Literatura académica sobre el tema "United states history - 20th century - 1945 to 2000"
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Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "United states history - 20th century - 1945 to 2000"
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de Souza, Danilo Ferreira, Francisco Antônio Marino Salotti, Ildo Luís Sauer, Hédio Tatizawa, Aníbal Traça de Almeida y Arnaldo Gakiya Kanashiro. "A Performance Evaluation of Three-Phase Induction Electric Motors between 1945 and 2020". Energies 15, n.º 6 (9 de marzo de 2022): 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15062002.
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In the late 19th century, the three-phase induction motor was the central element of productivity increase in the second industrial revolution in Europe and the United States. Currently, it is the main load on electrical systems in global terms, reaching approximately 70% of electrical energy consumption in the industrial sector worldwide. During the 20th century, electric motors underwent intense technological innovations that enabled significant performance gains. Thus, this work analyses the performance changes in squirrel-cage rotor three-phase induction electric motors (SCIMs) with mechanical powers of 3.7 kW, 37 kW, and 150 kW and speed ranges corresponding to two poles and eight poles, connected to a low voltage at a frequency of 60 Hz and tested between 1945 and 2020. The study confirms accumulated performance gains of above 10% in some cases. Insulating materials for electrical conductors have gone through several generations (cotton, silk, and currently, varnish). Improvements to the housing for cooling, the bearings, the quality of active materials, and the design were the elements that enabled the high gains in performance. The first commercial two-pole SCIM with a shaft power of 4.4 kW was marketed in 1891, with a weight/power ratio of 86 kg/kW, and until the 2000s, this value gradually decreased, eventually reaching 4.8 kg/kW. Between 2000 and 2020, this ratio showed a reversed trend based on improvements in the performance of SCIMs. More active materials were used, causing the weight/power ratio to reach 8.6 kg/kW. The MEPS (minimum energy performance standards) of SCIMs had an essential role in the performance gain over the last three decades. Data collection was via tests at the Electrical Machines Laboratory of the Institute of Energy and Environment of the University of São Paulo. The laboratory has a history of tests on electrical equipment dating from 1911.
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Hassan, Waseem, Sajid Rahman y Amina Ara. "The Research Publications Growth Rate of Pakistan in the Field of Material Sciences: Comparison with 50 countries". Proceedings of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences: A. Physical and Computational Sciences 58, n.º 3 (3 de febrero de 2022): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.53560/ppasa(58-3)617.
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The world has produced 289454 and 308238 research publications in materials sciences in 2019 and 2020, respectively. Twenty-four (24), Thirty-four (34) and Forty-six (46) countries have published atleast 3000, 2000 and 1000 research documents, respectively. Based on the number of publications, the top three countries for the year 2020 are China (n=124207/40.29%), United States (n=37245/12.08%) and India (n=22754/7.38%). We also calculated the relative growth rate (GR) (for the year 2019-2020) of top fifty (50) countries. The highest GR was recorded for Viet Nam (n=43.83), Saudi Arabia (N=40.03), Indonesia (n=38.77), United Arab Emirates (n=37.23) and Pakistan (n=33.75). It is worth noting that, based on the number of publications in 2020, Pakistan also occupied 20th position (n=3844) globally. This motivated us to explore the publication history of Pakistan in Material Sciences. From 1947 to 2000, Pakistan published only 819 documents. Infact, the 1st document was published in 1964. We also provided the per year global production (after 1964) and contribution of Pakistan. The lowest ranking was recorded in 1998 (n=71st), where Pakistan published only 46 research documents (0.04% global share). From 1964 to 2000, the average per year share was only 0.036%. From 2001 to 2020, Pakistan published 19313 documents. Or the average per year global share was 11.66 times higher than 20th century i.e. 0.42%. Based on the number of publications, the list of top 50 researchers, universities and sources are described for both eras. This astonishing increase in publication could be attributed to the establishment of higher education commission (HEC) Islamabad, increase in number of universities, rise in educational budget, funding, and international collaboration.
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Skop, Emily y Wei Li. "Diaspora in the United States: Chinese and Indians Compared". Journal of Chinese Overseas 6, n.º 2 (2010): 286–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/179325410x526131.
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AbstractIn recent years, the migration rates from both China and India to the U.S. have accelerated. Since 2000 more than a third of foreign-born Chinese and 40% of foreign-born Indians have arrived in that country. This paper will document the evolving patterns of immigration from China and India to the U.S. by tracing the history of immigration and racial discrimination, the dramatic transitions that have occurred since the mid-20th century, and the current demographic and socioeconomic profiles of these two migrant groups.
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Ghiles, Francis. "Reading history wrong: the plight of European foreign policy in the Middle East". Notes Internacionals CIDOB, n.º 303 (12 de marzo de 2024): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.24241/notesint.2024/303/en.
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Since the early 20th century, France and the United Kingdom (UK) and, after 1945, the United States (US), have been getting the Middle East wrong. In 2003, France’s President Chirac and Germany’s Chancellor Schröder refused to endorse what proved to be a catastrophic mistake: the US-led invasion of Iraq. Eight years later, President Sarkozy chose to abandon the wisdom of his predecessor and was a cheerleader for the toppling of the Libyan leader Gaddafi, which allowed Russia back into the Mediterranean area. Western leaders’ misreading of the Middle East has been compounded by the media, whose moral grandstanding has increasingly replaced serious reporting and debate. Middle Eastern countries today are defending their interests aggressively and refusing to play by the rules set in Paris, London or Washington. A new nationalism stalks the region, making diplomacy more transactional.
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Curcic, Petar. "Sombart’s history of capitalism and contemporary world, global and transnational history: Similarities and differences". Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke, n.º 189 (2024): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/zmsdn2489001c.
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With the great wave of global integration in economy, society and culture, historiography began to acknowledge the importance of interpreting the past at the highest - world level. Under the influence of numerous historians (primarily in the United States and Western Europe) during the 19th century, and to a much greater extent after 1945, rather innovative directions of world, global and transnational history were created trying to overcome contradictions and a narrow interpretation of the history of international relations, national states and local communities. These focused both on local identities and on states as key factors in the past. In the search for phenomena that permeated world societies, historians, under the influence of other social sciences, began to recognize capitalism as par excellence supranational, that is, a world phenomenon. Although it may seem that the interest in capitalism as a building block of global history (that is, the world system as Immanuel Wallerstein said) is more recent and under the influence of the post-Cold War era, the world-historical significance of this phenomenon was first recognized by authors from the turn of the 19th to the 20th century. Among them, the German economist, sociologist and historian Werner Sombart (1863-1941) has a special place, since he devoted several decades of his career to the study of this phenomenon.
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Cross, Graham. "From Reform to Rights: The American Culture of the Citizen Soldier and the Transformation of the Crusading Metaphor, 1917–1945". International Journal of Military History and Historiography 41, n.º 2 (30 de agosto de 2021): 208–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24683302-bja10024.
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Abstract The “crusading” imagery attached to American soldiers in the 1917–1945 period performed an important function in assigning meaning to the wars of the United States. This was the result of a complex interplay between “official” and “vernacular” culture. The doughboys of the First World War at times fought a romantic “crusade” to reform the nation, world and themselves from a morally privileged position. In the post-war era, the romantic “crusade” survived but was more in tune with the conservative corporatism of Republican administrations. By the Second World War, gi s had become the agents of a very different “crusade”. Americans now embraced statist common effort in a realist prospective vision for human rights. This fundamental change in the meaning of “crusade” attached to the experiences of American soldiers suggests a protean nature to the metaphor and problematises notions of an ideologically cohesive American “crusade” in the world during the 20th century.
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Graban, Marcin. "The labor issue in the USA in the first half of the 20th century. The contribution of the Catholic Church to its solution". Annales. Etyka w Życiu Gospodarczym 20, n.º 7 (25 de febrero de 2017): 131–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.18778/1899-2226.20.7.10.
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The stance of the Catholic Church in the United States of America on the problems related to workers’ wages is an interesting issue from the point of view of the ethics of economic life and the development of Catholic social thought. The interpretation of the main Catholic social ideas contained in Leo XIII’s encyclical letter Rerum novarum was made by Father John Augustine Ryan (1896–1945), who soon became a major proponent of the idea that a good economic policy can only result from good ethics. In the history of the United States of America, the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries was a time of the development of labor unions, associations and workers’ organizations as well as the consolidation of efforts to achieve equitable remuneration (a living wage) and regulate working conditions. It was also a time of struggling with the ideas of socialism and nationalism. The Catholic Church played a significant role in the discourse on these issues, including the influence of John A. Ryan. His efforts led to one of the most important interpretations of economic life: The Program of Social Reconstruction (1919), and some of its postulates can be found in the New Deal legislation.
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Ade-Ibijola, Aderemi Opeyemi y Bheki Richard Mngomezulu. "The East-West Ideological Struggle and the Politics of African Decolonization in the United Nations: Historical Analysis". Issues in Social Science 8, n.º 2 (5 de diciembre de 2020): 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/iss.v8i2.18067.
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The history of African decolonization discourses in the United Nations (UN) in the 20th century was replete with vested interests under the guise of moral concerns. This interest was occasioned mainly by the prevalence of the Ideological struggles better known as the ‘Cold War’ between West which the United States led, and the East which was led by the then Soviet Union and allies respectively. Against this background, this paper argues based on the preponderance of archival documents and relevant scholarly resources that the deep-rooted worldwide rivalry for world dominance which ensued between these power blocs after the end of the Second World War in 1945 ushered in a period of politicization of African decolonization issues in the UN from 1960 onwards. The line between egotism and empathy narrowed significantly to the extent that it became too thin to recognize. The findings of this paper show that the Cold War phenomenon significantly shaped the position taken by member states during the debates on the African colonial problem in the UN. Secondly, we conclude in this paper that from the 1960s, the UN became the battleground between the East and the West each fighting for supremacy.
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Epstein, Catherine. "German Historians at the Back of the Pack: Hiring Patterns in Modern European History, 1945–2010". Central European History 46, n.º 3 (septiembre de 2013): 599–639. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008938913001003.
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Some years ago, I realized that I was the first historian of Germany hired in a tenure-track position at Amherst College. I got my job in 2000. Steeped in German history, I was surprised that a premier liberal arts college chose to hire a historian of Germany only at the very end of the twentieth century. My generation of historians of Germany often think—and other historians of Europe share our perception—that German history is a strong (if not the strongest) field in modern European history. Whether measured anecdotally by the number of job openings, the number of historians hired, the stream of published books, or the share of German history articles in academic journals, it always seems that German historians and German history are at the forefront. In fact, though, historians of Germany have always made up the smallest cohort of historians of the major European history fields (that also include British, Russian, and French history). According to the latest figures available from the American Historical Association (AHA), in 2010 there were 990 historians of Britain, 668 historians of Russia, 605 historians of France, and 592 historians of Germany in the United States.
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Klynina, Тetiana. "THE FOREIGN RELATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES (FRUS) SERIES AS AN EXAMPLE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTARY HISTORY". Mìžnarodnì zv’âzki Ukraïni: naukovì pošuki ì znahìdki 32 (20 de noviembre de 2023): 262–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/mzu2023.32.262.
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The purpose of the article is to reveal the idea of the emergence and evolution of the FRUS publication as the gold standard of official documentary history, to analyze the main periods of the collection's development, focus on the legislative basis for the publication of the series and the problems of understanding the FRUS series as an example of the transparency of the American government. Analyzing the scientific work on the topic of the study, the author draws attention to two aspects: the lack of interest in this collection in the Ukrainian scientific community and the rather limited interest among the world scientific community. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, objectivity, a systematic approach, and relevant general scientific methods such as problem-chronological and information analysis. The scientific novelty is determined by showing the evolution of the collection, its functional orientation, and the proposed periodization of the publication's development. Conclusions: The publication of the collection began in 1861 and was viewed by Congress not only as a means of informing the public but also as a tool to control the executive branch. No clear criteria for publishing or removing materials were made public, although there was a consensus on which materials should not be published, namely those “that would be detrimental to the public good”. The publications of the period 1861-1905 did not take into account the fact of inconvenience to foreign governments, American diplomats, or US presidents. It is emphasized that the publications of the period 1920-1945 underwent profound changes in purpose, production, design procedures, and target audience. This period is associated with the appearance of the first official order that provided for mandatory historical “objectivity” and served as a charter for the series (with minor changes) until 1991. It is pointed out that the content of the collection and the speed of its appearance were seen as direct evidence of the US government's adherence to the policy of transparency and accountability. As a result, between 1920 and 1945, the State Department released 56 volumes, covering the years between 1913 and 1930. It is noted that gradually the balance between transparency and national security became increasingly difficult. The FRUS series has been and remains a vital resource for the public, academia, political scientists, and others. After the end of World War II, the State Department redefined the transparency paradigms of the 20th century. From the 1950s to the 1980s, the imperatives of the Cold War affected the timeliness of publication, as well as the decision-making process for declassifying U.S. government documents. At the beginning of the Cold War, the FRUS series was 15 years behind on average; by the 1980s, this gap had doubled to about 30 years. The volumes were also subjected to greater scrutiny by the U.S. government before being released. This was partly a result of expanding bureaucratic frameworks and partly a consequence of the Cold War. The publications of the second half of the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries moved away from the functional component of the nineteenth century and instead became a means of a certain historical transparency. The FRUS publications will allow us to analyze not only the evolution of US diplomatic skill but also the policy of openness as a key element of democratic development.
Tesis sobre el tema "United states history - 20th century - 1945 to 2000"
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Mills, Pamela J. "Double vision : the dual roles of women on the homefront during World War II through the lens of government documentary films". Virtual Press, 1992. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/834129.
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World War II was a time of great changes. Many aspects of American society underwent profound shifts but one predominant part of American culture did not change -- theaccepted roles of women. The government documentary films of World War II reveal attitudes, ideas, and assumptions which not only reinforced traditional roles but also reflected theresistance to gender-role alterations. Women during the war were not only shaped by such cultural messages but many subscribed to them wholeheartedly. The films emphasize twospecific images of women -- Susie Homemaker and Rosie the Riveter -- and also reflect society's image of women as homemakers first and war workers second. This double vision,reflected throughout the documentary films became the catalyst which maintained women in traditional roles and, in turn, rejected attempts to alter those roles in any significant way.This study uses the vehicle of World War II documentaryfilms, utilizing the World War II Historical Film Collection, Bracken Library, Ball State University (the largest collection outside the National Archives), the Office of War Information papers, and extensive secondary research, to investigate the images of women during the war years.Department of History
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Fischer, Nick 1972. "The savage within : anti-communism, anti-democracy and authoritarianism in the United States and Australia, 1917-1935". Monash University, School of Historical Studies, 2001. http://arrow.monash.edu.au/hdl/1959.1/9124.
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Chan, Catherine See. "Alliance en garde : the United States of America and West Germany, 1977-1985". HKBU Institutional Repository, 2011. https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_ra/1300.
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Province, Terry Paul. "An Investigation Into the Factors Leading to the Closure of 40 Private Four-Year Colleges between 1965 and 2005". Thesis, University of North Texas, 2009. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc12186/.
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This study searches for a set of common indicators that contributed to the ultimate closure of 40 colleges and universities between 1965 and 2005. From research on related literature, a set of 31 contributing factors was identified by published experts and observers in higher education. That set of indicators was then used as a list of 31 questions answered by data found in newspaper articles, professional journals, published research work, published institutional records, data taken from the Department of Education, data taken from IPEDS, data published in historical recounts of the colleges of interest, etc. The data was accumulated in the form of yes/no responses to the 31 questions. Although the study involved only 40 colleges and universities this population represents the majority of institutions that pass the restrictions of limitations and delimitations described in the full document. The complete data set was processed using SPSS which produced ANOVA tables and level of statistical significance for each indicator question. The results indicate that out of the 31 original indicator questions there were two groups of statistically significant indicators. The larger group of indicators having statistical significance at the .05 level encompassed the smaller group having statistical significance at the .001 level. There were ten indicators in the first group with significance at the .05 level and seven in the second group with significance at the .001 level. Both groups conform to Bowen's revenue theory of cost associated with the operations of colleges and universities. The first group also has a cultural values component observed by a number of the experts cited in this study. The second is very tightly associated with Bowen's revenue theory of cost and Bates and Santerre's for profit theory of economics. Future research needs to be done to investigate the effect of such use of those indicators and to cause change in their use by educating those entities who are informed by those indicators.
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Colunga, Jeannie Marie. "We have nothing to fear but tropes themselves: Rhetoric in the speeches of Franklin Delano Roosevelt". CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1993. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/701.
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Vipperman, Justin LeGrand. ""On This, We Shall Build": the Struggle for Civil Rights in Portland, Oregon 1945-1953". PDXScholar, 2016. http://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/open_access_etds/3124.
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Generally, Oregon historians begin Portland Civil Rights history with the development of Vanport and move quickly through the passage of the state's public accommodations law before addressing the 1960s and 70s. Although these eras are ripe with sources and contentious experiences, 1945 to 1953 provide a complex struggle for civil rights in Portland, Oregon. This time period demonstrates the rise of local leaders, wartime racial tensions, and organizational efforts used to combat inequality. 1945 marked a watershed moment in Portland Civil Rights history exhibiting intergroup collaboration and interracial cooperation converging to eventually provide needed legislation. Although discrimination continued after 1953, the era between 1945 and 1953 provided an era of change upon which subsequent movements in Portland were based. My thesis uses material from various collections to piece together the early struggle for civil rights in Portland, and more broadly, Oregon. These documents show that the local struggle started before the classical phase of the Civil Rights Movement, usually defined as Brown v. Board of Education to the Civil Rights Act of 1964. By focusing on the classical phase of civil rights, historians miss the building of a strong foundation for Portland's Civil Rights history. My research proves the existing nuances of the fight for equality by looking at local movements rather than the national struggle. This study demonstrates the nuances by focusing on rising racial tension, the efforts to document them, and the strategies used to combat discrimination.
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Arthi, Vellore. "Human capital formation and the American Dust Bowl". Thesis, University of Oxford, 2016. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:ea2309bd-57fd-463b-ac40-a1c2af870b1f.
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I use variation in childhood exposure to the Dust Bowl, an environmental shock to health and income, as a natural experiment to explain variation in adult human capital. I also examine a variety of mechanisms by which the Dust Bowl influenced later-life wellbeing, and investigate the scope for recovery from this early-life shock. I find that exposure to the Dust Bowl in childhood has statistically significant and economically meaningful adverse impacts on later-life outcomes, for instance, increasing disability and reducing fertility and college completion. These results hold even after accounting for the possibly confounding effects of the Great Depression, migration, and selective fertility or mortality. The effects I find are more severe for those born in agricultural states, suggesting that the Dust Bowl was most damaging via the destruction of agricultural livelihoods. This collapse of farm incomes, however, had the positive effect of increasing high school completion amongst the exposed, likely by reducing the demand for child farm labor where such labor was not essential to production, and thus decreasing the opportunity costs of secondary schooling; in this outcome, unlike in college completion, family income and student ability were irrelevant. Many of the worst adverse effects are found amongst those exposed prenatally and in early childhood, suggesting that congenital complications in capability development, together with low parental incomes in utero and thereafter, may be to blame for such later-life disadvantage. Together, these findings imply that the Dust Bowl acted largely "indirectly," as an economic shock that in turn affected in utero and early-life conditions, rather than "directly," through personal exposure (e.g. dust inhalation) in childhood. Lastly, results - particularly those on New Deal expenditure - imply both that remediation from early-life disaster is possible under the right circumstances, and that post-shock investment may have compensated for rather than reinforced damage to child endowments. The findings in this study are consistent with a multi-stage model of human capability formation, in which investments in one period respond to endowments in a previous one, and may either reinforce or compensate for these endowments.
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Alvarez, Luis Alberto. "The power of the zoot : race, community, and resistance in American youth culture, 1940-1945 /". Thesis, Full text (PDF) from UMI/Dissertation Abstracts International, 2001. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/fullcit?p3008265.
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Jakub, Joseph F. "Spies and saboteurs : Anglo-American collaboration and rivalry in human intelligence collection and special operations, 1940-1945". Thesis, University of Oxford, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.670255.
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Treadway, William T. "Wrestling with the Past: How National Wrestling Lost Its Regional Heritage". Thesis, University of North Texas, 2018. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc1404529/.
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Through a combination of stringent and deceptive corporate control of sources, as well as an academic blind spot on certain low-brow subcultures, there has been a lack of serious study of the various regional professional wrestling traditions that crossed the United States until the end of the 1980s. An in-depth examination of a wide range of books, newsletters, and interviews shows a rich history with a deep economic, social, and creative diversity that has been largely ignored as the industry has moved towards monopolization under Vincent Kennedy McMahon. The various regions are divided into three groups: those that closed on their own, those that fell in competition with McMahon, and those that survived into the era of national corporate pro wrestling. This organization challenges the narrative that regional pro wrestling came to an end solely due to the business power of McMahon. The first group looks at Northern California, Southern California, Georgia, and North Texas. The second group examines the independent wrestling companies Mid-South Wrestling and the American Wrestling Association, and their attempts to compete with McMahon on a national level. The group also explores how the intense local fan bases in Portland and Memphis buoyed the local pro wrestling promotions for a time from outside competition from McMahon. The third group contains Jim Crockett Productions and the World Wide Wrestling Federation. These two organizations eventually became the two major corporate wrestling entities World Championship Wrestling and the World Wrestling Federation, respectively. A glossary of terms is included.
Libros sobre el tema "United states history - 20th century - 1945 to 2000"
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Bruce, Laurie, ed. The rise of Conservatism in America, 1945-2000: A brief history with documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2008.
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Browne, Blaine T. Modern American lives: Individuals and issues in American history since 1945. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe, 2008.
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Hardesty, Von. Epic rivalry: The inside story of the Soviet and American space race. Washington, D.C: National Geographic, 2007.
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Davis, Tracy C. Stages of emergency: Cold War nuclear civil defense. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2008.
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Sherwood, John Darrell. Black sailor, white Navy: Racial unrest in the fleet during the Vietnam War era. New York: New York University Press, 2007.
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1914-, Faherty William Barnaby y Benson Charles D, eds. Gateway to the moon: Building the Kennedy Space Center launch complex. 2a ed. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001.
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Jim, O'Grady, ed. Disarmed and dangerous: The radical lives and times of Daniel and Philip Berrigan. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1998.
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Polner, Murray. Disarmed and dangerous: The radical lives and times of Daniel and Philip Berrigan. New York: BasicBooks, 1997.
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Jim, O'Grady, ed. Disarmed and dangerous: The radical lives and times of Daniel and Philip Berrigan. New York: BasicBooks, 1997.
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Caro, Robert A. Means of ascent. New York: Vintage Books, 1991.
Buscar texto completoCapítulos de libros sobre el tema "United states history - 20th century - 1945 to 2000"
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Jorion, Philippe y William N. Goetzmann. "Global Stock Markets in the 20th Century". En The Equity Risk Premium Essays and Explorations, 335–64. Oxford University PressNew York, NY, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195148145.003.0017.
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Abstract The contribution of this article is to present a wide cross section of historical stock market performance over roughly 80 years of world history. Until recently, studies of the long-term rate of return to the stock market have been confined only to the U.S. or U.K. markets because of data availability. The central question to us is whether the U.S. experience is representative of equity investing around the world through the 20th century. Over the period we examine, the United States had the highest rate of real appreciation in stock prices in a sample of 39 countries—significantly higher than the median market and slightly higher than a GDP-weighted index of non- U.S. markets. Some of the most difficult challenges in this article were trying to understand what happened to investment markets during crisis periods, particularly the Second World War, when many markets ceased to function normally, and legal ownership claims—at least for parts of the population— ceased to exist. As econometricians, we like to imagine that the economic environment is roughly stationary—that a stock is a stock whether it trades in 1941 in Berlin or 2005 in the United States. The experience of the 20th century cautions us that this is not necessarily true. Major world events, for which standard econometric models cannot account, are apt to redefine and realign markets
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Levin, Jack y Julie B. Wiest. "Politics and Government". En Covert Violence, 74–89. Policy Press, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529230680.003.0005.
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This chapter examines a wide range of violent acts that have been surreptitiously perpetrated throughout history and around the world. Covert violence has always played an important role in supplementing conventional warfare, and clandestine attacks by weaker operatives have had devastating consequences—even in a country like the United States that is widely known for its military might (for example, the December 1941 bombing of Pearl Harbor by Japanese forces and the September 11, 2001 attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda terrorists). Moreover, clandestine biological warfare has a centuries-long history around the world; from 1155 to 1863, documented attacks between political rivals included: contaminating water wells with dead bodies, selling wine mixed with the blood of leprosy patients, launching projectiles coated with the saliva of rabid dogs, and distributing blankets and clothing contaminated with smallpox and yellow fever. Plenty of examples can also be found throughout the 20th century—particularly during the two World Wars—as well as in the 21st century. Although any combatant might conceivably decide to employ clandestine weapons and/or to strike surreptitiously, one with a large power deficit that is nonetheless desperate to win might be especially likely to resort to covert acts of violence.
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Clayton, John F. "Education, the Internet, and the World Wide Web". En Encyclopedia of Human Computer Interaction, 175–78. IGI Global, 2006. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59140-562-7.ch028.
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The development of the Internet has a relatively brief and well-documented history (Cerf, 2001; Griffiths, 2001; Leiner et al., 2000; Tyson, 2002). The initial concept was first mooted in the early 1960s. American computer specialists visualized the creation of a globally interconnected set of computers through which everyone quickly could access data and programs from any node, or place, in the world. In the early 1970s, a research project initiated by the United States Department of Defense investigated techniques and technologies to interlink packet networks of various kinds. This was called the Internetting project, and the system of connected networks that emerged from the project was known as the Internet. The initial networks created were purpose-built (i.e., they were intended for and largely restricted to closed specialist communities of research scholars). However, other scholars, other government departments, and the commercial sector realized the system of protocols developed during this research (Transmission Control Protocol [TCP] and Internet Protocol [IP], collectively known as the TCP/IP Protocol Suite) had the potential to revolutionize data and program sharing in all parts of the community. A flurry of activity, beginning with the National Science Foundation (NSF) network NSFNET in 1986, over the last two decades of the 20th century created the Internet as we know it today. In essence, the Internet is a collection of computers joined together with cables and connectors following standard communication protocols.
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Salford, Leif G. "The development of echoencephalography in Sweden". En Ultrasound in Clinical Diagnosis. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199602070.003.0010.
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Although neurosurgery has a long history it was thanks to brave pioneering neurosurgeons such as Harvey Cushing in the United States — and in Sweden Herbert Olivecrona — that the speciality made huge progress during the first half of the 20th century. However, around 1950, the possibility to reveal pathological processes taking place inside the closed skull, was still very restricted. The only available rapid procedure was the neurological examination of the patient. X-ray of the skull is of restricted value, pneumo-encephalography was much too complicated and time-consuming for acute situations, and angiography was still in its infancy. Thus the neurosurgeon, receiving an acute patient with a suspected intracranial haematoma, had to make a qualified guess about where to start placing his trephine on the skull in order to save the life of the patient — often within minutes in the case of a bleeding between the skull bone and the dura. The mortality in those days was 40 % , often because the diagnosis was made too late. Thanks to an ingenious Swedish neurosurgeon, Lars Leksell, working at Lund University Hospital, a new approach to reveal the secrets inside the skull was introduced in clinical praxis — echoencephalography. Lars Leksell graduated from the Karolinska Institute (KI) and received his neurosurgical training in Herbert Olivecrona’s department from 1935. He volunteered as a neurosurgeon in the Finnish winter war in 1940 in Karelia. His team could operate on 24 head injuries per 24 hours and already by this point, Leksell showed his creative mind in constructing the double-action rongeur for more efficient removal of shell-splinters from the vicinity of the spinal cord. In 1941 he joined Professor Ragnar Granit (1967 Nobel laureate in Medicine) at the Institute of Neurophysiology where he presented his thesis on gamma nerve fibres in 1945. In 1946 he became the chief of the new neurosurgical unit in Lund and in 1958 he was appointed the first Professor of Neurosurgery at Lund University. In 1960 he succeeded Olivecrona as Professor and Chairman of the Neurosurgical Department at the Karolinska Institute/Hospital.