Artículos de revistas: "Visuo-motor tracking"

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Eichert, V., R. Horn y H. J. Möller. "VISUO-MANU-MOTOR TRACKING PERFORMANCE IN ALZHEIMERʼS DISEASE". Clinical Neuropharmacology 15 (1992): 466B. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002826-199202001-00906.

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Sakaguchi, Yutaka. "Intermittent motor control observed in visuo-manual tracking". Neuroscience Research 71 (septiembre de 2011): e249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2011.07.1085.

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Miall, R. C., D. J. Weir y J. F. Stein. "Planning of movement parameters in a visuo-motor tracking task". Behavioural Brain Research 27, n.º 1 (enero de 1988): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-4328(88)90104-0.

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Hufschmidt, Andreas, Günther Deuschl y Carl Hermann Locking. "Motor Habits in Visuo-manual Tracking: Manifestation of an Unconscious Short-Term Motor Memory?" Behavioural Neurology 3, n.º 4 (1990): 217–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/1990/698081.

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Normal subjects were tested in short, repetitive trials of a tracking task, with an identical shape of target movement being used throughout one session. Analysis of the net error curves (pursuit minus target movement) revealed that subjects regularly exhibit a remoteness effect: neighbouring trials were more similar than distant ones. The effect is demonstrated to be stronger in the absence of visual cues, and was found to be absent in a patient with complete loss of proprioception when he was performing without visual feedback as well. The results are discussed in terms of a short term memory store contributing to unconscious movement habits in tracking. This may represent part of the motor learning process working together with conscious visuo-motor control mechanisms. Its function is probably related to the acquisition of automatic movements.

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Roerdink, Melvyn, Ellen D. Ophoff, C. (Lieke) E. Peper y Peter J. Beek. "Visual and musculoskeletal underpinnings of anchoring in rhythmic visuo-motor tracking". Experimental Brain Research 184, n.º 2 (28 de agosto de 2007): 143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00221-007-1085-y.

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Rickards, C. y F. W. J. Cody. "Increased use of target cues during visuo-motor tracking in Parkinson's disease". European Journal of Neurology 3, n.º 3 (mayo de 1996): 212–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1331.1996.tb00425.x.

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Eichert, V. "Visuo-manu-motor tracking performance in healthy volunteers and postacute schizophrenic patients". Biological Psychiatry 42, n.º 1 (julio de 1997): 178S. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(97)87639-1.

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de Rugy, Aymar, Olivier Oullier y Jean-Jacques Temprado. "Stability of rhythmic visuo-motor tracking does not depend on relative velocity". Experimental Brain Research 184, n.º 2 (1 de noviembre de 2007): 269–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00221-007-1180-0.

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9

Guillaud, Etienne, Gabriel Gauthier, Jean-Louis Vercher y Jean Blouin. "Fusion of Visuo-ocular and Vestibular Signals in Arm Motor Control". Journal of Neurophysiology 95, n.º 2 (febrero de 2006): 1134–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00453.2005.

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Keeping the finger pointing at an Earth-fixed object during body displacements can be achieved if compensatory arm movements counteract the effect of the rotation on the hand's position in space. Here we investigated the fusion of signals that originated from systems having different neurophysiological properties (i.e., the visuo-oculomotor and vestibular systems) in the production of such compensatory arm movements. To this end, we analyzed the subjects' performance in three conditions that differed according to the information they provided about relative target-body motion. This information originated either from the vestibular or visuo-oculomotor system, or from a combination of the two. To highlight the integration of visuo-oculomotor and vestibular signals, we compared the arm response to motion frequencies presumed to allow or not to allow optimal vestibular and oculomotor responses. When they could be used in isolation, the ocular signals allowed long-latency but precise kinematics control of the arm movement, whereas vestibular signals allowed accurate motor response early in the rotation but their contribution declined as body rotation developed. Optimal performance was obtained throughout the whole movement and for all rotation frequencies when the visuo-oculomotor and vestibular signals could be used together. This increase in hand-tracking performance could not be explained by a unimodal model or an additive model of vestibular and ocular cues, even when using weighted signals. Rather, the results supported a functional model in which vestibular and visuo-oculomotor signals have different influences on the temporal and spatial aspects of hand movement compensating for body motion.

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Schwartz, Joshua D. y Stephen G. Lisberger. "Initial tracking conditions modulate the gain of visuo-motor transmission for smooth pursuit eye movements in monkeys". Visual Neuroscience 11, n.º 3 (mayo de 1994): 411–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0952523800002352.

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AbstractSmooth pursuit eye movements allow primates to keep gaze pointed at small objects moving across stationary surroundings. In monkeys trained to track a small moving target, we have injected brief perturbations of target motion under different initial conditions as probes to read out the state of the visuo-motor pathways that guide pursuit. A large eye movement response was evoked if the perturbation was applied to a moving target the monkey was tracking. A small response was evoked if the same perturbation was applied to a stationary target the monkey was fixating. The gain of the response to the perturbation increased as a function of the initial speed of target motion and as a function of the interval from the onset of target motion to the time of the perturbation. The response to the perturbation also was direction selective. Gain was largest if the perturbation was along the axis of ongoing target motion and smallest if the perturbation was orthogonal to the axis of target motion. We suggest that two parallel sets of visual motion pathways through the extrastriate visual cortex may mediate, respectively, the visuo-motor processing for pursuit and the modulation of the gain of transmission through those pathways.

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Roerdink, M., C. E. Peper y P. J. Beek. "Effects of correct and transformed visual feedback on rhythmic visuo-motor tracking: Tracking performance and visual search behavior". Human Movement Science 24, n.º 3 (junio de 2005): 379–402. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.humov.2005.06.007.

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Cody, F. W. J., Brenda Lövgreen y W. Schady. "Increased dependence upon visual information of movement performance during visuo-motor tracking in cerebellar disorders". Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Evoked Potentials Section 89, n.º 6 (diciembre de 1993): 399–407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-5597(93)90113-4.

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Andersh, Jonathan y Bérénice Mettler. "Modeling the Human Visuo-Motor System to Support Remote-Control Operation". Sensors 18, n.º 9 (6 de septiembre de 2018): 2979. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s18092979.

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The working hypothesis in this project is that gaze interactions play a central role in structuring the joint control and guidance strategy of the human operator performing spatial tasks. Perceptual guidance and control is the idea that the visual and motor systems form a unified perceptuo-motor system where necessary information is naturally extracted by the visual system. As a consequence, the response of this system is constrained by the visual and motor mechanisms and these effects should manifest in the behavioral data. Modeling the perceptual processes of the human operator provides the foundation necessary for a systems-based approach to the design of control and display systems used by remotely operated vehicles. This paper investigates this hypothesis using flight tasks conducted with remotely controlled miniature rotorcraft, taking place in indoor settings that provide rich environments to investigate the key processes supporting spatial interactions. This work also applies to spatial control tasks in a range of application domains that include tele-operation, gaming, and virtual reality. The human-in-the-loop system combines the dynamics of the vehicle, environment, and human perception–action with the response of the overall system emerging from the interplay of perception and action. The main questions to be answered in this work are as follows: (i) what is the general control and guidance strategy of the human operator, and (ii) how is information about the vehicle and environment extracted visually by the operator. The general approach uses gaze as the primary sensory mechanism by decoding the gaze patterns of the pilot to provide information for estimation, control, and guidance. This work differs from existing research by taking what have largely been conceptual ideas on action–perception and structuring them to be implemented for a real-world problem. The paper proposes a system model that captures the human pilot’s perception–action loop; the loop that delineates the main components of the pilot’s perceptuo-motor system, including estimation of the vehicle state and task elements based on operator gaze patterns, trajectory planning, and tracking control. The identified human visuo-motor model is then exploited to demonstrate how the perceptual and control functions system can be augmented to reduce the operator workload.

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Yoo, Gayoung y Kyungdoh Kim. "Development and Validation of a Tool for VBOI (Virtual Body Ownership Illusion) Level Assessment". Applied Sciences 14, n.º 18 (19 de septiembre de 2024): 8432. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14188432.

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Virtual Body Ownership Illusion (Virtual BOI) refers to the perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral changes that occur due to the illusion that a virtual body is one’s own actual body. Recent research has focused on inducing Virtual Body Ownership Illusion (Virtual BOI) using various physical conditions of VR environments such as haptic feedback and 360-degree immersion, among others. The level of Virtual BOI has been recognized as an important factor in VR-based clinical therapy programs where patient immersion is crucial. However, a common issue is the lack of standardized evaluation tools for Virtual BOI, with most experiments relying on ad hoc tools based on experimental conditions or lacking consideration for the physical design elements of VR. This measurement tool was designed to consider the characteristics of recent VR devices, such as haptics and hand tracking, in the design of experiments and questionnaires. The tool is composed of sub-attributes related to VR technology, including Embodiment, Presence, Visuo-tactile, Visuo-proprioceptive, and Visuo-Motor. Based on a review of the existing literature, we hypothesized that the Virtual BOI scores would vary depending on manipulation methods, viewpoints, and haptic conditions. An experiment was conducted with 39 participants, who performed the same task under four different conditions using a virtual hand. Virtual BOI scores were assessed using the evaluation tool developed for this study. The questionnaire underwent CFA, and three items with factor loadings below 0.5 were removed, resulting in a total of 14 items. Each subscale demonstrated high reliability, with Cronbach’s alpha values greater than 0.60. When developing experiments, clinical programs, or VR content related to Virtual BOI, the evaluation tool presented in this study can be used to assess the level of Virtual BOI. Additionally, by considering technological elements such as haptics and hand tracking, VR environments can be designed to enhance the level of Virtual BOI.

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Pedreño-Molina, J. L., J. Molina-Vilaplana, J. López-Coronado y P. Gorce. "A modular neural network linking Hyper RBF and AVITE models for reaching moving objects". Robotica 23, n.º 5 (23 de agosto de 2005): 625–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0263574704001055.

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In this paper, the problem of precision reaching applications in robotic systems for scenarios with static and non-static objects has been considered and a solution based on a modular neural architecture has been proposed and implemented. The goal of this solution is to combine robustness and capability mapping trajectories from two biologically plausible neural network sub-modules: Hyper RBF and AVITE. The Hyper Basis Radial Function (HypRBF) neural network solves the inverse kinematic in redundant robotic systems, while the Adaptive Vector Integration to End-Point (AVITE) visuo-motor neural model quickly maps the difference vector between current and desired position in both spatial (visual information) and motor coordinates (propioceptive information). The anthropomorphic behaviour of the proposed architecture for reaching and tracking tasks in presence of spatial perturbations has been validated over a real arm-head robotic platform.

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Jo, Hanjin, Woong Choi, Geonhui Lee, Wookhyun Park y Jaehyo Kim. "Analysis of Visuo Motor Control between Dominant Hand and Non-Dominant Hand for Effective Human-Robot Collaboration". Sensors 20, n.º 21 (8 de noviembre de 2020): 6368. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20216368.

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The human-in-the-loop technology requires studies on sensory-motor characteristics of each hand for an effective human–robot collaboration. This study aims to investigate the differences in visuomotor control between the dominant (DH) and non-dominant hands in tracking a target in the three-dimensional space. We compared the circular tracking performances of the hands on the frontal plane of the virtual reality space in terms of radial position error (ΔR), phase error (Δθ), acceleration error (Δa), and dimensionless squared jerk (DSJ) at four different speeds for 30 subjects. ΔR and Δθ significantly differed at relatively high speeds (ΔR: 0.5 Hz; Δθ: 0.5, 0.75 Hz), with maximum values of ≤1% compared to the target trajectory radius. DSJ significantly differed only at low speeds (0.125, 0.25 Hz), whereas Δa significantly differed at all speeds. In summary, the feedback-control mechanism of the DH has a wider range of speed control capability and is efficient according to an energy saving model. The central nervous system (CNS) uses different models for the two hands, which react dissimilarly. Despite the precise control of the DH, both hands exhibited dependences on limb kinematic properties at high speeds (0.75 Hz). Thus, the CNS uses a different strategy according to the model for optimal results.

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Stuart, Samuel, Brook Galna, Sue Lord y Lynn Rochester. "A protocol to examine vision and gait in Parkinson’s disease: impact of cognition and response to visual cues". F1000Research 4 (30 de noviembre de 2015): 1379. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.7320.1.

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BackgroundCognitive and visual impairments are common in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and contribute to gait deficit and falls. To date, cognition and vision in gait in PD have been assessed separately. Impact of both functions (which we term ‘visuo-cognition’) on gait however is likely interactive and can be tested using visual sampling (specifically saccadic eye movements) to provide an online behavioural measure of performance. Although experiments using static paradigms show saccadic impairment in PD, few studies have quantified visual sampling during dynamic motor tasks such as gait.This article describes a protocol developed for testing visuo-cognition during gait in order to examine the: 1) independent roles of cognition and vision in gait in PD, 2) interaction between both functions, and 3) role of visuo-cognition in gait in PD.Methods Two groups of older adults (≥50 years old) were recruited; non-demented people with PD (n=60) and age-matched controls (n=40). Participants attended one session and a sub-group (n=25) attended two further sessions in order to establish mobile eye-tracker reliability. Participants walked in a gait laboratory under different attentional (single and dual task), environmental (walk straight, through a door and turning), and cueing (no visual cues and visual cues) conditions. Visual sampling was recorded using synchronised mobile eye-tracker and electrooculography systems, and gait was measured using 3D motion analysis.Discussion This exploratory study examined visuo-cognitive processes and their impact on gait in PD. Improved understanding of the influence of cognitive and visual functions on visual sampling during gait and gait in PD will assist in development of interventions to improve gait and reduce falls risk. This study will also help establish robust mobile eye-tracking methods in older adults and people with PD.

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Stuart, Samuel, Brook Galna, Sue Lord y Lynn Rochester. "A protocol to examine vision and gait in Parkinson’s disease: impact of cognition and response to visual cues". F1000Research 4 (24 de marzo de 2016): 1379. http://dx.doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.7320.2.

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BackgroundCognitive and visual impairments are common in Parkinson’s disease (PD) and contribute to gait deficit and falls. To date, cognition and vision in gait in PD have been assessed separately. Impact of both functions (which we term ‘visuo-cognition’) on gait however is likely interactive and can be tested using visual sampling (specifically saccadic eye movements) to provide an online behavioural measure of performance. Although experiments using static paradigms show saccadic impairment in PD, few studies have quantified visual sampling during dynamic motor tasks such as gait.This article describes a protocol developed for testing visuo-cognition during gait in order to examine the: 1) independent roles of cognition and vision in gait in PD, 2) interaction between both functions, and 3) role of visuo-cognition in gait in PD.Methods Two groups of older adults (≥50 years old) were recruited; non-demented people with PD (n=60) and age-matched controls (n=40). Participants attended one session and a sub-group (n=25) attended two further sessions in order to establish mobile eye-tracker reliability. Participants walked in a gait laboratory under different attentional (single and dual task), environmental (walk straight, through a door and turning), and cueing (no visual cues and visual cues) conditions. Visual sampling was recorded using synchronised mobile eye-tracker and electrooculography systems, and gait was measured using 3D motion analysis.Discussion This exploratory study examined visuo-cognitive processes and their impact on gait in PD. Improved understanding of the influence of cognitive and visual functions on visual sampling during gait and gait in PD will assist in development of interventions to improve gait and reduce falls risk. This study will also help establish robust mobile eye-tracking methods in older adults and people with PD.

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Blischke, Klaus, Daniel Erlacher, Heiko Kresin, Sebastian Brueckner y Andreas Malangré. "Benefits of Sleep in Motor Learning – Prospects and Limitations". Journal of Human Kinetics 20, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 2008): 23–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10078-008-0015-9.

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Benefits of Sleep in Motor Learning – Prospects and LimitationsDuring the recent years it has been shown repeatedly that, after initial learning, elapse of time preserves, but sleep enhances performance in procedural motor skills. To date, however, the majority of experimental studies in this area employed some sort of a sequential finger tapping skill as a criterion task. Thus it is unclear yet, if any (and which) other types of motor skills do indeed benefit from sleep. In order to answer this question, and to provide theoretical statements about the memory system regarding benefits of sleep in motor learning, we carried out a series of studies following a "multi-task research strategy". Although we successfully replicated sleep-related improvements in the production of newly acquired sequential finger skills (FT-Task) under different learning conditions (i.e., guided or unguided), we did not find any such effect of sleep in discrete motor tasks requiring precise production of (a) a specific relative timing pattern (Diamond Tapping-Task), or (b) a sub-maximal force impulse (vertical Counter Movement Jump), and we also failed to find any specifically sleep-related effects on subsequent performance in (c) a continuous visuo-motor pursuit-tracking task. These results are considered in relation to other work, and the respective theoretical implications are discussed.

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Sotirakis, H., A. Kyvelidou, N. Stergiou y V. Hatzitaki. "Posture and gaze tracking of a vertically moving target reveals age-related constraints in visuo-motor coupling". Neuroscience Letters 654 (julio de 2017): 12–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.06.024.

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Blum, Julia, Kai Lutz y Lutz Jäncke. "Coherence and phase locking of intracerebral activation during visuo- and audio-motor learning of continuous tracking movements". Experimental Brain Research 182, n.º 1 (8 de mayo de 2007): 59–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00221-007-0963-7.

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Sotirakis, Haralampos, Vassilia Hatzitaki, Victor Munoz-Martel, Lida Mademli y Adamantios Arampatzis. "Center of Pressure Feedback Modulates the Entrainment of Voluntary Sway to the Motion of a Visual Target". Applied Sciences 9, n.º 19 (20 de septiembre de 2019): 3952. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app9193952.

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Visually guided weight shifting is widely employed in balance rehabilitation, but the underlying visuo-motor integration process leading to balance improvement is still unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of center of pressure (CoP) feedback on the entrainment of active voluntary sway to a moving visual target and on sway’s dynamic stability as a function of target predictability. Fifteen young and healthy adult volunteers (height 175 ± 7 cm, body mass 69 ± 12 kg, age 32 ± 5 years) tracked a vertically moving visual target by shifting their body weight antero-posteriorly under two target motion and feedback conditions, namely, predictable and less predictable target motion, with or without visual CoP feedback. Results revealed lower coherence, less gain, and longer phase lag when tracking the less predictable compared to the predictable target motion. Feedback did not affect CoP-target coherence, but feedback removal resulted in greater target overshooting and a shorter phase lag when tracking the less predictable target. These adaptations did not affect the dynamic stability of voluntary sway. It was concluded that CoP feedback improves spatial perception at the cost of time delays, particularly when tracking a less predictable moving target.

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Novak, Thomas S., Shane M. Wilson y Karl M. Newell. "Establishing Task-Relevant MVC Protocols for Modelling Sustained Isometric Force Variability: A Manual Control Study". Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 6, n.º 4 (5 de noviembre de 2021): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jfmk6040094.

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The present study examined how prevalent methods for determining maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) impact the experimentally derived functions of graded force-force variability. Thirty-two young healthy subjects performed continuous isometric force tracking (20 s trials) at 10 target percentages (5–95% MVC) normalized to a conventional discrete-point (n = 16), or sustained (n = 16) MVC calculation. Distinct rates and magnitudes of change were observed for absolute variability (standard deviation (SD), root mean squared error (RMSE)), tracking error (RMSE, constant error (CE)), and complexity (detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA)) (all p < 0.05) of graded force fluctuations between the MVC groups. Differential performance strategies were observed beyond ~65% MVC, with the discrete-point group minimizing their SD at force values below that of the criterion target (higher CE/RMSE). Moreover, the sustained group’s capacity to minimize SD/RMSE/CE corresponded to a more complex structure in their force fluctuations. These findings reveal that the time component of MVC estimation has a direct influence on the corrective strategies supporting near-maximal manual force control. While discrete MVC protocols predominate in the study of manual strength/endurance/precision, a 1:1 MVC-task mapping appears more to be ecologically valid if visuo-motor precision outcomes are of central importance.

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Liu, Xuguang, Edwin Robertson y R. Christopher Miall. "Neuronal Activity Related to the Visual Representation of Arm Movements in the Lateral Cerebellar Cortex". Journal of Neurophysiology 89, n.º 3 (1 de marzo de 2003): 1223–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00817.2002.

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Testing the hypothesis that the lateral cerebellum forms a sensory representation of arm movements, we investigated cortical neuronal activity in two monkeys performing visually guided step-tracking movements with a manipulandum. A virtual target and cursor image were viewed co-planar with the manipulandum. In the normal task, manipulandum and cursor moved in the same direction; in the mirror task, the cursor was left-right reversed. In one monkey, 70- and 200-ms time delays were introduced on cursor movement. Significant task-related activity was recorded in 31 cells in one animal and 142 cells in the second: 10.2% increased activity before arm movements onset, 77.1% during arm movement, and 12.7% after the new position was reached. To test for neural representation of the visual outcome of movement, firing rate modulation was compared in normal and mirror step-tracking. Most task-related neurons (68%) showed no significant directional modulation. Of 70 directionally sensitive cells, almost one-half ( n = 34, 48%) modulated firing with a consistent cursor movement direction, many fewer responding to the manipulandum direction ( n = 9, 13%). For those “cursor-related” cells tested with delayed cursor movement, increased activity onset was time-locked to arm movement and not cursor movement, but activation duration was extended by an amount similar to the applied delay. Hence, activity returned to baseline about when the delayed cursor reached the target. We conclude that many cells in the lateral cerebellar cortex signaled the direction of cursor movement during active step-tracking. Such a predictive representation of the arm movement could be used in the guidance of visuo-motor actions.

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David, Erwan, Julia Beitner y Melissa Le-Hoa Võ. "Effects of Transient Loss of Vision on Head and Eye Movements during Visual Search in a Virtual Environment". Brain Sciences 10, n.º 11 (12 de noviembre de 2020): 841. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci10110841.

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Central and peripheral fields of view extract information of different quality and serve different roles during visual tasks. Past research has studied this dichotomy on-screen in conditions remote from natural situations where the scene would be omnidirectional and the entire field of view could be of use. In this study, we had participants looking for objects in simulated everyday rooms in virtual reality. By implementing a gaze-contingent protocol we masked central or peripheral vision (masks of 6 deg. of radius) during trials. We analyzed the impact of vision loss on visuo-motor variables related to fixation (duration) and saccades (amplitude and relative directions). An important novelty is that we segregated eye, head and the general gaze movements in our analyses. Additionally, we studied these measures after separating trials into two search phases (scanning and verification). Our results generally replicate past on-screen literature and teach about the role of eye and head movements. We showed that the scanning phase is dominated by short fixations and long saccades to explore, and the verification phase by long fixations and short saccades to analyze. One finding indicates that eye movements are strongly driven by visual stimulation, while head movements serve a higher behavioral goal of exploring omnidirectional scenes. Moreover, losing central vision has a smaller impact than reported on-screen, hinting at the importance of peripheral scene processing for visual search with an extended field of view. Our findings provide more information concerning how knowledge gathered on-screen may transfer to more natural conditions, and attest to the experimental usefulness of eye tracking in virtual reality.

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Squatrito, S. y M. G. Maioli. "Gaze field properties of eye position neurones in areas MST and 7a of the macaque monkey". Visual Neuroscience 13, n.º 2 (marzo de 1996): 385–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0952523800007628.

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AbstractThe activity of parietal cortex neurones primarily related to eye position (EP neurones) was studied in macaque monkeys with the aim of precisely defining the neurones' gaze fields (GF) and comparing them in two functionally different areas, MSTd and 7a. Discharge rates of single neurones in the inferior parietal lobule and in the underlying cortex of the superior temporal sulcus were recorded in two Java monkeys while the animals fixated a steady visual target positioned at several different points on a video screen. The GFs were then drawn as a regression surface fitting the mean discharge rates. Cells tonically influenced by the angle of gaze were found in both areas. The GFs most often took the form of a nearly planar surface best characterized as a ramp tilted towards a hemifield or quadrant of the visual field, shifted eccentrically with respect to the straight ahead (primary position), and with a midpoint centred between 0 deg and 20 deg of gaze eccentricity and saturation between 10 deg and 35 deg. In a minority of cases, the discharge rate was nearly maximal at the primary position and decreased to a minimum within 35 deg of eccentricity. In other instances, the GFs were peaked surfaces, limited to a restricted part of visual space. EP neurones, while showing similar gaze fields in areas MST and 7a, were found intermingled with functionally different types of cells. The results suggest that EP neurones similar to those already described in several areas of the monkey parietal cortex are present also in area MST. These cells, by signalling the degree of gaze eccentricity from the primary position, encode gaze position in an orbito-centered frame extending up to 30–35 deg from the straight-ahead. The role of EP neurones might be to supply contiguous elements with a gaze eccentricity signal required for visuo-motor processes such as the control of tracking movements.

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Taud, Benedikt, Robert Lindenberg, Robert Darkow, Jasmin Wevers, Dorothee Höfflin, Ulrike Grittner, Marcus Meinzer y Agnes Flöel. "Limited Add-On Effects of Unilateral and Bilateral Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation on Visuo-Motor Grip Force Tracking Task Training Outcome in Chronic Stroke. A Randomized Controlled Trial". Frontiers in Neurology 12 (11 de noviembre de 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2021.736075.

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Background: This randomized controlled trial investigated if uni- and bihemispheric transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the motor cortex can enhance the effects of visuo-motor grip force tracking task training and transfer to clinical assessments of upper extremity motor function.Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, sham-controlled trial, 40 chronic stroke patients underwent 5 days of visuo-motor grip force tracking task training of the paretic hand with either unilateral or bilateral (N = 15/group) or placebo tDCS (N = 10). Immediate and long-term (3 months) effects on training outcome and motor recovery (Upper Extremity Fugl-Meyer, UE-FM, Wolf Motor Function Test, and WMFT) were investigated.Results: Trained task performance significantly improved independently of tDCS in a curvilinear fashion. In the anodal stimulation group UE-FM scores were higher than in the sham group at day 5 (adjusted mean difference: 2.6, 95%CI: 0.6–4.5, p = 0.010) and at 3 months follow up (adjusted mean difference: 2.8, 95%CI: 0.8–4.7, p = 0.006). Neither training alone, nor the combination of training and tDCS improved WMFT performance.Conclusions: Visuo-motor grip force tracking task training can facilitate recovery of upper extremity function. Only minimal add-on effects of anodal but not dual tDCS were observed.Clinical Trial Registration:https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?recrs=&cond=&term=NCT01969097&cntry=&state=&city=&dist=, identifier: NCT01969097, retrospectively registered on 25/10/2013.

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Miall, R. C., D. J. Weir y J. F. Stein. "Visuo-motor tracking during reversible inactivation of the cerebellum". Experimental Brain Research 65, n.º 2 (enero de 1987). http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00236319.

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Mademli, Lida, Dimitra Mavridi, Sebastian Bohm, Dimitrios A. Patikas, Alessandro Santuz y Adamantios Arampatzis. "Standing on unstable surface challenges postural control of tracking tasks and modulates neuromuscular adjustments specific to task complexity". Scientific Reports 11, n.º 1 (17 de marzo de 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84899-y.

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AbstractUnderstanding the modulations of motor control in the presence of perturbations in task conditions of varying complexity is a key element towards the design of effective perturbation-based balance exercise programs. In this study we investigated the effect of mechanical perturbations, induced by an unstable surface, on muscle activation and visuo-postural coupling, when actively tracking target motion cues of different complexity. Four postural tasks following a visual oscillating target of varying target complexity (periodic-sinusoidal vs. chaotic-Lorenz) and surface (stable-floor vs. unstable-foam) were performed. The electromyographic activity of the main plantarflexor and dorsiflexor muscles was captured. The coupling between sway and target was assessed through spectral analysis and the system’s local dynamic stability through the short-term maximum Lyapunov exponent. We found that external perturbations increased local instability and deteriorated visuo-motor coupling. Visuo-motor deterioration was greater for the chaotic target, implying that the effect of the induced perturbations depends on target complexity. There was a modulation of the neuromotor system towards amplification of muscle activity and coactivation to compensate surface-related perturbations and to ensure robust motor control. Our findings provide evidence that, in the presence of perturbations, target complexity induces specific modulations in the neuromotor system while controlling balance and posture.

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30

Qi, Jing y Mayumi Adachi. "The influence of modality on input, visuo-motor coordination, and execution in the advanced pianist's sight-reading processes". Frontiers in Psychology 13 (26 de julio de 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933106.

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In this study, we explored how the modality (major and minor) would affect the input (i. e., fixation), visuo-motor coordination (i.e., eye-hand span and time of performance), and execution (i.e., errors) in the advanced pianist's sight-reading processes, as well as relations among these three phases. Thirty-two advanced pianists with 5–54 years of piano training participated in the study. All participants sight-read three two-voice pieces in either major (n = 16) or minor (n = 16) mode while their eye movements were measured by an eye-tracking device (30 fps). All pieces were 20-measure long written in 4/4 m, adapted from unfamiliar Baroque pieces. Results showed that sight-readers fixated more frequently and tended to spend more time performing in a minor score than in a major score. This implies that modality of a score affects an efficiency of input and visuo-motor coordination in the advanced pianist's sight-reading. Spearman's correlation coefficients showed that errors were correlated positively with the number of fixations and the duration of performance. These results add more evidence to the notion that efficiencies in input and visuo-motor coordination are related to the accuracy in execution.

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31

McGowan, Victoria, Ascensión Pagán, Kevin B. Paterson, David Souto y Rudolf Groner. "Book of Abstracts of the 21th European Conference on Eye Movements in Leicester 2022". Journal of Eye Movement Research 15, n.º 5 (21 de agosto de 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.16910/jemr.15.5.2.

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Contents Keynotes: Iain Gilchrist: Integrative Active Vision p 5 Ziad Hafed: A Vision for orienting in Primate Oculomotor Control Circuitry p 6 Fatema Ghasia: Miniscule Eye Movements Play a Major Role in Binocular Vision Disorders p.7 Miriam Spering: Eye Movements as a Window into Human Decision-Making p.8 Monica S. Castelhano: Explorations of how Scene Context and Previous Experience Dynamically Influence Attention and Eye Movement Guidance p.9 Symposia: Eye Tracking and the Visual Arts p.19 Eye Movements during Text Processing and Multiline Reading p.23 Unstable Fixation and Nystagmus with a Focus on the Next Generation of Researchers p.84 Eye Movements as a measure of Higher-Level Text Processing p.97 Eye Movements in Memory Processes Between Working Memory and Long-Term Memory p.178 Symposium to Honour Alexander Pollatsek’s Legacy to Eye Movement Research p.204 Talks: Reading p.30 Parafoveal Processing p.36 Cinical and Applied p.39 Visual Search p.92 Eye Movement Control in Reading I & II p.104 & 116 & 225 Reading Development p.110 Decision-Making p.122 Eye-tracking Methods p.128 Real World and Virtual Reality p.134 Chinese Reading p.185 Special Populations p.191 Visuo-motor p.195 Bilingual Reading p.201 & 217 Reading Comprehension p.219 Pupillometry p.235 Poster sessions: Attention p.44 & 139 Cognition p. 49 Visuo-Motor p.62 Memory p.145 Methods p.150 Reading p. 57 & 155 Real World p.169 Social Cognition p.173

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32

Nikolov, Teodor Y., Richard John Allen, Stephen Darling, Jelena Havelka, Baz Van de Vegte y Candice Morey. "EXPRESS: Navigating the Mind's Eye: Understanding Gaze Shifts in Visuospatial Bootstrapping". Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3 de septiembre de 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/17470218241282426.

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Visuo-spatial bootstrapping refers to the well-replicated phenomena in which serial recall in a purely verbal task is boosted by presenting digits within the familiar spatial layout of a typical telephone keypad. The visuo-spatial bootstrapping phenomena indicates that additional support comes from long-term knowledge of a fixed spatial pattern, and prior experimentation supports the idea that access to this benefit depends on the availability of the visuo-spatial motor system (e.g., Allen et al., 2015). We investigate this by tracking participants’ eye movements during encoding and retention of verbal lists to learn whether gaze patterns support verbal memory differently when verbal information is presented in the familiar visual layout. Participants’ gaze was recorded during attempts to recall lists of seven digits in three formats: centre of the screen, typical telephone keypad, or a spatially identical layout with randomized number placement. Performance was better with the typical than with the novel layout. Our data show that eye movements differ when encoding and retaining verbal information that has a familiar layout compared with the same verbal information presented in a novel layout, suggesting recruitment of different spatial rehearsal strategies. However, no clear link between gaze pattern and recall accuracy was observed, which suggests that gazes play a limited role in retention, at best.

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33

Babazadeh, Fatemeh, Mohammad Ali Ahmadi-Pajouh y Seyed Mohammad Reza Hashemi Golpayegani. "A Novel Approach to the Characterization of Stretching and Folding in Pursuit Tracking with Chaotic and Intermittent Behaviors". International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos 33, n.º 04 (30 de marzo de 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218127423500475.

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Detection of Stretching And Folding (SAF) traits in a time series is still controversial and of great interest. Also, visuo-manual tracking studies did not pay attention to SAF in hand motion trajectories. This research aims to find out the relevance of SAF to the discontinuities in chaotic dynamics of hand motion through target tracking tasks. Specifically, a new method is constructed based on this relation in which SAF can extract accurately trajectories in both time domain and phase space. Consequently, we designed experiments to track sinusoidal and trapezoidal target movements shown on a monitor. In these experiments, fourteen participants were instructed to move the joystick handle by wrist flexion-extension movements. Results confirm intermittency in significant human motor control behavior which results in discontinuities in hand motion trajectories. The relation between SAF and these discontinuities is realized by chaotic and intermittent behaviors of tracking dynamics. Verification of the method’s accuracy is also carried out by taking advantage of the Poincaré section. Our method can provide insight into the dynamical behaviors of chaotic and intermittent systems involving mechanisms in human motor control. It can be applied to general systems with intermittent behavior and other systems with modification.

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34

Rolls, Edmund T., Gustavo Deco, Chu-Chung Huang y Jianfeng Feng. "The human posterior parietal cortex: effective connectome, and its relation to function". Cerebral Cortex, 15 de julio de 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhac266.

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Abstract The effective connectivity between 21 regions in the human posterior parietal cortex, and 360 cortical regions was measured in 171 Human Connectome Project (HCP) participants using the HCP atlas, and complemented with functional connectivity and diffusion tractography. Intraparietal areas LIP, VIP, MIP, and AIP have connectivity from early cortical visual regions, and to visuomotor regions such as the frontal eye fields, consistent with functions in eye saccades and tracking. Five superior parietal area 7 regions receive from similar areas and from the intraparietal areas, but also receive somatosensory inputs and connect with premotor areas including area 6, consistent with functions in performing actions to reach for, grasp, and manipulate objects. In the anterior inferior parietal cortex, PFop, PFt, and PFcm are mainly somatosensory, and PF in addition receives visuo-motor and visual object information, and is implicated in multimodal shape and body image representations. In the posterior inferior parietal cortex, PFm and PGs combine visuo-motor, visual object, and reward input and connect with the hippocampal system. PGi in addition provides a route to motion-related superior temporal sulcus regions involved in social interactions. PGp has connectivity with intraparietal regions involved in coordinate transforms and may be involved in idiothetic update of hippocampal visual scene representations.

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35

Mallek, Maroua, Régis Thouvarecq, Hamdi Habacha y Nicolas Benguigui. "Temporal optimization of movement regulations in ball sports experts revealed by a visuo-manual pursuit task". Movement & Sport Sciences - Science & Motricité, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/sm/2024020.

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The present work focuses on the effect of expertise in ball sports on the perceptual-motor processes. Non-Experts, Experts and Super-Experts were evaluated through a visuo-manual tracking task in a 2D environment, with more or less predictable trajectories (predictable bounces and unpredictable deviations). The results showed that this task, as schematic as it may be, allows the discrimination of expertise in ball sports. Moreover, the multiple regression analysis revealed that the performance could be explained by the frequency of the regulations and the temporal delays to perform them. Our results highlight the optimized perception-action coupling of experts.

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36

Mohanty, Ronak, Abhijeet Singh Raina, Subhrajyoti Chaudhuri, Francis Quek, Shinjiro Sueda y Vinayak Krishnamurthy. "Spatial Manipulation in Virtual Peripersonal Space: A Study of Motor Strategies". Journal of Computing and Information Science in Engineering, 7 de abril de 2022, 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.4054277.

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Abstract This paper studies fine motor strategies for precise spatial manipulation in close-to-body interactions. Our innate ability for precise work is the result of the confluence of visuo-tactile perception, proprioception, and bi-manual motor control. Contrary to this, most mixed reality (MR) systems are designed for interactions at arms length. In order to develop guidelines for precise manipulations in MR systems, there is a need for a systematic study of motor strategies including physical indexing, bi-manual coordination, and the relationship between visual and tactile feedback. To address this need, we present a series of experiments using three variations of a tablet-based MR interface using a close-range motion capture system and motion-tracked shape proxies. We investigate an elaborate version of the classic peg-and-hole task which our results strongly suggests the critical need for high precision tracking to enable precise manipulation.

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37

Singh, Vikram Pal, Jingwen Li, Kana Dawson, Jude F. Mitchell y Cory T. Miller. "Active vision in freely moving marmosets using head-mounted eye tracking". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122, n.º 6 (3 de febrero de 2025). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2412954122.

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Our understanding of how vision functions as primates actively navigate the real-world is remarkably sparse. As most data have been limited to chaired and typically head-restrained animals, the synergistic interactions of different motor actions/plans inherent to active sensing—e.g., eyes, head, posture, movement, etc.—on visual perception are largely unknown. To address this considerable gap in knowledge, we developed an innovative wireless head-mounted eye-tracking system that performs Chair-free Eye-Recording using Backpack mounted micROcontrollers (CEREBRO) for small mammals, such as marmoset monkeys. Because eye illumination and environment lighting change continuously in natural contexts, we developed a segmentation artificial neural network to perform robust pupil tracking in these conditions. Leveraging this innovative system to investigate active vision, we demonstrate that although freely moving marmosets exhibit frequent compensatory eye movements equivalent to other primates, including humans, the predictability of the visual behavior (gaze) is higher when animals are freely moving relative to when they are head-fixed. Moreover, despite increases in eye/head-motion during locomotion, gaze stabilization remains steady because of an increase in vestibularocular reflex gain during locomotion. These results demonstrate the efficient, dynamic visuo-motor mechanisms and related behaviors that enable stable, high-resolution foveal vision in primates as they explore the natural world.

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38

Davidson, Matthew J., Robert Tobin Keys, Brian Szekely, Paul MacNeilage, Frans Verstraten y David Alais. "Continuous peripersonal tracking accuracy is limited by the speed and phase of locomotion". Scientific Reports 13, n.º 1 (8 de septiembre de 2023). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40655-y.

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AbstractRecent evidence suggests that perceptual and cognitive functions are codetermined by rhythmic bodily states. Prior investigations have focused on the cardiac and respiratory rhythms, both of which are also known to synchronise with locomotion—arguably our most common and natural of voluntary behaviours. Compared to the cardiorespiratory rhythms, walking is easier to voluntarily control, enabling a test of how natural and voluntary rhythmic action may affect sensory function. Here we show that the speed and phase of human locomotion constrains sensorimotor performance. We used a continuous visuo-motor tracking task in a wireless, body-tracking virtual environment, and found that the accuracy and reaction time of continuous reaching movements were decreased at slower walking speeds, and rhythmically modulated according to the phases of the step-cycle. Decreased accuracy when walking at slow speeds suggests an advantage for interlimb coordination at normal walking speeds, in contrast to previous research on dual-task walking and reach-to-grasp movements. Phasic modulations of reach precision within the step-cycle also suggest that the upper limbs are affected by the ballistic demands of motor-preparation during natural locomotion. Together these results show that the natural phases of human locomotion impose constraints on sensorimotor function and demonstrate the value of examining dynamic and natural behaviour in contrast to the traditional and static methods of psychological science.

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39

Freitag, Constantin W., Martin Behrens, Robert Bielitzki, Khaldoon O. Al-Nosairy, Francie H. Stolle, Gokulraj T. Prabhakaran, Rosalie Beyer, Hagen Thieme, Michael B. Hoffmann y Lutz Schega. "Gaze behavior in open-angle glaucoma patients during visuo-cognitive-motor tasks: a cross-sectional study". Scientific Reports 14, n.º 1 (9 de septiembre de 2024). http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70987-2.

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AbstractThis study investigated gaze behavior during visuo-cognitive-motor tasks with a change of movement direction in glaucoma patients and healthy controls. Nineteen glaucoma patients (10 females, 9 males) and 30 healthy sighted controls (17 females, 13 males) participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants performed two visuo-cognitive-motor tasks with a change of movement direction: (i) the “Speed-Court-Test” that involved stepping on different sensors in response to a visual sign displayed on either a large or small screen (165″ and 55″, respectively); (ii) the “Trail-Walking-Test” that required walking to 15 cones labeled with numbers (1–8) or letters (A-G) in an alternately ascending order. During these tasks, the time needed for completing each task was determined and the gaze behavior (e.g., saccade duration, fixation duration) was recorded via eye tracking. Data were analyzed with repeated measures analyses of covariance (ANCOVA; GROUP × SCREEN) and one-way ANCOVA. No differences between groups were found for the time needed to complete the tasks. However, during the “Trail-Walking-Test”, the fixation duration was longer for glaucoma patients than for controls (p = 0.016, $${\upeta }_{\text{p}}^{2}$$ η p 2 = 0.131). Furthermore, during the “Speed-Court-Test”, there was a screen size effect. Irrespective of group, saccade amplitudes were lower (p < 0.001, $${\upeta }_{\text{p}}^{2}$$ η p 2 = 0.242) and fixation durations were higher (p = 0.021, $${\upeta }_{\text{p}}^{2}$$ η p 2 = 0.125) for the small screen. Fixation durations were longer in glaucoma patients during the cognitively demanding “Trail-Walking-Test”, which might indicate a strategy to compensate for their visual impairment.

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40

Müller, Carl, Alexandra Bendixen y Karl Kopiske. "Sensorimotor adaptation impedes perturbation detection in grasping". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24 de julio de 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13423-024-02543-y.

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AbstractHumans achieve skilled actions by continuously correcting for motor errors or perceptual misjudgments, a process called sensorimotor adaptation. This can occur with the actor both detecting (explicitly) and not detecting the error (implicitly). We investigated how the magnitude of a perturbation and the corresponding error signal each contribute to the detection of a size perturbation during interaction with real-world objects. Participants grasped cuboids of different lengths in a mirror-setup allowing us to present different sizes for seen and felt cuboids, respectively. Visuo-haptic size mismatches (perturbations) were introduced either abruptly or followed a sinusoidal schedule. These schedules dissociated the error signal from the visuo-haptic mismatch: Participants could fully adapt their grip and reduce the error when a perturbation was introduced abruptly and then stayed the same, but not with a constantly changing sinusoidal perturbation. We compared participants’ performance in a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) task where participants judged these mismatches, and modelled error-correction in grasping movements by looking at changes in maximum grip apertures, measured using motion tracking. We found similar mismatch-detection performance with sinusoidal perturbation schedules and the first trial after an abrupt change, but decreasing performance over further trials for the latter. This is consistent with the idea that reduced error signals following adaptation make it harder to detect perturbations. Error-correction parameters indicated stronger error-correction in abruptly introduced perturbations. However, we saw no correlation between error-correction and overall mismatch-detection performance. This emphasizes the distinct contributions of the perturbation magnitude and the error signal in helping participants detect sensory perturbations.

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41

Monica, Michael B. La, Jennifer B. Listman, Ian Donovan, Taylor E. Johnson, David J. Heeger y Wayne E. Mackey. "Effects of TeaCrine® (Theacrine), Dynamine™ (Methylliberine), and Caffeine on Gamer Psychomotor Performance in a First-Person Shooter Video Game Scenario". Journal of Exercise and Nutrition 4, n.º 2 (7 de agosto de 2021). http://dx.doi.org/10.53520/jen2021.103104.

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Purpose: To compare the effects of purported cognitive enhancing dietary bioactive ingredients on subjective and objective measures of cognitive and motor performance during a first-person shooter video game.Methods: Using a placebo-controlled crossover design, nine healthy men (23.4±5.7 yr, 178.9±5.8cm, 86.0±17.1kg) completed four 20-minute gaming sessions designed to assess cognitive, motor, and perceptual skills via artificial intelligence-driven battery of tasks (Aim Lab). Participants ingested either a placebo (PL), caffeine (CAFF), or caffeine + methylliberine (Dynamine™) + theacrine (TeaCrine®) (CMT). Before and after each gaming session participants rated various feelings of affect. Data were analyzed using mixed factorial ANOVA, bootstrapping post-hoc tests with 95% confidence intervals, and effect sizes.Results: Compared to PL, self-assessed performance was significantly increased in CMT vs. PL (p=0.035) and self-assessed jitteriness was increased by CAFF vs. PL (p=0.043). CMT was associated with a greater improvement of participants’ visuo-spatial working memory from baseline vs. PL (p=0.04) and CAFF (p=0.033). CAFF had a greater decrease in reaction time for false alarms (indicating diminished cognitive control) from baseline vs. PL (p=0.002) and CMT (p=0.001) and a greater increase for time on target tracking vs. PL (p=0.008) and CMT (p=0.047). Compared to PL, CMT was associated with a greater decrease in median kill time (indicating improved speed) (p=0.017). Compared to PL, systolic blood pressure was significantly increased by CAFF (p=0.025) and CMT (p=0.020) but remained within normal limits.Conclusions: Acute CMT supplementation improved cognitive and motor abilities in recreational gamers. The addition of theacrine and methylliberine to caffeine may lessen some undesirable effects of isolated caffeine ingestion on cognitive control and jitteriness.

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42

Meyer, Nathalie Heidi, Baptiste Gauthier, Jevita Potheegadoo, Juliette Boscheron, Elizabeth Franc, Florian Lance y Olaf Blanke. "Sense of agency during encoding predicts subjective reliving". eneuro, 24 de septiembre de 2024, ENEURO.0256–24.2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/eneuro.0256-24.2024.

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Autonoetic consciousness (ANC), the ability to re-experience personal past events links episodic memory and self-consciousness by bridging awareness of oneself in a past event (i.e. during its encoding) with awareness of oneself in the present (i.e. during the reliving of a past event). Recent neuroscience research revealed a bodily form of self-consciousness, including the sense of agency (SoA) and the sense of body ownership (SoO) that are based on the integration of multisensory bodily inputs and motor signals. However, the relation between SoA and/or SoO with ANC is not known. Here, we used immersive virtual reality technology and motion tracking and investigated the potential association of SoA/SoO with ANC. For this we exposed participants to different levels of visuo-motor and perspectival congruency, known to modulate SoA and SoO, during the encoding of virtual scenes and collected ANC ratings one week after the encoding session. In a total of 74 healthy participants, we successfully induced systematic changes in SoA and SoO during encoding and found that ANC depended on the level of SoA experienced during encoding. Moreover, ANC was positively associated with SoA, but only for the scene encoded with preserved visuomotor and perspectival congruency and such SoA-ANC coupling was absent for SoO and control questions. Collectively, these data provide behavioral evidence in a novel paradigm that links a key subjective component of bodily self-consciousness during encoding, SoA, to the subjective reliving of those encoded events from one’s past, ANC.Significance statementWe provide behavioral evidence showing that the sense of agency during the encoding of immersive virtual scenes as modulated by visuomotor and perspectival congruency modulates autonoetic consciousness, thereby linking a key component of the bodily self during encoding with the subjective reliving of the encoded events.

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