Articles de revues : « Alarmin HMGB1 »

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Bidwell, Joseph P., Jieping Yang et Alexander G. Robling. « Is HMGB1 an osteocyte alarmin ? » Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 103, n^o 6 (2008) : 1671–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jcb.21572.

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Palumbo, Antonino, Fabiola Atzeni, Giuseppe Murdaca et Sebastiano Gangemi. « The Role of Alarmins in Osteoarthritis Pathogenesis : HMGB1, S100B and IL-33 ». International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, n^o 15 (29 juillet 2023) : 12143. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms241512143.

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Osteoarthritis (OA) is a multifactorial disease in which genetics, aging, obesity, and trauma are well-known risk factors. It is the most prevalent joint disease and the largest disability problem worldwide. Recent findings have described the role of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the course of the disease. In particular, alarmins such as HMGB1, IL-33, and S100B, appear implicated in enhancing articular inflammation and favouring a catabolic switch in OA chondrocytes. The aims of this review are to clarify the molecular signalling of these three molecules in OA pathogenesis, to identify their possible use as staging biomarkers, and, most importantly, to find out whether they could be possible therapeutic targets. Osteoarthritic cartilage expresses increased levels of all three alarmins. HMGB1, in particular, is the most studied alarmin with increased levels in cartilage, synovium, and synovial fluid of OA patients. High levels of HMGB1 in synovial fluid of OA joints are positively correlated with radiological and clinical severity. Counteracting HMGB1 strategies have revealed improving results in articular cells from OA patients and in OA animal models. Therefore, drugs against this alarmin, such as anti-HMGB1 antibodies, could be new treatment possibilities that can modify the disease course since available medications only alleviate symptoms.

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Casciaro, Marco, Eleonora Di Salvo et Sebastiano Gangemi. « HMGB-1 in Psoriasis ». Biomolecules 12, n^o 1 (31 décembre 2021) : 60. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom12010060.

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Psoriasis is a multifactorial pathology linked to systemic inflammation. Enhanced keratinocytes proliferation and a minor maturation state of the cells are typical features. Perivascular T cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, and neutrophilic granulocytes are part of the scenario completed by apoptosis dysregulation. Several proinflammatory mediators, alarmins and growth factors are increased too, both in the skin and the patients’ blood. HMGB1 is important as an alarmin in several inflammatory conditions. Released after cellular damage, HMGB1 acts as a danger signal. Several studies have considered its role in psoriasis pathogenesis. We evaluated its level in psoriasis and the potential of the alarmin blockade through standard therapies, biological treatments and using monoclonal antibodies. PV patients were shown to have significantly increased levels of HMGB1 both in lesional skin and in serum, which were linked, in some cases, to other pro-inflammatory markers and alarmins. In most cases these parameters were correlated with PASI score. Data demonstrated that blocking HMGB1 is effective in ameliorating psoriasis. Focusing on this approach could be valuable in terms of a therapeutic option for counteracting immune-related diseases in a way unthinkable until few years ago.

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Jiang, Lili, Yijia Shao, Yao Tian, Changsheng Ouyang et Xiaohua Wang. « Nuclear Alarmin Cytokines in Inflammation ». Journal of Immunology Research 2020 (4 décembre 2020) : 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2020/7206451.

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Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) are some nonspecific and highly conserved molecular structures of exogenous specific microbial pathogens, whose products can be recognized by pattern recognition receptor (PRR) on innate immune cells and induce an inflammatory response. Under physiological stress, activated or damaged cells might release some endogenous proteins that can also bind to PRR and cause a harmful aseptic inflammatory response. These endogenous proteins were named damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) or alarmins. Indeed, alarmins can also play a beneficial role in the tissue repair in certain environments. Besides, some alarmin cytokines have been reported to have both nuclear and extracellular effects. This group of proteins includes high-mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1), interleukin (IL)-33, IL-1α, IL-1F7b, and IL-16. In this article, we review the involvement of nuclear alarmins such as HMGB1, IL-33, and IL-1α under physiological state or stress state and suggest a novel activity of these molecules as central initiators in the development of sterile inflammation.

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Davalos, Albert R., Misako Kawahara, Gautam K. Malhotra, Nicholas Schaum, Jiahao Huang, Urvi Ved, Christian M. Beausejour, Jean-Philippe Coppe, Francis Rodier et Judith Campisi. « p53-dependent release of Alarmin HMGB1 is a central mediator of senescent phenotypes ». Journal of Cell Biology 201, n^o 4 (6 mai 2013) : 613–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201206006.

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Cellular senescence irreversibly arrests proliferation in response to potentially oncogenic stress. Senescent cells also secrete inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6, which promote age-associated inflammation and pathology. HMGB1 (high mobility group box 1) modulates gene expression in the nucleus, but certain immune cells secrete HMGB1 as an extracellular Alarmin to signal tissue damage. We show that nuclear HMGB1 relocalized to the extracellular milieu in senescent human and mouse cells in culture and in vivo. In contrast to cytokine secretion, HMGB1 redistribution required the p53 tumor suppressor, but not its activator ATM. Moreover, altered HMGB1 expression induced a p53-dependent senescent growth arrest. Senescent fibroblasts secreted oxidized HMGB1, which stimulated cytokine secretion through TLR-4 signaling. HMGB1 depletion, HMGB1 blocking antibody, or TLR-4 inhibition attenuated senescence-associated IL-6 secretion, and exogenous HMGB1 stimulated NF-κB activity and restored IL-6 secretion to HMGB1-depleted cells. Our findings identify senescence as a novel biological setting in which HMGB1 functions and link HMGB1 redistribution to p53 activity and senescence-associated inflammation.

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Fonken, Laura K., Matthew G. Frank, Meagan M. Kitt, Heather M. D'Angelo, Diana M. Norden, Michael D. Weber, Ruth M. Barrientos, Jonathan P. Godbout, Linda R. Watkins et Steven F. Maier. « The Alarmin HMGB1 Mediates Age-Induced Neuroinflammatory Priming ». Journal of Neuroscience 36, n^o 30 (27 juillet 2016) : 7946–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.1161-16.2016.

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Galaz, Jose, Roberto Romero, Marcia Arenas-Hernandez, Bogdan Panaitescu, Robert Para et Nardhy Gomez-Lopez. « Betamethasone as a potential treatment for preterm birth associated with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation : a murine study ». Journal of Perinatal Medicine 49, n^o 7 (20 avril 2021) : 897–906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/jpm-2021-0049.

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Abstract Objectives Preterm birth remains the leading cause of perinatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Preterm birth is preceded by spontaneous preterm labor, which is commonly associated with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation; yet, no approved treatment exists for this clinical condition. Corticosteroids are the standard of care to improve neonatal outcomes in women at risk of preterm birth. Herein, we first validated our model of alarmin-induced preterm birth. Next, we investigated whether treatment with betamethasone could prevent preterm birth resulting from sterile intra-amniotic inflammation in mice. Methods Under ultrasound guidance, the first cohort of dams received an intra-amniotic injection of the alarmin high-mobility group box-1 (HMGB1, n=10) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS, n=9) as controls. A second cohort of dams received HMGB1 intra-amniotically and were subcutaneously treated with betamethasone (n=15) or vehicle (n=15). Dams were observed until delivery, and perinatal outcomes were observed. Results Intra-amniotic HMGB1 reduced gestational length (p=0.04), inducing preterm birth in 40% (4/10) of cases, of which 100% (4/4) were categorized as late preterm births. Importantly, treatment with betamethasone extended the gestational length (p=0.02), thereby reducing the rate of preterm birth by 26.6% (from 33.3% [5/15] to 6.7% [1/15]). Treatment with betamethasone did not worsen the rate of neonatal mortality induced by HMGB1 or alter weight gain in the first three weeks of life. Conclusions Treatment with betamethasone prevents preterm birth induced by the alarmin HMGB1. This study supports the potential utility of betamethasone for treating women with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation.

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Gangemi, Sebastiano, Marco Casciaro, Giovanni Trapani, Sebastiano Quartuccio, Michele Navarra, Giovanni Pioggia et Egidio Imbalzano. « Association between HMGB1 and COPD : A Systematic Review ». Mediators of Inflammation 2015 (2015) : 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/164913.

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HMGB1 is an alarmin, a protein that warns and activates inflammation. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterised by a progressive airflow obstruction and airway inflammation. Current anti-inflammatory therapies are poorly effective in maintaining lung function and symptoms of COPD. This underlines the need for finding new molecular targets involved in disease pathogenesis in order to block pathology progression. This review aims to analyse latest advances on HMGB1 role, utilisation, and potential application in COPD. To this purpose we reviewed experimental studies that investigated this alarmin as marker as well as a potential treatment in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. This systematic review was conducted according to PRISMA guidelines. In almost all the studies, it emerged that HMGB1 levels are augmented in smokers and in patients affected by COPD. It emerged that cigarette smoking, the most well-known causative factor of COPD, induces neutrophils death and necrosis. The necrosis of neutrophil cells leads to HMGB1 release, which recruits other neutrophils in a self-maintaining process. According to the results reported in the paper both inhibiting HMGB1 and its receptor (RAGE) and blocking neutrophils necrosis (inducted by cigarette smoking) could be the aim for further studies.

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De Martinis, Massimo, Lia Ginaldi, Maria Maddalena Sirufo, Giovanni Pioggia, Gioacchino Calapai, Sebastiano Gangemi et Carmen Mannucci. « Alarmins in Osteoporosis, RAGE, IL-1, and IL-33 Pathways : A Literature Review ». Medicina 56, n^o 3 (19 mars 2020) : 138. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/medicina56030138.

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Alarmins are endogenous mediators released by cells following insults or cell death to alert the host’s innate immune system of a situation of danger or harm. Many of these, such as high-mobility group box-1 and 2 (HMGB1, HMGB2) and S100 (calgranulin proteins), act through RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end products), whereas the IL-1 and IL-33 cytokines bind the IL-1 receptors type I and II, and the cellular receptor ST2, respectively. The alarmin family and their signal pathways share many similarities of cellular and tissue localization, functions, and involvement in various physiological processes and inflammatory diseases including osteoporosis. The aim of the review was to evaluate the role of alarmins in osteoporosis. A bibliographic search of the published scientific literature regarding the role of alarmins in osteoporosis was organized independently by two researchers in the following scientific databases: Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science. The keywords used were combined as follows: “alarmins and osteoporosis”, “RAGE and osteoporosis”, “HMGB1 and osteoporosis”, “IL-1 and osteoporosis”, “IL 33 and osteopororsis”, “S100s protein and osteoporosis”. The information was summarized and organized in the present review. We highlight the emerging roles of alarmins in various bone remodeling processes involved in the onset and development of osteoporosis, as well as their potential role as biomarkers of osteoporosis severity and progression. Findings of the research suggest a potential use of alarmins as pharmacological targets in future therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing bone loss and fragility fractures induced by aging and inflammatory diseases.

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WANG, ZHEN, HONG ZHOU, HUAPING ZHENG, XIU TENG, XIAOQIONG WEI et JIONG LI. « Autophagy-based unconventional secretion of alarmin HMGB1 by keratinocytes plays a pivotal role in psoriatic skin inflammation ». Journal of Immunology 202, n^o 1_Supplement (1 mai 2019) : 59.1. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.202.supp.59.1.

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Abstract The precise mechanism by which autophagy affects psoriasis is poorly understood. Here we show that keratinocytes (KCs) autophagy was activated in psoriatic lesions of patients and mice model, positively correlating with psoriatic severity, and could be inhibited by MAPK family (ERK, p38, JNK) inactivation, implying autophagy was associated with psoriatic inflammation. Indeed, impaired autophagy flux, caused by autophagy inhibitors or KC-specific deletion of Atg5, alleviated psoriasisform inflammation, demonstrating autophagy positively regulated psoriatic inflammation. We then found an autophagy-based unconventional secretory pathway (autosecretion), depended on Atg5 and GRASP55, promoted the psoriasiform KCs inflammation. Moreover, alarmin HMGB1 was more effective than other autosecretory proteins, IL-1β and IL-18, to regulate the psoriasiform cutaneous inflammation. HMGB1 neutralization in autophagy-efficient KCs vanished the psoriasiform inflammation differences between autophagy-efficient KCs and autophagy-deficient KCs. Conversely, recombinant HMGB1 almost completely restored the psoriasiform inflammation in autophagy-deficient KCs in vivo. These results suggested that HMGB1-associated autosecretion, not other intracellular autophagy pathways, played a pivotal role in cutaneous inflammation. Finally, we demonstrated that KC-specific HMGB1 deficient mice, but not DC- or myeloid cell-specific HMGB1 deficient mice, displayed attenuated psoriatic inflammation, due to the essential crosstalk between KC-specific HMGB1-associated autosecretion and γδT cells. Thus, we uncover a novel autophagy mechanism in psoriasis pathogenesis, and imply its clinical significance in psoriasis treatment.

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Chung, Hyunwoo, Sol Seo, Sung Ji Hong, So Won Choi et Chung-Gyu Park. « The alarmin HMGB1 in cell cytoplasm can modulate the apoptosis to autophagy switch of pancreatic beta cells under stress ». Journal of Immunology 204, n^o 1_Supplement (1 mai 2020) : 161.28. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.204.supp.161.28.

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Abstract High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an infamous alarmin which is known to be harmful to pancreatic beta cells and associated with diabetes mellitus pathogenesis and pancreatic islet graft failure. However, recent studies have indicated that cytosolic HMGB1 could function as a modulator to relieve cells from apoptotic stress by inducing autophagy. Particularly, pancreatic beta cells have been well-known to demonstrate the apoptosis to autophagy switch when exposed to hypoxia or lipoxiticy. In this study, we have investigated the beta cells under hypoxic and lipotoxic stress with CCK8 assay and flow cytometry while utilizing a small molecule inhibitor of HMGB1 which can suppress the cytosolic accumulation of HMGB1. The results demonstrated that the cytoplasmic HMGB1 blockade decreased the viability of mouse beta cell line MIN6 and primary islets. Moreover, the cytoplasmic HMGB1 blockade decreased the autophagic flux and increased the ratio of apoptotic MIN6 cells. Also, it was noteworthy that the MIN6 cells have shown high autophagic flux even in basal state. We believe this study linked the role of cytoplasmic HMGB1 in apoptosis to autophagy switch and the importance of autophagy in beta cells under apoptotic stress. We expect this study to open up a novel field of HMGB1 utilization within diabetes- and islet transplantation-related therapeutics, where the current field is mainly focused on the exhaustive blockade of HMGB1.

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Lamkanfi, Mohamed, Anasuya Sarkar, Lieselotte Vande Walle, Alberto C. Vitari, Amal O. Amer, Mark D. Wewers, Kevin J. Tracey, Thirumala-Devi Kanneganti et Vishva M. Dixit. « Inflammasome-Dependent Release of the Alarmin HMGB1 in Endotoxemia ». Journal of Immunology 185, n^o 7 (27 août 2010) : 4385–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1000803.

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Harris, Helena Erlandsson, Ulf Andersson et David S. Pisetsky. « HMGB1 : A multifunctional alarmin driving autoimmune and inflammatory disease ». Nature Reviews Rheumatology 8, n^o 4 (31 janvier 2012) : 195–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrrheum.2011.222.

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Toia, Liana M., John Mariano, Michael Weinstein Winter et Jessica C. Shand. « Alarmin High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) Activates Alternative NFkB Signaling in Bone Marrow Macrophages in the Leukemia Microenvironment ». Blood 126, n^o 23 (3 décembre 2015) : 2204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood.v126.23.2204.2204.

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Abstract High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a damage-associated molecular pattern (DAMP) that signals through pattern recognition receptors on monocyte/macrophages to recruit them to sites of tissue injury. In models of sepsis and autoimmunity, HMGB1 can have both immune-activating and regulatory effects depending on the receptor system engaged and the downstream pathway activated. Although chemotherapy-stressed tumor cells are known to release HMGB1, little is known about the effects of tumor-derived HMGB1 on macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. We have previously shown that primary human acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells release high levels of HMGB1 after treatment with anthracycline chemotherapy, and that leukemia-associated HMGB1 induces expression of the IL-1 converting enzyme (caspase-1), consistent with activation of the inflammasome. Paradoxically, inflammatory cytokine production (including IL-1beta) is reduced in this setting. In the present study, we test the hypothesis leukemia-associated HMGB1 activates alternative NFkB signaling through the repressor protein RelB which has been recently shown to silence inflammatory cytokine production via epigenetic effects in sepsis models. To establish proof-of-principle, we first treated primary human bone marrow macrophages (BMM) and THP1 monocytes with 200 ng/ml recombinant HMGB1 (r-HMGB1) in the presence or absence of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). As predicted, LPS alone increased baseline expression of total NFkB, total p65/RelA and phosphorylated p65/RelA mRNA (20.6 + 7.9-fold by qPCR ddCT, p<0.0001) and protein (measured by Western blot, in BMM and THP1. In contrast, r-HMGB1 treatment produced a significant increase in the expression of RelB mRNA (2.5 + 0.7 fold increase p<0.05) and protein without a significant change in the expression of tNFkB or p65/RelA. Treatment with both r-HMGB1 and LPS maintained this pattern of increased RelB expression without increased expression of p65/RelA, suggesting HMGB1 activity as the dominant effect. Increased RelB expression was unaffected by the addition of an antibody to TLR4, the primary receptor for LPS and a candidate receptor for HMGB1. Next, we determined whether induction of RelB expression also occurs in response to leukemia-derived HMGB1. Immunomagnetically selected ALL cells from the bone marrow of 3 pediatric patients and NALM 6 ALL cells were treated with 20 nM doxorubicin, washed, and placed in culture for 24 hours prior to the addition of BMM in direct coculture. In our model, ALL cells typically release 100-450 ng/ml HMGB1 under these conditions. Again, significantly increased expression of RelB mRNA (6.7 + 2.9 fold, p<0.001) and protein was observed in BMM cultured with doxorubicin-treated ALL cells compared to ALL cells treated with media control, with a corresponding decrease in phospho-IkBa protein expression and unchanged total NFkB, p65/RelA and phosphorylated p65/RelA. Pre-treatment of ALL cells with quercetin, a commercially available flavonoid antioxidant shown to inhibit HMGB1 release, inhibited protein expression of RelB in BMM in a dose-dependent fashion. These data indicate that tumor-derived HMGB1 activates alternative NFkB signaling and is capable of reprogramming the inflammatory response to LPS. Studies are ongoing to the determine downstream effects on macrophage antitumor function to optimize therapeutic reversal of HMGB1 effects and improve the potential for bone marrow macrophages to eradicate residual leukemia that remains after chemotherapy. Disclosures No relevant conflicts of interest to declare.

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Gombert, Jean-Marc, Antoine Thierry, Aurelie Robin, Anne Barra, Thierry Hauet, Guy Touchard et Andre Herbelin. « Study of alarmin release during ischemia reperfusion injury after human renal transplantation (P2214) ». Journal of Immunology 190, n^o 1_Supplement (1 mai 2013) : 69.45. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.190.supp.69.45.

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Abstract The endogenous molecules high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and interleukin-33 (IL-33) have been recognized as alarmins, capable of mediating danger signals during tissue damage. Here, we address their possible role as innate-immune mediators in ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) following human kidney transplantation. Urinary HMGB1 and IL-33 levels were significantly increased as soon as 30 min after reperfusion, as compared to prior transplantation. Moreover, a significant correlation was shown between both serum and urinary IL-33 (but not HMGB1) levels and cold ischemia time, from 30 min to 3 days post-tranplantation. In vitro, human umbilical vein endothelial cells submitted to hypoxia-reoxygenation significantly released IL-33. Finally, we can propose that PBMC from renal recipient patients are targeted by both HMGB1 and IL-33 as their receptor (TLR2/4 and ST2-L, respectively) transcripts were enhanced early after transplantation. Consistent with this view, by analyzing iNKT cells, which are been suggested to play a crucial role in IRI and we recently reported to be targeted by IL-33, we showed an early activation state of this innate-like T cell subset in kidney transplant recipients, as attested by the upregulation of CD69 surface expression 1 hour after transplantation. Altogether, these results underline the possible role of IL-33 as an innate-immune mediator during IRI in humans.

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Mezentsev, A. V., E. V. Denisova, V. V. Sobolev et I. M. Korsunskaya. « The role of alarmins in the pathogenesis of psoriasis ». Meditsinskiy sovet = Medical Council, n^o 14 (28 septembre 2023) : 62–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.21518/ms2023-276.

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Alarmins are a group of immune activating proteins/peptides that initiate an inflammatory process by interacting with immune cells. The alarmins are biosynthesized as a result of cell injury, often due to proteolysis of native proteins. Most often, the alarmins are released into the extracellular matrix as a result of infection, burn or trauma. Several studies have been conducted recently to determine the role of alarmins in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. This work was aimed to assess the clinical potential of alarmins and characterize their role in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. The proposed review analysed 6 groups of alarmins with increased expression in the skin of patients with psoriasis: defensins, CAMP/LL-37, amphoterin/HMGB1, interleukin-1 (IL-1)-like cytokine family members (IL1 and -33) with alarmin properties, heat shock proteins, and proteins of the S100 family. The presented work also discusses the therapeutic potential of alarmins: the possibility to use them as the drug therapy target, as well as to establish diagnosis and monitor the progress of psoriasis. The further experimental studies are supposed to pay considerable attention to alarmin receptors, as well as members involved in the signalling pathways they initiated. These work findings help to obtain biologically active compounds that will be able to specifically and effectively inhibit the physiological effects of alarmins, as well as control the inflammatory process they induced. It seems certain that the use of alarmin antagonists in clinical practice will prove useful in the treatment of both psoriasis and other chronic autoimmune diseases, especially in cases where the most commonly used therapies are not effective enough.

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Cher, Jonathon Z. B., Moeed Akbar, Susan Kitson, Lindsay A. N. Crowe, Emma Garcia-Melchor, Stephen C. Hannah, Michael McLean et al. « Alarmins in Frozen Shoulder : A Molecular Association Between Inflammation and Pain ». American Journal of Sports Medicine 46, n^o 3 (30 novembre 2017) : 671–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0363546517741127.

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Background: The pathophysiological mechanisms behind proliferation of fibroblasts and deposition of dense collagen matrix in idiopathic frozen shoulder remain unclear. Alarmins (also known as danger signals) are endogenous molecules that are released into the extracellular milieu after infection or tissue injury and that signal cell and tissue damage. Purpose: To investigate whether the presence of alarmins is higher in patients with idiopathic frozen shoulder than in control subjects. Study Design: Controlled laboratory study. Methods: Shoulder capsule samples were collected from 10 patients with idiopathic frozen shoulder and 10 patients with unstable shoulders (control). The samples were stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and analyzed by immunohistochemistry using antibodies against alarmin molecules including high-mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1), interleukin 33, S100A8, S100A9, and the peripheral nerve marker PGP9.5. Immunoreactivities were rated in a blinded fashion from “none” to “strong.” Immunohistochemical distribution within the capsule was noted. Before surgery, patient-ranked pain frequency, severity, stiffness, and the range of passive shoulder motion were recorded and statistically analyzed. Results: Compared with control patients, patients with frozen shoulder had greater frequency and severity of self-reported pain ( P = .02) and more restricted range of motion in all planes ( P < .05). H&E-stained capsular tissue from frozen shoulder showed fibroblastic hypercellularity and increased subsynovial vascularity. Immunoreactivity of alarmins was significantly stronger in frozen shoulder capsules compared with control capsules ( P < .05). Furthermore, the expression of the alarmin molecule HMGB1 significantly correlated ( r > 0.9, P < .05) with the severity of patient-reported pain. Conclusion: This study demonstrates a potential role for key molecular danger signals in frozen shoulder and suggests an association between the expression of danger molecules and the pain experienced by patients.

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Karagyozov, Luchezar, et Jordana Todorova. « Computational Analysis of the Messenger RNA Variants Encoding Two Isoforms of the High-mobility Group box 1 Protein ». Natural Science and Advanced Technology Education 30, n^o 3 (1 juillet 2021) : 243–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.53656/nat2021-3.02.

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High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) is a multifunctional nonhistone chromosomal protein. This widespread nuclear protein has a dual function-in the nucleus - it binds DNA and participates in practically all DNA-dependent processes. On the other hand, the protein plays an important role in the extracellular matrix as an “alarmin”, which interacts with certain receptors and stimulates biochemical pathways, associated with carcinogenesis and metastasis. HMGB1 is a critical damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, has been implicated in several inflammatory diseases and cancer types. This universality makes it an attractive target for innovative therapeutic strategies in the treatment of various diseases. The updated database for the HMGB1 gene, encoding the high-mobility group box 1 protein, was used for computational analysis of the annotated mRNA splice variants. Results showed that five of the splice variants encode an HMGB1 protein, containing 215 amino acid residues. However, two of the splice variants encode a shorter HMGB1 protein with 158 residues. Presently, the existence of a shorter HMGB1 protein is not registered in the protein databanks. This inconsistency is not yet resolved.

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Parker, Katherine, Lucas Horn, Virginia Clements, Pratima Sinha, Huan Yang, Jianhua Li, Kevin Tracey et Suzanne Ostrand-Rosenberg. « Inhibition of HMGB1 delays tumor progression, reduces MDSC-mediated immune suppression, and diminishes MDSC-macrophage cross-talk (P2001) ». Journal of Immunology 190, n^o 1_Supplement (1 mai 2013) : 53.1. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.190.supp.53.1.

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Abstract Tumor-induced immune suppression is driven by immune suppressive cells including Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells (MDSC). MDSC are present in most patients with cancer. They block T cell activation and drive type 2 immunity. Cross-talk with macrophages enhances MDSC secretion of pro-tumor molecules such as IL-10 and decreases macrophage production of IL-12. Because the alarmin HMGB1 is increased in many cancers, we are determining if HMGB1 drives MDSC. Treatment of BALB/c mice with 4T1 mammary carcinoma with HMGB1 inhibitors Glycyrrhizin or Ethyl Pyruvate reduced lung metastases, while treatment of C57BL/6 mice with MC38 colon carcinoma with an HMGB1 neutralizing antibody (2G7) reduced MDSC levels in the blood, spleen, and tumor. BALB/c mice carrying 4T1 tumor cells down-regulated for HMGB1 by shRNA had an extended survival time relative to mice with irrelevant shRNA 4T1 tumor. Treatment of MC38 tumor-bearing mice with the anti-inflammatory A box domain of HMGB1 reduced primary tumor growth. In in vitro experiments, HMGB1 inhibitors decreased cross-talk-induced IL-10 production by MDSC and IL-6 production by macrophages, and reduced MDSC suppressive potency for T cells. HMGB1 inhibitors also reduced MDSC differentiation from bone marrow progenitor cells. These findings indicate that full-length HMGB1 drives tumor progression, while the anti-inflammatory A box domain counteracts full-length HMGB1 and reduces tumor growth and MDSC accumulation.

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Garcia-Flores, Valeria, Zhenjie Liu, Roberto Romero, Yi Xu, Derek Miller, Jose Galaz, Andrew Winters, Marcelo Farias-Jofre, Kevin Theis et Nardhy Gomez-Lopez. « M2-polarized macrophages prevent preterm birth and improve neonatal survival and immunity ». Journal of Immunology 212, n^o 1_Supplement (1 mai 2024) : 0355_5259. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.212.supp.0355.5259.

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Abstract Preterm birth (PTB), commonly preceded by preterm labor, is the leading cause of neonatal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Most cases of preterm labor are associated with sterile intra-amniotic inflammation (SIAI), an inflammatory condition without detectable microorganisms. To date, no successful strategies to treat SIAI have been developed. Herein, we present mechanistic proof that treatment with M2-polarized macrophages (M2 MΦ) can effectively prevent PTB [(HMGB1, n = 28 vs. HMGB1+M2 MΦ, n = 29) (p<0.05)] and neonatal mortality [(HMGB1, n = 20 litters vs. HMGB1+M2 MΦ, n = 14 litters) (p<0.001)] induced by the ultrasound-guided intra-amniotic injection of the alarmin HMGB1 in mice. M2 MΦ halt the premature pathway of labor by infiltrating maternal and fetal compartments, where they inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation triggered by HMGB1. Furthermore, M2 MΦ dampen the HMGB1-induced inflammatory response in the amniotic cavity and fetal lung. Notably, neonates exposed to HMGB1 in utero display a reduced capacity to clear bacterial infection and gut microbiome dysbiosis, which are restored by M2 MΦ treatment [(HMGB1, n = 10 vs. HMGB1+ M2 MΦ, n = 10) (p<0.001 and p<0.01, respectively)]. Our findings provide cogent evidence that M2 MΦ can serve as a cellular strategy to mitigate PTB and decrease neonatal mortality.

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Taverna, Simona, Alessandro Tonacci, Maria Ferraro, Giuseppe Cammarata, Giuseppina Cuttitta, Salvatore Bucchieri, Elisabetta Pace et Sebastiano Gangemi. « High Mobility Group Box 1 : Biological Functions and Relevance in Oxidative Stress Related Chronic Diseases ». Cells 11, n^o 5 (1 mars 2022) : 849. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells11050849.

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In the early 1970s, a group of non-histone nuclear proteins with high electrophoretic mobility was discovered and named high-mobility group (HMG) proteins. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is the most studied HMG protein that detects and coordinates cellular stress response. The biological function of HMGB1 depends on its subcellular localization and expression. It plays a critical role in the nucleus and cytoplasm as DNA chaperone, chromosome gatekeeper, autophagy maintainer, and protector from apoptotic cell death. HMGB1 also functions as an extracellular alarmin acting as a damage-associated molecular pattern molecule (DAMP). Recent findings describe HMGB1 as a sophisticated signal of danger, with a pleiotropic function, which is useful as a clinical biomarker for several disorders. HMGB1 has emerged as a mediator in acute and chronic inflammation. Furthermore, HMGB1 targeting can induce beneficial effects on oxidative stress related diseases. This review focus on HMGB1 redox status, localization, mechanisms of release, binding with receptors, and its activities in different oxidative stress-related chronic diseases. Since a growing number of reports show the key role of HMGB1 in socially relevant pathological conditions, to our knowledge, for the first time, here we analyze the scientific literature, evaluating the number of publications focusing on HMGB1 in humans and animal models, per year, from 2006 to 2021 and the number of records published, yearly, per disease and category (studies on humans and animal models).

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Gougeon, M.-L., M.-T. Melki et H. Saïdi. « HMGB1, an alarmin promoting HIV dissemination and latency in dendritic cells ». Cell Death & ; Differentiation 19, n^o 1 (28 octobre 2011) : 96–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/cdd.2011.134.

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Horiuchi, Takahiro, Natsumi Sakata, Yoshihiro Narumi, Tomohiro Kimura, Takashi Hayashi, Keisuke Nagano, Keyue Liu et al. « Metformin directly binds the alarmin HMGB1 and inhibits its proinflammatory activity ». Journal of Biological Chemistry 292, n^o 20 (3 avril 2017) : 8436–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.m116.769380.

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Peng, Travis, Shin-Yi Du, Myoungsun Son et Betty Diamond. « HIF-1α is a negative regulator of interferon regulatory factors : Implications for interferon production by hypoxic monocytes ». Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118, n^o 26 (9 juin 2021) : e2106017118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2106017118.

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Patients with severe COVID-19 infection exhibit a low level of oxygen in affected tissue and blood. To understand the pathophysiology of COVID-19 infection, it is therefore necessary to understand cell function during hypoxia. We investigated aspects of human monocyte activation under hypoxic conditions. HMGB1 is an alarmin released by stressed cells. Under normoxic conditions, HMGB1 activates interferon regulatory factor (IRF)5 and nuclear factor-κB in monocytes, leading to expression of type I interferon (IFN) and inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor α, and interleukin 1β, respectively. When hypoxic monocytes are activated by HMGB1, they produce proinflammatory cytokines but fail to produce type I IFN. Hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, induced by hypoxia, functions as a direct transcriptional repressor of IRF5 and IRF3. As hypoxia is a stressor that induces secretion of HMGB1 by epithelial cells, hypoxia establishes a microenvironment that favors monocyte production of inflammatory cytokines but not IFN. These findings have implications for the pathogenesis of COVID-19.

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Kondratska, O. A., N. G. Grushka, V. V. Veshko, S. I. Pavlovych et R. I. Yanchii. « MULTIFUNCTIONAL ACTIVITY OF NUCLEAR PROTEIN AMPHOTERIN AND ITS ROLE IN ENDOTOXEMIA ». Fiziolohichnyĭ zhurnal 69, n^o 6 (10 novembre 2023) : 120–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/fz69.06.120.

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The review summarizes generalizing modern scientific data on the main functions of the protein HMGB1, and its physiological and pathological roles. Amphoterin is involved in key processes that ensure the functioning of DNA in the cell nucleus and plays an important role outside it. HMGB1 has been implicated in many human inflammatory diseases such as sepsis, ischemic reperfusion injury, neurological conditions, cardiovascular disease, autoimmune disease, and others. This manuscript describes the structure and main functions of HMGB1, discusses the significance of this alarmin as damage-associated molecular patterns, and analyzes its role in the development of inflammation and cell death. Special attention is focused on the role of HMGB1 in the development of endotoxemia, as well as data on the signaling pathways involved in its pathogenesis. Information on the results of studies of the possibility of modulating the activity of this protein using inhibitors is also considered, since understanding this may be useful for developing new therapeutic strategies aimed at treating inflammatory conditions of various origins.

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Kvivik, Ingeborg, Grete Jonsson, Roald Omdal et Cato Brede. « Sample Preparation Strategies for Antibody-Free Quantitative Analysis of High Mobility Group Box 1 Protein ». Pharmaceuticals 14, n^o 6 (3 juin 2021) : 537. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ph14060537.

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Sickness behavior and fatigue are induced by cerebral mechanisms involving inflammatory cytokines. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an alarmin, and a potential key player in this process. Reliable quantification methods for total HMGB1 and its redox variants must be established in order to clearly understand how it functions. Current methods pose significant challenges due to interference from other plasma proteins and autoantibodies. We aimed to develop an antibody-free sample preparation method followed by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to measure HMGB1 in human plasma. Different methods were applied for the removal of interfering proteins and the enrichment of HMGB1 from spiked human plasma samples. A comparison of methods showed an overall low extraction recovery (<40%), probably due to the stickiness of HMGB1. Reversed-phase liquid chromatography separation of intact proteins in diluted plasma yielded the most promising results. The method produced an even higher degree of HMGB1 purification than that observed with immunoaffinity extraction. Detection sensitivity needs to be further improved for the measurement of HMGB1 in patient samples. Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that a versatile and fully antibody-free sample preparation method is possible, which could be of great use in further investigations.

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Manganelli, Valeria, Antonella Capozzi, Simona Truglia, Cristiano Alessandri, Emanuela Lococo, Tina Garofalo, Caterina De Carolis et al. « Elevated Serum Level of HMGB1 in Patients with the Antiphospholipid Syndrome ». Journal of Immunology Research 2017 (2017) : 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/4570715.

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Pregnancy problems are common in patients with rheumatic disease; indeed, autoimmune disorders and autoantibodies can affect pregnancy progress and lead to maternal complications. Recent studies have highlighted a close association between HMGB1, chronic inflammation, and autoimmune diseases. Thus, in this investigation, we analyzed serum levels of HMGB1, an alarmin which plays a pivotal role in inducing and enhancing immune cell function. Sera from 30 patients with antiphospholipid syndrome (11 primary and 19 secondary APS), 35 subjects with pregnancy morbidity, and 30 healthy women were analysed for HMGB1 and its putative receptor RAGE (sRAGE) by Western blot and for TNF-α by ELISA. Results revealed that APS patients showed significantly increased serum levels of HMGB1, sRAGE, and the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α, as compared to healthy women. However, also, the pregnancy morbidity subjects showed significantly increased levels of HMGB1 and sRAGE as well as TNF-α compared to healthy women. Our findings suggest that in subjects with pregnancy morbidity, including obstetric APS, elevated levels of HMGB1/sRAGE may represent an alarm signal, indicating an increase of proinflammatory triggers. Further studies are needed to evaluate the role of HMGB1/sRAGE as a possible tool to evaluate the risk stratification of adverse pregnancy outcomes.

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Światły, Agata, Norbert Wąsik, Joanna Hajduk, Eliza Matuszewska, Paweł Dereziński, Bartosz Sokół, Roman Jankowski, Zenon Kokot et Jan Matysiak. « Mass spectrometry analysis of redox forms of High-Mobility Group Box-1 Protein in cerebrospinal fluid : initial experience. » Journal of Medical Science 88, n^o 3 (12 mars 2019) : 171–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.20883/jms.311.

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Introduction. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an alarmin with proinflammatory potential determined by redox status of the cysteines at position 23 and 45. It may also play a role as a biomarker in biological fluids. The aim of this study was the identification of different HMGB1 redox forms in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained from subarachnoid hemorrhage patients. Material and Methods. 6 CSF samples were collected from aneurysmal subarachnoid haemorrhage patients. Commercially available HMGB1 isoforms served as a positive control. Immunoprecipitation and electrophoretic isolation of HMGB1 protein were performed, then both CSF and control were analyzed using mass spectrometry technique. To distinguish between fully reduced (thiol group at C23 and C45) and disulfide (disulfide bond connecting C23 and C45) HMGB1 forms, top-down sequencing of the spectra was performed. Results. Top-down sequencing analysis allowed to distinguish between HMGB1 isoforms only in commercially available standard without preceding immunoprecipitation and electrophoresis. MALDI spectra differ i.e. on the fully reduced HMGB1 spectrum fragmentation occurs before and beyond C22, which is not present on the disulfide HMGB1 spectrum. Analysis of HMGB1 isolated from CSF obtained from subarachnoid hemorrhage patients gave no results. Conclusions. Top-down sequencing enables to distinguish between redox forms of HMGB1. Electrophoresis and tryptic digestion cannot precede mass spectrometry analysis of redox forms of HMGB1 due to the reduction of disulfide bonds during these processes. Preferred method of isolation of HMGB1 for direct analysis using top-down sequencing mustn’t include protein digestion or degradation.

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Yuan, Kaiqiang, Hu Wang, Yingming Zhou et Taolang Li. « The Role of Alarmins in Breast Cancer ». International Journal of Biology and Life Sciences 8, n^o 1 (22 novembre 2024) : 31–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/30f8ej75.

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Breast cancer (BC) remains the most common malignant tumor in women globally, with its incidence and mortality ranking first and second among female cancers, respectively. Despite continuous innovation and progress in modern medicine, current clinical treatment strategies for breast cancer still face high mortality rates. Therefore, developing new therapeutic targets and strategies is urgently needed. Alarmins are a class of endogenous molecules released during non-programmed cell death (such as infection or injury), and they typically serve as early warning signals for the immune system. Early research primarily focused on the role of alarmins in autoimmune and immune-mediated diseases, but recent studies have shown that alarmins also play a crucial role in the development, progression, and therapeutic response of breast cancer. In this review, we will discuss the role of alarmin family members (such as HMGB1, S100A8, S100A9, and IL-33) in breast cancer and their potential as therapeutic targets.

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Arnold, Edward A., Robin J. Kaai, Katie Leung, Mia R. Brinkley, Laurel E. Kelnhofer-Millevolte, Monica S. Guo et Daphne C. Avgousti. « Adenovirus protein VII binds the A-box of HMGB1 to repress interferon responses ». PLOS Pathogens 19, n^o 9 (13 septembre 2023) : e1011633. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1011633.

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Viruses hijack host proteins to promote infection and dampen host defenses. Adenovirus encodes the multifunctional protein VII that serves both to compact viral genomes inside the virion and disrupt host chromatin. Protein VII binds the abundant nuclear protein high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and sequesters HMGB1 in chromatin. HMGB1 is an abundant host nuclear protein that can also be released from infected cells as an alarmin to amplify inflammatory responses. By sequestering HMGB1, protein VII prevents its release, thus inhibiting downstream inflammatory signaling. However, the consequences of this chromatin sequestration on host transcription are unknown. Here, we employ bacterial two-hybrid interaction assays and human cell culture to interrogate the mechanism of the protein VII-HMGB1 interaction. HMGB1 contains two DNA binding domains, the A- and B-boxes, that bend DNA to promote transcription factor binding while the C-terminal tail regulates this interaction. We demonstrate that protein VII interacts directly with the A-box of HMGB1, an interaction that is inhibited by the HMGB1 C-terminal tail. By cellular fractionation, we show that protein VII renders A-box containing constructs insoluble, thereby acting to prevent their release from cells. This sequestration is not dependent on HMGB1’s ability to bind DNA but does require post-translational modifications on protein VII. Importantly, we demonstrate that protein VII inhibits expression of interferon β, in an HMGB1-dependent manner, but does not affect transcription of downstream interferon-stimulated genes. Together, our results demonstrate that protein VII specifically harnesses HMGB1 through its A-box domain to depress the innate immune response and promote infection.

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Bode, Michael, David Haenel, Christoph E. Hagemeyer, Hannah Seeba, Daniel Duerschmied, Nicole Bassler, Karin A. Jandeleit-Dahm et al. « HMGB1 binds to activated platelets via the receptor for advanced glycation end products and is present in platelet rich human coronary artery thrombi ». Thrombosis and Haemostasis 114, n^o 11 (2015) : 994–1003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1160/th14-12-1073.

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SummaryHigh mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) acts as both a nuclear protein that regulates gene expression, as well as a pro-inflammatory alarmin that is released from necrotic or activated cells. Recently, HMGB1-expression in human atherosclerotic plaques was identified. Therapeutic blockade of HMGB1 reduced the development of diet-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE knockout mice. Thus, we hypothesised an interaction between HMGB1 and activated platelets. Binding of recombinant HMGB1 to platelets was assessed by flow cytometry. HMGB1 bound to thrombin-activated human platelets (MFI 2.49 vs 25.01, p=0.0079). Blood from wild-type, TLR4 and RAGE knockout mice was used to determine potential HMGB1 receptors on platelets. HMGB1 bound to platelets from wild type C57Bl6 (MFI 2.64 vs 20.3, p< 0.05), and TLR4-/- mice (MFI 2.11 vs 25.65, p< 0.05) but failed to show binding to platelets from RAGE-/- mice (p > 0.05). RAGE expression on human platelets was detected by RT-PCR with mRNA extracted from highly purified platelets and confirmed by Western blot and immunofluorescence microscopy. Platelet activation increased RAGE surface expression (MFI 4.85 vs 6.74, p< 0.05). Expression of HMGB1 in human coronary artery thrombi was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry and revealed high expression levels. Platelets bind HMGB1 upon thrombin-induced activation. Platelet specific expression of RAGE could be detected at the mRNA and protein level and is involved in the binding of HMGB1. Furthermore, platelet activation up-regulates platelet surface expression of RAGE. HMGB1 is highly expressed in platelet-rich human coronary artery thrombi pointing towards a central role for HMGB1 in atherothrombosis, thereby suggesting the possibility of platelet targeted anti-inflammatory therapies for atherothrombosis.

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Kochi, Takahiro, Yoki Nakamura, Simeng Ma, Kazue Hisaoka-Nakashima, Dengli Wang, Keyue Liu, Hidenori Wake, Masahiro Nishibori, Masahiro Irifune et Norimitsu Morioka. « Pretreatment with High Mobility Group Box-1 Monoclonal Antibody Prevents the Onset of Trigeminal Neuropathy in Mice with a Distal Infraorbital Nerve Chronic Constriction Injury ». Molecules 26, n^o 7 (2 avril 2021) : 2035. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26072035.

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Persistent pain following orofacial surgery is not uncommon. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), an alarmin, is released by peripheral immune cells following nerve injury and could be related to pain associated with trigeminal nerve injury. Distal infraorbital nerve chronic constriction injury (dIoN-CCI) evokes pain-related behaviors including increased facial grooming and hyper-responsiveness to acetone (cutaneous cooling) after dIoN-CCI surgery in mice. In addition, dIoN-CCI mice developed conditioned place preference to mirogabalin, suggesting increased neuropathic pain-related aversion. Treatment of the infraorbital nerve with neutralizing antibody HMGB1 (anti-HMGB1 nAb) before dIoN-CCI prevented both facial grooming and hyper-responsiveness to cooling. Pretreatment with anti-HMGB1 nAb also blocked immune cell activation associated with trigeminal nerve injury including the accumulation of macrophage around the injured IoN and increased microglia activation in the ipsilateral spinal trigeminal nucleus caudalis. The current findings demonstrated that blocking of HMGB1 prior to nerve injury prevents the onset of pain-related behaviors, possibly through blocking the activation of immune cells associated with the nerve injury, both within the CNS and on peripheral nerves. The current findings further suggest that blocking HMGB1 before tissue injury could be a novel strategy to prevent the induction of chronic pain following orofacial surgeries.

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DeWulf, Bram, Laurens Minsart, Franck Verdonk, Véronique Kruys, Michael Piagnerelli, Mervyn Maze et Sarah Saxena. « High Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) : Potential Target in Sepsis-Associated Encephalopathy ». Cells 12, n^o 7 (4 avril 2023) : 1088. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells12071088.

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Sepsis-associated encephalopathy (SAE) remains a challenge for intensivists that is exacerbated by lack of an effective diagnostic tool and an unambiguous definition to properly identify SAE patients. Risk factors for SAE development include age, genetic factors as well as pre-existing neuropsychiatric conditions. Sepsis due to certain infection sites/origins might be more prone to encephalopathy development than other cases. Currently, ICU management of SAE is mainly based on non-pharmacological support. Pre-clinical studies have described the role of the alarmin high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) in the complex pathogenesis of SAE. Although there are limited data available about the role of HMGB1 in neuroinflammation following sepsis, it has been implicated in other neurologic disorders, where its translocation from the nucleus to the extracellular space has been found to trigger neuroinflammatory reactions and disrupt the blood–brain barrier. Negating the inflammatory cascade, by targeting HMGB1, may be a strategy to complement non-pharmacologic interventions directed against encephalopathy. This review describes inflammatory cascades implicating HMGB1 and strategies for its use to mitigate sepsis-induced encephalopathy.

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Careccia, Giorgia, Marielle Saclier, Mario Tirone, Elena Ruggieri, Elisa Principi, Lizzia Raffaghello, Silvia Torchio et al. « Rebalancing expression of HMGB1 redox isoforms to counteract muscular dystrophy ». Science Translational Medicine 13, n^o 596 (2 juin 2021) : eaay8416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aay8416.

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Muscular dystrophies (MDs) are a group of genetic diseases characterized by progressive muscle wasting associated to oxidative stress and persistent inflammation. It is essential to deepen our knowledge on the mechanism connecting these two processes because current treatments for MDs have limited efficacy and/or are associated with side effects. Here, we identified the alarmin high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) as a functional link between oxidative stress and inflammation in MDs. The oxidation of HMGB1 cysteines switches its extracellular activities from the orchestration of tissue regeneration to the exacerbation of inflammation. Extracellular HMGB1 is present at high amount and undergoes oxidation in patients with MDs and in mouse models of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and limb-girdle muscular dystrophy 3 (LGMDR3) compared to controls. Genetic ablation of HMGB1 in muscles of DMD mice leads to an amelioration of the dystrophic phenotype as evidenced by the reduced inflammation and muscle degeneration, indicating that HMGB1 oxidation is a detrimental process in MDs. Pharmacological treatment with an engineered nonoxidizable variant of HMGB1, called 3S, improves functional performance, muscle regeneration, and satellite cell engraftment in dystrophic mice while reducing inflammation and fibrosis. Overall, our data demonstrate that the balance between HMGB1 redox isoforms dictates whether skeletal muscle is in an inflamed or regenerating state, and that the nonoxidizable form of HMGB1 is a possible therapeutic approach to counteract the progression of the dystrophic phenotype. Rebalancing the HMGB1 redox isoforms may also be a therapeutic strategy for other disorders characterized by chronic oxidative stress and inflammation.

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Son, Myoungsun, Travis Peng, Shin-Yi Du et Betty Diamond. « Hypoxia-inducible factor 1α is a negative regulator of IRF5 in hypoxic macrophages ». Journal of Immunology 206, n^o 1_Supplement (1 mai 2021) : 97.18. http://dx.doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.206.supp.97.18.

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Abstract Patients with severe Covid-19 exhibit a low level of oxygen in affected tissue and blood and a low interferon level in blood. It is necessary to understand cell function during hypoxia to understand the pathophysiology of Covid-19 infection. We investigated aspects of human monocyte activation under hypoxic conditions. HMGB1 is an alarmin released by stressed cells. Under normoxic conditions, HMGB1 activates IRF5 and NF-κB in monocytes, leading to type 1 interferon expression and the inflammatory cytokines TNFa and IL-1b, respectively. When hypoxic monocytes are activated by HMGB1, they produce pro-inflammatory cytokines but fail to produce type 1 interferon as HIF-1α functions as a direct transcriptional repressor of IRF5. Moreover, exposure to Dimethyloxaloylglycine (DMOG), which stabilizes HIF-1α, exhibits the same transcriptional program as hypoxia. These findings have implications for the pathogenesis of Covid-19 showing that a hypoxic microenvironment that favors macrophage production of inflammatory cytokines but not interferon.

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Whittall-García, L. P., J. Torres-Ruiz, A. Zentella-Dehesa, M. Tapia-Rodríguez, J. Alcocer-Varela, N. Mendez-Huerta et D. Gómez-Martín. « Neutrophil extracellular traps are a source of extracellular HMGB1 in lupus nephritis : associations with clinical and histopathological features ». Lupus 28, n^o 13 (16 octobre 2019) : 1549–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0961203319883936.

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Objective This study aimed to analyze the expression of the high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) protein in neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) of patients with lupus nephritis (LN) and its association with clinical and histopathological features of the disease. Methods Twenty-three patients with biopsy-confirmed LN and 14 systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients with active disease (SLE Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI) score ≥ 6) and no evidence of LN were included. Clinical and laboratory features were recorded. NETs and the expression of HMGB1 were assessed by confocal microscopy, and serum HMGB1 levels were measured by ELISA. Results In comparison to patients without kidney disease, patients with LN had a higher expression of HMGB1 in spontaneous (57 vs. 30.4; p = 0.027) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced (55.8 vs. 24.9; p = 0.005) NETs. We found a positive correlation between serum HMGB1 and the expression of HMGB1 in LPS-induced NETs ( r = 0.447, p = 0.017). The expression of HMGB1 in spontaneous NETs correlated with SLEDAI score ( r = 0.514, p = 0.001), anti-dsDNA antibodies ( r = 0.467, p = 0.004), the rate of glomerular filtration descent ( r = 0.543, p = 0.001), and diverse histopathological components of active nephritis in the kidney biopsy, such as the activity index ( r = 0.581, p = 0.004), fibrinoid necrosis ( r = 0.603, p = 0.002), and cellular crescents ( r = 0.486, p = 0.019). Conclusions In patients with SLE, NETs are a source of extracellular HMGB1. The expression of HMGB1 in NETs is higher among patients with LN, which correlates with clinical and histopathological features of active nephritis and suggest a possible role of this alarmin in the pathophysiology of kidney damage in SLE.

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Ahn, Min Young, Jung Seok Hwang, Su Bi Lee, Sun Ah Ham, Jinwoo Hur, Jun Tae Kim et Han Geuk Seo. « Curcumin longa extract-loaded nanoemulsion improves the survival of endotoxemic mice by inhibiting nitric oxide-dependent HMGB1 release ». PeerJ 5 (14 septembre 2017) : e3808. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3808.

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Background High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a well-known damage-related alarmin that participates in cellular inflammatory responses. However, the mechanisms leading to HMGB1 release in inflammatory conditions and the therapeutic agents that could prevent it remain poorly understood. This study attempted to examine whether the Curcumin longa herb, which is known to have anti-inflammatory property, can modulate cellular inflammatory responses by regulating HMGB1 release. Methods The murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and/or a C. longa extract-loaded nanoemulsion (CLEN). The levels of released HMGB1, nitric oxide (NO) production, inducible NO synthase (iNOS) expression, and phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases were analyzed in RAW264.7 macrophages. The effects of CLEN on survival of endotoxemic model mice, circulating HMGB1 levels, and tissue iNOS expression were also evaluated. Results We have shown that a nanoemulsion loaded with an extract from the C. longa rhizome regulates cellular inflammatory responses and LPS-induced systemic inflammation by suppressing the release of HMGB1 by macrophages. First, treatment of RAW264.7 macrophages with the nanoemulsion significantly attenuated their LPS-induced release of HMGB1: this effect was mediated by inhibiting c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation, which in turn suppressed the NO production and iNOS expression of the cells. The nanoemulsion did not affect LPS-induced p38 or extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation. Second, intraperitoneal administration of the nanoemulsion improved the survival rate of LPS-injected endotoxemic mice. This associated with marked reductions in circulating HMGB1 levels and tissue iNOS expression. Discussion The present study shows for the first time the mechanism by which C. longa ameliorates sepsis, namely, by suppressing NO signaling and thereby inhibiting the release of the proinflammatory cytokine HMGB1. These observations suggest that identification of agents, including those in the herb C. longa, that can inhibit HMGB1 production and/or activity may aid the treatment of endotoxemia.

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Briquet, Sylvie, Nadou Lawson-Hogban, Bertrand Boisson, Miguel P. Soares, Roger Péronet, Leanna Smith, Robert Ménard, Michel Huerre, Salah Mécheri et Catherine Vaquero. « Disruption of Parasitehmgb2Gene Attenuates Plasmodium berghei ANKA Pathogenicity ». Infection and Immunity 83, n^o 7 (27 avril 2015) : 2771–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.03129-14.

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Eukaryotic high-mobility-group-box (HMGB) proteins are nuclear factors involved in chromatin remodeling and transcription regulation. When released into the extracellular milieu, HMGB1 acts as a proinflammatory cytokine that plays a central role in the pathogenesis of several immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. We found that thePlasmodiumgenome encodes two genuine HMGB factors,PlasmodiumHMGB1 and HMGB2, that encompass, like their human counterparts, a proinflammatory domain. Given that these proteins are released from parasitized red blood cells, we then hypothesized thatPlasmodiumHMGB might contribute to the pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria (ECM), a lethal neuroinflammatory syndrome that develops in C57BL/6 (susceptible) mice infected withPlasmodium bergheiANKA and that in many aspects resembles human cerebral malaria elicited byP. falciparuminfection. The pathogenesis of experimental cerebral malaria was suppressed in C57BL/6 mice infected withP. bergheiANKA lacking thehmgb2gene (Δhmgb2ANKA), an effect associated with a reduction of histological brain lesions and with lower expression levels of several proinflammatory genes. The incidence of ECM inpbhmgb2-deficient mice was restored by the administration of recombinantPbHMGB2. Protection from experimental cerebral malaria in Δhmgb2ANKA-infected mice was associated with reduced sequestration in the brain of CD4+and CD8+T cells, including CD8+granzyme B+and CD8+IFN-γ+cells, and, to some extent, neutrophils. This was consistent with a reduced parasite sequestration in the brain, lungs, and spleen, though to a lesser extent than in wild-typeP. bergheiANKA-infected mice. In summary,PlasmodiumHMGB2 acts as an alarmin that contributes to the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria.

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Hwang, Jung Seok, Eun Sil Kang, Sung Gu Han, Dae-Seog Lim, Kyung Shin Paek, Chi-Ho Lee et Han Geuk Seo. « Formononetin inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced release of high mobility group box 1 by upregulating SIRT1 in a PPARδ-dependent manner ». PeerJ 6 (3 janvier 2018) : e4208. http://dx.doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4208.

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Background The release of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) induced by inflammatory signals acts as a cellular alarmin to trigger a chain of inflammatory responses. Although the inflammatory actions of HMGB1 are well studied, less is known about the therapeutic agents that can impede its release. This study investigated whether the isoflavonoid formononetin can modulate HMGB1 release in cellular inflammatory responses. Methods RAW264.7 murine macrophages were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence or absence of formononetin. The levels of HMGB1 release, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression, and HMGB1 acetylation were analyzed by immunoblotting and real-time polymerase chain reaction. The effects of resveratrol and sirtinol, an activator and inhibitor of SIRT1, respectively, on LPS-induced HMGB1 release were also evaluated. Results Formononetin modulated cellular inflammatory responses by suppressing the release of HMGB1 by macrophages exposed to LPS. In RAW264.7 cells, formononetin significantly attenuated LPS-induced release of HMGB1 into the extracellular environment, which was accompanied by a reduction in its translocation from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. In addition, formononetin significantly induced mRNA and protein expression of SIRT1 in a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ)-dependent manner. These effects of formononetin were dramatically attenuated in cells treated with small interfering RNA (siRNA) against PPARδ or with GSK0660, a specific inhibitor of PPARδ, indicating that PPARδ is involved in formononetin-mediated SIRT1 expression. In line with these effects, formononetin-mediated inhibition of HMGB1 release in LPS-treated cells was reversed by treatment with SIRT1-targeting siRNA or sirtinol, a SIRT1 inhibitor. By contrast, resveratrol, a SIRT1 activator, further potentiated the inhibitory effect of formononetin on LPS-induced HMGB1 release, revealing a possible mechanism by which formononetin regulates HMGB1 release through SIRT1. Furthermore, modulation of SIRT1 expression by transfection of SIRT1- or PPARδ-targeting siRNA significantly counteracted the inhibitory effects of formononetin on LPS-induced HMGB1 acetylation, which was responsible for HMGB1 release. Discussion This study shows for the first time that formononetin inhibits HMGB1 release by decreasing HMGB1 acetylation via upregulating SIRT1 in a PPARδ-dependent manner. Formononetin consequently exhibits anti-inflammatory activity. Identification of agents, such as formononetin, which can block HMGB1 release, may help to treat inflammation-related disorders.

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Mazur-Bialy, Agnieszka Irena, et Ewa Pocheć. « The Time-Course of Antioxidant Irisin Activity : Role of the Nrf2/HO-1/HMGB1 Axis ». Antioxidants 10, n^o 1 (11 janvier 2021) : 88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010088.

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The production of free radicals is one of the basic mechanisms giving rise to the antimicrobial activity of macrophages; however, excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can lead to cell damage, cell death, and release of the highly proinflammatory alarmin high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). This study aimed to evaluate the kinetics of antioxidant properties of the adipomyokine irisin administered shortly before or after macrophage activation to assess its effect on the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/HMGB1 pathway. The studies were performed on RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages treated with irisin (0, 25, and 50 nM) 2 h before or after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. The effectiveness of respiratory burst and the expression of key factors of the antioxidant pathway, such as HO-1, Nrf2, superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD-1), SOD-2, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase-9 (Cat-9), and HMGB1, were assessed. Irisin (50 nM) effectively reduced the free-radical production by macrophages. Furthermore, in both models, irisin altered the kinetics of expression of key factors of the downstream Nrf2/HO-1/HMGB1 pathway, leading to the increased production of Nrf2 and HO-1 and significantly reduced expression and release of HMGB1. In conclusion, irisin is a modulator of the Nrf2/HO-1/HMGB1 pathway and shows antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects when administered both before and shortly after the activation of inflammatory mechanisms in mouse macrophages.

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Mazur-Bialy, Agnieszka Irena, et Ewa Pocheć. « The Time-Course of Antioxidant Irisin Activity : Role of the Nrf2/HO-1/HMGB1 Axis ». Antioxidants 10, n^o 1 (11 janvier 2021) : 88. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox10010088.

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The production of free radicals is one of the basic mechanisms giving rise to the antimicrobial activity of macrophages; however, excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can lead to cell damage, cell death, and release of the highly proinflammatory alarmin high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). This study aimed to evaluate the kinetics of antioxidant properties of the adipomyokine irisin administered shortly before or after macrophage activation to assess its effect on the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1)/HMGB1 pathway. The studies were performed on RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages treated with irisin (0, 25, and 50 nM) 2 h before or after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. The effectiveness of respiratory burst and the expression of key factors of the antioxidant pathway, such as HO-1, Nrf2, superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD-1), SOD-2, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase-9 (Cat-9), and HMGB1, were assessed. Irisin (50 nM) effectively reduced the free-radical production by macrophages. Furthermore, in both models, irisin altered the kinetics of expression of key factors of the downstream Nrf2/HO-1/HMGB1 pathway, leading to the increased production of Nrf2 and HO-1 and significantly reduced expression and release of HMGB1. In conclusion, irisin is a modulator of the Nrf2/HO-1/HMGB1 pathway and shows antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects when administered both before and shortly after the activation of inflammatory mechanisms in mouse macrophages.

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Calderón-Peláez, María-Angélica, Carolina Coronel-Ruiz, Jaime E. Castellanos et Myriam L. Velandia-Romero. « Endothelial Dysfunction, HMGB1, and Dengue : An Enigma to Solve ». Viruses 14, n^o 8 (12 août 2022) : 1765. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v14081765.

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Dengue is a viral infection caused by dengue virus (DENV), which has a significant impact on public health worldwide. Although most infections are asymptomatic, a series of severe clinical manifestations such as hemorrhage and plasma leakage can occur during the severe presentation of the disease. This suggests that the virus or host immune response may affect the protective function of endothelial barriers, ultimately being considered the most relevant event in severe and fatal dengue pathogenesis. The mechanisms that induce these alterations are diverse. It has been suggested that the high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) may be involved in endothelial dysfunction. This non-histone nuclear protein has different immunomodulatory activities and belongs to the alarmin group. High concentrations of HMGB1 have been detected in patients with several infectious diseases, including dengue, and it could be considered as a biomarker for the early diagnosis of dengue and a predictor of complications of the disease. This review summarizes the main features of dengue infection and describes the known causes associated with endothelial dysfunction, highlighting the involvement and possible relationship between HMGB1 and DENV.

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Urbonaviciute, Vilma, Silke Meister, Barbara G. Fürnrohr, Benjamin Frey, Eva Gückel, Georg Schett, Martin Herrmann et Reinhard E. Voll. « Oxidation of the alarmin high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) during apoptosis ». Autoimmunity 42, n^o 4 (janvier 2009) : 305–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08916930902831803.

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Diener, Kerrilyn R., Noor Al‐Dasooqi, Erin L. Lousberg et John D. Hayball. « The multifunctional alarmin HMGB1 with roles in the pathophysiology of sepsis and cancer ». Immunology & ; Cell Biology 91, n^o 7 (25 juin 2013) : 443–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/icb.2013.25.

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Davalos, Albert R., Misako Kawahara, Gautam K. Malhotra, Nicholas Schaum, Jiahao Huang, Urvi Ved, Christian M. Beausejour, Jean-Philippe Coppe, Francis Rodier et Judith Campisi. « p53-dependent release of Alarmin HMGB1 is a central mediator of senescent phenotypes ». Journal of Experimental Medicine 210, n^o 6 (3 juin 2013) : i3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1084/jem2106oia3.

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Aulin, C., T. Lassacher, K. Palmblad et H. Erlandsson Harris. « Early stage blockade of the alarmin HMGB1 reduces cartilage destruction in experimental OA ». Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 28, n^o 5 (mai 2020) : 698–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.joca.2020.01.003.

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Rosita, Rita, Yuyun Yueniwati, Agustina Tri Endharti et Mochamad Aris Widodo. « High-Glucose and Free Fatty Acid-Induced Adipocytes Generate Increasing of HMGB1 and Reduced GLUT4 Expression ». Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences 9, A (23 novembre 2021) : 1258–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3889/oamjms.2021.7199.

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Background High-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) is released from necrotic adipocytes into the extracellular milieu as an inflammatory alarmin in obesity. Although the impact of excess nutrient on adipocytes is well known, it is not clear how specific its component drive cell-size and damaged of adipocytes, and how this relates to the risk of insulin resistance. Objectives The aim of this study was to determine HMGB1 level in adipocytes cultures after high glucose and/or FFA exposures and to assess GLUT4 expression. We determined cellular features of adipocytes that correlates to HMGB1 released and insulin resistance. Methods Differentiated adipocytes were exposed to high glucose and/or FFAs for 7 days. ELISA was performed on supernatant to assess the HMGB1 level. Total GLUT4 expression were quantified by immunofluorescense. Results High glucose and FFA-exposed cells have significant increase of HMGB1 level with decreased of cell size and necrotic adipocytes features. The total GLUT4 were reduced in HG-cells (p <0,045), but not in FFA cells. Hypertrophic adipocytes (p <0.05) and slight decrease of GLUT4 expression were showed on HG+FFA exposures with no increase of HMGB1 level. There was a significant correlation between cell size and HMGB1 level (R -0,637, p < 0.026) Conclusion The expression level studies between high glucose, FFA, and a combination of both on adipocytes results strongly suggest that high glucose is more damaging to adipocyte compared to FFA. Nevertheless, the combination of the two causes adipocyte dysfunction with general features of adipose tissue in obesity, suggested it can be used as a hypertrophic adipocytes model to study obesity in vitro.

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Furci, Fabiana, Giuseppe Murdaca, Corrado Pelaia, Egidio Imbalzano, Girolamo Pelaia, Marco Caminati, Alessandro Allegra, Gianenrico Senna et Sebastiano Gangemi. « TSLP and HMGB1 : Inflammatory Targets and Potential Biomarkers for Precision Medicine in Asthma and COPD ». Biomedicines 11, n^o 2 (2 février 2023) : 437. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines11020437.

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The airway epithelium, through pattern recognition receptors expressed transmembrane or intracellularly, acts as a first line of defense for the lungs against many environmental triggers. It is involved in the release of alarmin cytokines, which are important mediators of inflammation, with receptors widely expressed in structural cells as well as innate and adaptive immune cells. Knowledge of the role of epithelial cells in orchestrating the immune response and mediating the clearance of invading pathogens and dead/damaged cells to facilitate resolution of inflammation is necessary to understand how, in many chronic lung diseases, there is a persistent inflammatory response that becomes the basis of underlying pathogenesis. This review will focus on the role of pulmonary epithelial cells and of airway epithelial cell alarmins, in particular thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) and high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), as key mediators in driving the inflammation of chronic lung diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), evaluating the similarities and differences. Moreover, emerging concepts regarding the therapeutic role of molecules that act on airway epithelial cell alarmins will be explored for a precision medicine approach in the context of pulmonary diseases, thus allowing the use of these molecules as possible predictive biomarkers of clinical and biological response.

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Buder, Felix, Simina-Ramona Selejan, Mathias Hohl, Michael Kindermann, Christian Herr, Philipp M. Lepper, Robert Bals, Bernd Salzberger, Felix Mahfoud et Michael Böhm. « Glycyrrhizin through liquorice intake modulates ACE2 and HMGB1 levels—A pilot study in healthy individuals with implications for COVID-19 and ARDS ». PLOS ONE 17, n^o 10 (17 octobre 2022) : e0275181. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275181.

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Background Glycyrrhizin, an active component of liquorice root extract, exhibits antiviral and immunomodulatory properties by direct inhibition of the pro-inflammatory alarmin HMGB1 (High-mobility group box 1). Objective The aim of this study was to explore the role of liquorice intake on the viral entry receptor ACE2 (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) and the immunoregulatory HMGB1 in healthy individuals and to explore HMGB1 expression in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) or non-COVID-19 in ARDS (acute respiratory distress syndrome patients). Material and methods This study enrolled 43 individuals, including hospitalised patients with i) acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) due to COVID-19 (n = 7) or other underlying causes (n = 12), ii) mild COVID-19 (n = 4) and iii) healthy volunteers (n = 20). Healthy individuals took 50 g of liquorice (containing 3% liquorice root extract) daily for 7 days, while blood samples were collected at baseline and on day 3 and 7. Changes in ACE2 and HMGB1 levels were determined by Western blot analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Additionally, HMGB1 levels were measured in hospitalised COVID-19 patients with mild disease or COVID-19 associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and compared with a non-COVID-19-ARDS group. Results Liquorice intake significantly reduced after 7 days both cellular membranous ACE2 expression (-51% compared to baseline levels, p = 0.008) and plasma HMGB1 levels (-17% compared to baseline levels, p<0.001) in healthy individuals. Half of the individuals had a reduction in ACE2 levels of at least 30%. HMGB1 levels in patients with mild COVID-19 and ARDS patients with and without COVID-19 were significantly higher compared with those of healthy individuals (+317%, p = 0.002), but they were not different between COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 ARDS. Conclusions Liquorice intake modulates ACE2 and HMGB1 levels in healthy individuals. HMGB1 is enhanced in mild COVID-19 and in ARDS with and without COVID-19, warranting evaluation of HMGB1 as a potential treatment target and glycyrrhizin, which is an active component of liquorice root extract, as a potential treatment in COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 respiratory disease.

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Begum, Sharmin, France Moreau, Aralia Leon Coria et Kris Chadee. « Entamoeba histolytica stimulates the alarmin molecule HMGB1 from macrophages to amplify innate host defenses ». Mucosal Immunology 13, n^o 2 (26 novembre 2019) : 344–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41385-019-0233-6.

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