family affinity, life form, geographic and historic status. In cases particularly disputable, the standard characteristic of a species was supplemented with an additional commentary.
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Smith, Merritt Roe. « Industry, Technology, and the "Labor Question" in 19th-Century America : Seeking Synthesis ». Technology and Culture 32, no 3 (juillet 1991) : 555. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3106104.
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Collins, William J. « Labor Mobility, Market Integration, and Wage Convergence in Late 19th Century India ». Explorations in Economic History 36, no 3 (juillet 1999) : 246–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/exeh.1999.0718.
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Romero Recio, Mirella. « Augusto en la historiografía del XIX en España ». REVISTA DE HISTORIOGRAFÍA (RevHisto) 27 (27 novembre 2017) : 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.20318/revhisto.2017.3964.
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Resumen: La figura de Augusto no tuvo gran atractivo para los historiadores españoles del siglo XIX. Más interesados en destacar la labor de los emperadores de origen hispano, las Historias de España no dedicaron demasiada atención a la labor de quien cerró las conquistas militares romanas en la Península Ibérica. Las contradicciones fueron constantes en una historiografía que abordó la etapa augústea casi siempre de manera colateral y que no profundizó de manera exhaustiva en el conocimiento de este periodo histórico. Sin embargo, como muestra este artículo, Augusto no pasó desapercibido en la historiografía española decimonónica.Palabras clave: Emperador Augusto, Historiografía española, Historia de Roma, siglo XIX.Abstract: The figure of Augustus did little to attract the attention of 19th century Spanish historians. They were more interested in highlighting the work of emperors of Hispanic descent, thus the Histories of Spain dedicated little space to the Roman military leader who conquered the Iberian Peninsula. There are constant contradictions in the historiography, which approached the Augustan period almost exclusively side on, never plunging into the knowledge with exhaustive depth. However, as this article shows, Augustus did not go completely unnoticed in the 19th century Spanish historiography.Key words: Emperor Augustus, Spanish historiography, history of Rome, 19th century.
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Motiejūnaitė, Jurga, Svetlana Markovskaja, Ernestas Kutorga, Reda Iršėnaitė, Jonas Kasparavičius, Audrius Kačergius et Vaidotas Lygis. « Alien fungi in Lithuania : list of species, current status and trophic structure ». Botanica Lithuanica 23, no 2 (1 décembre 2017) : 139–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/botlit-2017-0016.
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AbstractA comprehensive inventory of alien fungi (excluding fungi-like oomycetes) recorded in Lithuania since the 19th century was performed. The compiled list includes 142 fungal species, the major part of which are plant pathogens (125 species), while mycorrhizal and saprotrophic fungi (eight and nine species, respectively) are much less represented. The distribution within country and current status of non-native fungi were assessed. Large part of alien fungus species (58) are considered as established, three species (Auricularia auricula-judae, Aureoboletus projectellus, Lecanosticta acicola) are currently spreading, three species (Serpula lacrymans, Synchytrium endobioticum, Tilletia caries) are decreasing, one (Laricifomes officinalis) is considered to be extinct, five saprotrophic species are ephemeromycetes with few records almost exceptionally indoors and not surviving in outside conditions. Status of more than half of the listed species (73) is categorized as unknown as their records are few, suitable habitats and/or hosts are uncommon. The peak of alien fungus recording in Lithuania was in 1980–2000, apparently reflecting an increased frequency of international carriages and the highest peak of national mycological activities. Based on climate change scenarios for Lithuania, further increase of the numbers of alien species is being forecasted.
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Pipek, Pavel, Tim M. Blackburn, Steven Delean, Phillip Cassey, Çağan H. Şekercioğlu et Petr Pyšek. « Lasting the distance : The survival of alien birds shipped to New Zealand in the 19th century ». Ecology and Evolution 10, no 9 (7 mars 2020) : 3944–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6143.
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Gordeev, I. A., et M. I. Gordeeva. « HISTORY OF LEGISLATION DEVELOPMENT ABOUT CHILD LABOUR IN RUSSIA TILL OCTOBER 1917 ». Proceedings of the Southwest State University 21, no 6 (28 décembre 2017) : 201–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.21869/2223-1560-2017-21-6-201-211.
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This article is devoted to history of legislation development about child labour in Russia till October 1917. The beginning of industry development in Russia in the 19th century demanded a large number of “working hands”. At the same time businessmen didn't want to lose planned benefit and tried to look for such workers who would be less exacting in compensation at sufficient labor efficiency. Children were such labor and their work was necessary for many factories and plants. State support of Russian bourgeoisie of central part didn't hurry to regulate legislatively labor relations, establish obligations of industrialists in relation to workers in general and juvenile workers in particular. All this explains why restriction projects of juveniles’ labor couldn't be implemented within the 1870th years. Legal labour support in Russia at the end of XIX - the beginning of the XX century was progressive. Acts were adopted in the conditions of not only industrialists’ opposition and workers, but also in the conditions of businessmen competition. Laws governed public relations on labor wage application, children and women labor involvement and also initial training of juveniles in pre-revolutionary Russia. The value of factory legislation acts in regulation of minor workers is high. They opened a way to legal settlement of disputes in industrial environment of the end XIX - the beginning of the XX century. Originally adopted acts were conditional. However under the influence of social, political and legal factors more accurate forms were corrected. Authors note that serfdom cancellation and other reforms of the beginning of the 60th years of the 19th century in Russia were made for broad development of market relations which caused the necessity of working legislation formation. There was a legislative fixing of parties' inequality at enterprises and unpunished exploitation of children.
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Tyson, Thomas. « ACCOUNTING FOR LABOR IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY : THE U.S. ARMS MAKING EXPERIENCE ». Accounting Historians Journal 17, no 1 (1 juin 1990) : 47–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.2308/0148-4184.17.1.47.
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The national armory at Springfield was the largest prototype of the modern factory establishment and its accounting controls were described by Alfred Chandler [1977] as the most sophisticated in use before the early 1840s. In spite of that, armory management did not integrate piece-rate accounting and a clock-regulated workday to produce prespecified norms of output. Hoskin & Macve [1988] have recently suggested that the armory's accounting controls were unable to attain disciplinary power over labor and increase labor productivity until a West Point trained managerial component had been established at the armory after 1840. They called for a reexamination of the historical record from a disciplinary rather than economic perspective to validate this doctrine. The paper presents the findings of this reexamination and indicates that West Point management training was a relatively minor determinant in the evolving nature of accounting. Several economic and social factors are found to better explain why integration did not occur any sooner than it did at the Springfield armory.
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Sefer, Akın, Aysel Yıldız et Mustafa Erdem Kabadayı. « Labor Migration from Kruševo : Mobility, Ottoman Transformation, and the Balkan Highlands in the 19th Century ». International Journal of Middle East Studies 53, no 1 (février 2021) : 73–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743820000847.
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AbstractAlthough mountainous regions remained relatively isolated and almost untouched by the Ottoman rule, labor migration connected the inhabitants of these regions to the socioeconomic and political processes in the Ottoman Empire and beyond. Kruševo, a highland village located in present-day North Macedonia, provides an excellent case for understanding these connections. This paper presents systematic evidence from the Ottoman archives to document and analyze the social, economic, and demographic impacts of labor migration during this period. It provides an in-depth analysis of the Ottoman population and tax records of Kruševo in the 1840s, demonstrating the occupational profiles, migration patterns, and family and neighborhood networks of village residents during this period. Based on this analysis, it argues that labor migration was key to the transformation of social, economic, and demographic relations in rural communities and to the integration of even the most remote highland villages with the modernization processes that characterized the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century.
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Abisaab, Malek. « Gendered Expressions of Labor in the Middle East ». International Journal of Middle East Studies 48, no 3 (6 juillet 2016) : 570–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743816000520.
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A dearth of information is available on workingwomen in the Middle East during the 19th and first half of the 20th century. This gap is compounded by the male biases of the official reporters, journalists, unionists, labor activists, and scholars who produced the information that does exist. Nevertheless, it is possible to write a gendered history of labor on the basis of less-than-ideal sources, which can be enriched by the use of oral history, popular literature, autobiographies, and even fieldwork focused on women's and men's family relations and work patterns.
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Carson, Scott Alan. « NET NUTRITION AND THE TRANSITION FROM 19TH CENTURY BOUND TO FREE-LABOR : ASSESSING DIETARY CHANGE WITH DIFFERENCES-IN-DECOMPOSITIONS ». Journal of Demographic Economics 84, no 4 (17 octobre 2018) : 447–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/dem.2018.15.
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Abstract:Average stature reflects cumulative net nutrition and health during economic development. This study introduces a difference-in-decompositions approach to show that although 19th century African-American cumulative net nutrition was comparable to working class whites, it was made worse-off with the transition to free-labor. Average stature reflects net nutrition over the life-course, and adult blacks born under bound-labor had greater age related statures loss than blacks under free-labor. Agricultural worker's net nutrition was better than workers in other occupations and was better-off under free-labor and industrialization. Within-group stature variation was greater than across-group variation, and white within-group stature variation associated with socioeconomic status was greater than African-Americans.
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Ghazaleh, Pascale. « TRADING IN POWER : MERCHANTS AND THE STATE IN 19TH-CENTURY EGYPT ». International Journal of Middle East Studies 45, no 1 (février 2013) : 71–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0020743812001262.
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AbstractIn this article, I argue that commercial legislation promulgated and implemented in Egypt during the first half of the 19th century was one of several factors that diminished the effect of merchants’ social networks, reduced merchants’ identity to a purely professional dimension, and made profit dependent upon association with the state. The transformation of merchants’ social roles was not part of a natural evolution toward modernization and the specialized division of labor. Rather, it resulted from interactions between state-building endeavors, pressures from established merchants who sought to parry threats to their position while profiting from new business opportunities, and an influx of merchants from outside the Ottoman sultanate, who could draw neither on personal connections nor on knowledge of local markets but instead had to depend on the protection of the European consulates and the influence of the growing Egyptian state apparatus.
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Petukhov, V. A. « International division of labor and import substitution in the UK in the 19th century ». Economics : Theory and Practice, no 1 (2022) : 27–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.31429/2224042x_2022_65_27.
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Kerr, P. Benjamin, Anthony J. Caputy et Norman H. Horwitz. « A history of cerebral localization ». Neurosurgical Focus 18, no 4 (avril 2005) : 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/foc.2005.18.4.2.
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The brain has been known to be the center of voluntary movement, sensation, and intelligence for centuries. Nevertheless, it was not until the latter third of the 19th century that the functions of its different areas were discovered. It was the labor of several key men that made possible the accurate localization and, furthermore, the resection of brain neoplasms.
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Quirk, Victor. « The light on the hill and the ‘right to work’ ». Economic and Labour Relations Review 29, no 4 (décembre 2018) : 459–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1035304618817413.
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In 1945 the Curtin Labor Government declared it had the capacity and responsibility to permanently eliminate the blight of unemployment from the lives of Australians in its White Paper ‘Full Employment in Australia’. This was the culmination of a century of struggle to establish the ‘right to work’, once a key objective of the 19th century labour movement. Deeply resented and long resisted by employer groups, the policy was abandoned in the mid-1970s, without an electoral mandate. Although the Australian Labor Party and union movement urged public vigilance to preserve full employment during 23 years of Liberal rule, after 1978 they quietly dropped the policy as the Australian Labor Party turned increasingly to corporate donors for the money they needed to stay electorally competitive. While few leading lights of today’s Labor movement care to discuss it, it is right that Australians celebrate this bold statement of our right to work, and the 30 years of full employment it heralded. JEL Codes: P16, P35, N37
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Zolyan, S. T. « Sootechestvenniki (compatriots) in the 19th century : semantic profile based on the data of the National Corpus of the Russian language ». Slovo.ru : Baltic accent 11, no 3 (2020) : 72–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.5922/2225-5346-2020-3-5.
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The concept “sootechestvenniki” is one of the key tools for self-description of society; it is an instrument for drawing borderlines between “we” and “they”. The article describes the development of the meaning of this word since its coinage. The word appeared in the 18th century as a merger of the Old Slavic and Old Russian ‘otechestvo’ (fatherland, understood as one’s place of origin) and the French ‘compatriot’. This merger resulted in the formation of two new prototypical meanings: one is civic, collective and elevated, and the other gravitates to ethnicity since it is used to refer to Russians. With the strengthening of state institutions in Russia, the first meaning was bound to dominate and it did at the beginning of the 19th century. However, one should speak not about the synthesis, but rather about the discordance of the two meanings. In the 19th century, another meaning developed in the semantic structure of the word: ethnic Russians living abroad. Gradually, the word acquired new evaluative meanings, while negative connotations still prevailed. The basic oppositions (we — they, here — there, ours — alien) interacted in an ambiguous way, substituting each other. A variety of hybrid “compatriots” arose: we are there, they are here, etc. The heterogeneity of the semantics of the word reflects collisions within society, which faced a tragic internal split in the 20th century.
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Shkodinsky, Sergey V., et Vyacheslav V. Volkov. « LABOR OF WOMEN AND CHILDREN OF IMPERIAL RUSSIA IN THE LATE 19TH - EARLY 20TH CENTURY ». Bulletin of the Moscow State Regional University (Economics), no 2 (2021) : 38–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.18384/2310-6646-2021-2-38-46.
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Viú Adagio, Julieta. « Echoes of the artist novels in Black out by María Moreno ». Anclajes 25, no 1 (1 janvier 2021) : 43–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.19137/anclajes-2021-2514.
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Going beyond an autobiographical reading of María Moreno’s Black out (2016), this article analyzes its intertextualities with late 19th century modernist novels. Moreno’s novel, set in the late 20th century, reveals thematic and formal resonances with narratives that novelized the life and times of the artist. This reading of Black out as an artist novel is based on the relationship it establishes with the modernist archive (constant similarities and also important differences), such as the newspaper form, the defense of a particular aesthetics, and the definitions and positions toward literary labor.
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Sahakyan, L. N., et O. I. Severskaya. « “Russian people” in the literature and documents of the 19th century : an experience of linguistic portraiture ». Slovo.ru : Baltic accent 11, no 3 (2020) : 57–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.5922/2225-5346-2020-3-4.
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The article describes the ideologeme “Russian people” and its use in the texts of fiction and documentary literature of the 19th century. The authors explored both the socio-political concept “'Russian people” and its verbalization in Russian. The research material included examples from the Russian National Corpus, which were analysed using corpus, content-analytical and cognitive methods. This research aims to identify and to characterise the concept “Russian people”. The authors argue that it was in the 19th century that the concept “Russian people” evolved into a term and the image of Russian people was mythologized. The authors concluded that the concept “Russian people” is composed of two parts — ‘ordinary people’ and ‘society’. The latter behaves in a fatherly way, taking upon itself the mission of enlightenment of ordinary people and their liberation. In the semantic field “Russian people” there are numerous semantic components directly related to the concept analysed: faith, faithfulness, patience, tolerance, understanding, receptivity, openness, simple-mindedness, juvenility, etc. The authors consider the moral and intellectual qualities of Russian people, which are dialectical and ambivalent. The authors explore these characteristics of Russian people from the standpoint of the dichotomy own vs. alien. The analysis shows that after the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the image of Russian people undergoes significant changes under the influence of social processes.
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Gural-Sverlova, Nina, et Roman Gural. « Cornu aspersum (Gastropoda : Helicidae) in Western Ukraine with an overview of introduced species of land molluscs from this area ». Malacologica Bohemoslovaca 20 (9 décembre 2021) : 123–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/mab2021-20-123.
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The first findings of Cornu aspersum in the Lviv region are described, including the shell size and shell colouration variability. A review of the known records of C. aspersum in different regions of Ukraine, from the second half of the 19th century to the present day, is also presented. The most probable ways of penetration and the possibility of further acclimatization of this species in Western Ukraine are discussed. The chronology of the records of introduced species of land molluscs in Western Ukraine is described in tabular form, which, to a large extent, should reflect the chronology of their penetration into this area. It is noted that the majority of alien species began to be found in Western Ukraine only at the end of the 20th or the beginning of the 21st century. Simultaneously several species appeared here, previously known only for the south of the country.
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Hudson, Kenneth, et Andrea Coukos. « The Dark Side of the Protestant Ethic : A Comparative Analysis of Welfare Reform ». Sociological Theory 23, no 1 (mars 2005) : 1–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0735-2751.2005.00240.x.
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This article examines the impact of the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism on the recent welfare reform movement and the 19th-century campaign to abolish outdoor relief. Contemporary advocates of welfare reform adopted the 19th-century model of charity organization and reform as their exemplar. The welfare reform movement focused on the morals of the poor and “welfare dependence,” while the 19th-century movement attempted to eliminate the distribution of aid outside the poorhouse and to discourage “indiscriminate almsgiving”“ on the part of individuals. We argue that the Protestant ethos represents a uniquely Anglo-American variety of Calvinist Puritanism. We also show that while this ethos is a fairly constant component of American culture it has under certain conditions produced severe retrenchments in aid to the poor that is welfare reform and the abolition of outdoor relief. These conditions include the presence of a tight labor market and political mobilization by advocates of reform. Drawing on Ragin's (1987) model of conjunctural causation, we argue that both conditions must be met before such reform movements are likely to occur. We also employ the comparative method to show why alternative explanations based on economic and demographic factors are inadequate to explain the events in question.
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Forbath, William E. « Courts, Constitutions, and Labor Politics in England and America : A Study of the Constitutive Power of Law ». Law & ; Social Inquiry 16, no 01 (1991) : 1–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.1991.tb00282.x.
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For most of the 19th century, the labor movements of England and America seemed to be developing along similar lines. Then, in the decades around the turn of the century, both movements were embroiled in a common battle over the political soul of trade unionism. In England, the champions of broad, class-based social and industrial reforms prevailed. In the United States, they lost, and the winners were the voluntarists, who held that labor should steer clear of politics as much as possible. This article suggests that the key reasons for the divergence lie not in the sociology of the working class or labor movement, so much as in the character of the state and polity and the lessons trade unionists drew from experiences in those arenas. The difference between judicial supremacy in the United States and parliamentary supremacy in England combined with other differences in the two nations’ forms of government to produce sharply contrasting lessons about the value of state-based reforms.
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Mardanova, Dinara. « Hasan ‘ Ata Gabashi versus the Missionary Evfimiy Malov : An Example of Muslim-Christian Polemics of the Late 19th Century ». State Religion and Church in Russia and Worldwide 38, no 4 (2020) : 343–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.22394/2073-7203-2020-38-4-343-372.
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The article deals with the Muslim reaction to the Russian Orthodox missionaries’ challenge in the polemic work by Hasan ‘Ata Gabashi “Nur al-haqiqa” (1886). The author explores the internal mechanism of Islamic discourse, which works to protect the sphere of Muslim dogmatic (‘aqida) from the “alien” influence and is realized through the delineation of protective boundaries. As a defence tactic, Gabashi uses the strategy of refuting “false idea” or “false teaching” from ‘Ilm al-Kalam. The paper analyses the development of the narrative, the argumentation used by Gabashi and the behavior of those involved in the polemics. As he implements his “protective project,” Gabashi explores and criticizes Christian ideas in terms of his own discourse. As the Muslim author, Gabashi does not reject the entire Christian doctrine or the entire Bible, but selectively criticizes “distortions” that are contrary to Islam.
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Gavrilov, Artem Vyacheslavovich. « Historiography of agricultural modernization problem of Russia from the second part of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century ». Samara Journal of Science 6, no 2 (1 juin 2017) : 186–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.17816/snv201762220.
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The Russian history from the second part of 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century is a very significant period for the development of the country. One can say that at that time peasant community faced globalization challenge. Agricultural problem was a key issue, which penetrated the whole period bringing up political controversies, ideological strives, success in economical development, starvation in 1891, reforms and revolutions 80-90th of the 19th century were critical for the whole epoch as unsolved peasant issue at that moment was one of the reasons of revolutionary upheavals of the 20th century. For the last twenty-five years the study of different sides of peasant community life has progressed really far and has broken new ground. It is necessary to single out that this progress has been done due to extensive capabilities, which started in the soviet time as well as to the prerevolutionary study of this question. We single out following areas of focus in modern researches which form the problem of modernization of the agricultural sphere from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Firstly, it is the policy to peasant community and race because of the governmental deal. Then it is a huge amount of works dedicated to social-economical village development - peasant autonomy, farming and landed property, land market development, productivity of land, condition of labor force, cooperation problem and development of peasant industry, financial issue of the peasant community. Traditionally social-cultural development of the village is in the great demand including popular education, common law for peasants and the evolution of the peasant family.
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Sholihah, Fanada, Yety Rochwulaningsih et Singgih Tri Sulistiyono. « Slave Trade Syndicates : Contestation of Slavery in Timor between Local Rulers, Europeans, and Pirates in the 19th century ». Journal of Maritime Studies and National Integration 3, no 1 (16 juillet 2019) : 36. http://dx.doi.org/10.14710/jmsni.v3i1.5294.
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This article analyses the contestation of slavery activities in Timor during 19th century. The slave trade cannot be separated from contestation between three forces, namely the local authority (rajah), colonial entities residing in Timor, and pirates from Bugis, Ende, and Sulu. The rajah fought each other on the battlefield to decide which of them worthy of a “gift” of the war, which were women and children as merchandise for sale. Meanwhile, colonial complaints about the limited human labor to be employed in various types of work not only encouraged increased slave raiding and the purchase of slaves in distant places, but at the same time fostered slave trading activities, both were sponsored by the Dutch and Portuguese. One of the main causes of the ongoing slave trade was piracy at sea, three actors were pioneering slave raiding, namely Balanini/Ilanun, Bugis and Makassar pirate, and Ende pirate. By applying historical method, this research questioned why locals, Europeans, and pirate rulers contested to obtain slaves in Timor? The rise of capitalism was marked by the demand for cheap labor in 19th century. Therefore, slave commodities were mobilized to meet the need for labour in plantations or companies owned by the colonial government.
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Tu, T. Huynh. « From Demand for Asiatic Labor to Importation of Indentured Chinese Labor : Race Identity in the Recruitment of Unskilled Labor for South Africa's Gold Mining Industry, 1903–1910 ». Journal of Chinese Overseas 4, no 1 (2008) : 51–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/179325408788691516.
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AbstractDespite international protests against bonded labor, the flow of indentured laborers during the 19th and early decades of the 20th centuries was extensive compared to the earlier centuries. The focus of this article is on the particularity of the “Chinese coolies experiment” in South Africa's gold mining industry which commenced in 1904. This 20th-century episode of indentured labor is notable for several reasons, and it serves as a springboard for the discussion of some fundamental issues in capitalist development, labor and identity formation. This article emphasizes the last, examining how a “Chinese” identity was formed through the development of the gold fields and, in turn, how this formation reinforced a nascent white labor aristocracy. It discusses two dimensions of this labor “experiment” in South Africa: (1) the heady debate on the decision to look to China for cheap labor and (2) desertion by the indentured Chinese laborers from various mining compounds in the Witwatersrand.