Tesis sobre el tema "Strategic environmental assessment"

Large-scale planning initiatives can present major long-term environmental and social consequences. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is one type of approach to integrating environmental considerations into many large-scale plans and programs, and was established in the European Union by Council Directive 2001/42/EC. Practical and theoretical limitations remain, and this research considers “How can SEA be carried out for plans and programs to better support strategic decision-making toward sustainability?” Information is compiled from an extensive literature review, interviews with SEA experts, and a case study SEA. An analysis is conducted around a framework for strategic sustainable development, based on backcasting from sustainability principles. Results indicate that SEA plays an important role in mitigating environmental impacts of planning, but also faces many weaknesses relative to a truly strategic approach to sustainable development. To help fill these gaps, generic recommendations are developed for SEA practice. Built on a principle-based definition of sustainability, they are relevant to any individual SEA situation. Hypothetical applications of the recommendations are illustrated with a case study. By adopting these recommendations, SEA practitioners can enable planners to better integrate strategic sustainable development into the decisions and upstream design of plans and programs.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has become recognised as an improvement on the existing, limited system of project-based EIA. It aims to integrate environmental considerations into government policies, plans and programmes, and provides a basis for arriving at better-informed decisions at broader strategic levels. However, the compatibility of this new environmental planning tool with other planning systems such as transport, holds the key to successful integration of environmental concerns into existing planning approaches. This study investigates whether SEA can influence and integrate with transport planning and policy development processes through a survey of attitudes and opinions of planners on transport SEA in Taiwan. Transport planning has been criticised for considering too few alternatives, and for basing evaluations solely on technical and economic grounds. The emerging SEA seems theoretically feasible and potentially beneficial in allowing the integration of environmental concerns into strategic transport planning. Though many countries or regions have transport SEA provisions, practical transport SEA applications remain limited, mostly in Western developed countries with high environmental awareness. SEA applications are also limited in their strategies, focusing mainly on infrastructure-related projects. Moreover, most current transport SEA practices lack strategic focus and thus fail to fulfill SEA principles. This suggests that many planners are unfamiliar with the nature and techniques of SEA, and the conceptual impediments are still critical, which may result in significant barriers to transport SEA application. The EIA Act promulgated in 1994, together with its relevant provisions, have provided an applicable mechanism and a legal basis for SEA application in Taiwan, however, no transport SEA cases have been conducted. Many technical and non-technical barriers have been identified by the interviewees, indicating that most of the planners in Taiwan believe that transport SEA is conceptually and practically immature, and planners are not yet ready for it. The conceptual barriers seem more critical at this stage because practical barriers can only be identified and overcome when planners and decision-makers have a clear and proper concept of SEA. This narrowly-viewed application has limited the benefits of SEA, and has resulted in a rigid and incorrect idea that SEA was a passive impact-reducing mechanism; this may mislead the attitudes of planners to transport SEA. In fact, the emerging SEA is a re-engineered planning system framework that serves to remind planners that they are able to improve their efforts. It is a paradigm revolution, as the way in which planners think can make a vast difference. Thus, the potential for the emerging SEA concept to influence and integrate with transport planning and transport policy development processes depends not only on practical feasibility but also on a fundamental conceptual recognition of transport SEA. SEA could influence and integrate with transport planning and transport policy development processes if planners and decision-makers changed their ways of thinking. This study also found that a tiered and integrated transport SEA, embedded in the main transport planning process at different strategic levels, has great potential to embody the environmental and sustainable concerns in transport planning and decision-making. This finding is based on several contentions supported by the recent SEA studies showing that it should not be detached from the main planning process. SEA needs to be flexible in order to meet various policies, plans and programmes (PPP) demands, and it must be value-driven, not impact-oriented. A tiered, integrated transport SEA provides ways to overcome identified transport SEA application impediments. This two-in-one planning system is a simple solution which allows transport SEA to be conducted without involving complex legal processes. It improves institutional coordination and integrates not only with planning processes but also with values and resources.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has become recognised as an improvement on the existing, limited system of project-based EIA. It aims to integrate environmental considerations into government policies, plans and programmes, and provides a basis for arriving at better-informed decisions at broader strategic levels. However, the compatibility of this new environmental planning tool with other planning systems such as transport, holds the key to successful integration of environmental concerns into existing planning approaches. This study investigates whether SEA can influence and integrate with transport planning and policy development processes through a survey of attitudes and opinions of planners on transport SEA in Taiwan. Transport planning has been criticised for considering too few alternatives, and for basing evaluations solely on technical and economic grounds. The emerging SEA seems theoretically feasible and potentially beneficial in allowing the integration of environmental concerns into strategic transport planning. Though many countries or regions have transport SEA provisions, practical transport SEA applications remain limited, mostly in Western developed countries with high environmental awareness. SEA applications are also limited in their strategies, focusing mainly on infrastructure-related projects. Moreover, most current transport SEA practices lack strategic focus and thus fail to fulfill SEA principles. This suggests that many planners are unfamiliar with the nature and techniques of SEA, and the conceptual impediments are still critical, which may result in significant barriers to transport SEA application. The EIA Act promulgated in 1994, together with its relevant provisions, have provided an applicable mechanism and a legal basis for SEA application in Taiwan, however, no transport SEA cases have been conducted. Many technical and non-technical barriers have been identified by the interviewees, indicating that most of the planners in Taiwan believe that transport SEA is conceptually and practically immature, and planners are not yet ready for it. The conceptual barriers seem more critical at this stage because practical barriers can only be identified and overcome when planners and decision-makers have a clear and proper concept of SEA. This narrowly-viewed application has limited the benefits of SEA, and has resulted in a rigid and incorrect idea that SEA was a passive impact-reducing mechanism; this may mislead the attitudes of planners to transport SEA. In fact, the emerging SEA is a re-engineered planning system framework that serves to remind planners that they are able to improve their efforts. It is a paradigm revolution, as the way in which planners think can make a vast difference. Thus, the potential for the emerging SEA concept to influence and integrate with transport planning and transport policy development processes depends not only on practical feasibility but also on a fundamental conceptual recognition of transport SEA. SEA could influence and integrate with transport planning and transport policy development processes if planners and decision-makers changed their ways of thinking. This study also found that a tiered and integrated transport SEA, embedded in the main transport planning process at different strategic levels, has great potential to embody the environmental and sustainable concerns in transport planning and decision-making. This finding is based on several contentions supported by the recent SEA studies showing that it should not be detached from the main planning process. SEA needs to be flexible in order to meet various policies, plans and programmes (PPP) demands, and it must be value-driven, not impact-oriented. A tiered, integrated transport SEA provides ways to overcome identified transport SEA application impediments. This two-in-one planning system is a simple solution which allows transport SEA to be conducted without involving complex legal processes. It improves institutional coordination and integrates not only with planning processes but also with values and resources.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith School of Environment
Faculty of Science, Environment, Engineering and Technology
Full Text

The dissertation is framed within the topics of regional governance and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). Compared to its relationship with governance the SEA may be defined as a set of rules, principles, techniques and tools with the function of supporting the decision making process. The evaluation process is strategically relevant when applying the principles of environmental sustainability to regional and urban planning. SEA is a fundamental instrument for the environmental integration during the elaboration and adoption of plans; SEA offers an opportunity to bring about a real change of attitude and culture at strategic levels into strategic decision-making process; SEA, according to the Directive 2001/42/EC, provides the most adequate opportunity to integrate different regional planning methods. The dissertation mechanisms of regional governance, defined as the process involving the formation and implementation of decisions. The objective of this study is to analyse the relationships between the various stakeholders and governmental institutions, with the aim of defining in what terms, with reference to regional governance, the theoretical principles of sustainable development (in terms of managing the relationship between natural resources and economic development) can be applied to the planning phases. The main aim is to build a framework for sequential activities in the planning process, of a new model of governance able to relate to different levels of government, from a political level to a local level. The Sardinian case study contains some interesting aspects of planning and evaluation processes currently under way, which could be exported and developed further. However, it does suffer from several inconsistencies which are highlighted by the Directive 2001/42/EC. The innovative aspect of the research project, respect to the current planning situation of the SEA and the planning procedures, consists in the creation of a Protocol for the integration of the two approaches related to the construction of the plan and the activation process of SEA. In particular in the construction of system to accompany and support the government in adapting the plans, and secondly to support local authorities in the definition of strategic choices. Don’t exist in Sardinia a guidance for SEA process of general plan, This Guidance is intended to be valid for all plans from regional to urban plans by defining a decisional process where the SEA is part of the plan, creating a process more inclusive of aspects of environmental and public consultation. The involvement of consulting the public and authorities with environmental responsibilities is the goal of the new model of the assessment process.

Questions of uncertainty and value conflict are increasingly pervasive challenges confronting policy makers seeking to address the range of environmental problems generated by contemporary technological systems. Yet these questions are ultimately political and moral in nature, and require a framework of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) that is marked by informed and democratic civic governance. Reflecting this, the original, civic purposes of environmental assessment (EA) embraced science and public participation as interdependent elements in the creation of more sustaining forms of human-nature interaction. However, formal models of EA have forsaken meaningful democratic engagement to technique. Based on the instrumentalist assumption that better science automatically leads to better policy, EA has externalised the civic source of political energy that underpins its environmental expertise. Moreover, debates become polarised when science is uncritically imported into the adversarial forums of interest-based politics,so that environmental science is increasingly unable to support political action. I shall argue that the revolutionary potential of SEA to transform the policy process rests upon a recovery of its original, civic purposes. My thesis is that a deeper understanding of the relationship between scientific knowledge and political action is required if SEA is to be rigorous, and also relevant to public concerns. Philosophical pragmatism contributes epistemological resources vital to this task. By situating knowledge in the context of practice, and by recognising the dialogical, judgmental nature of rationality, the practical philosophy of pragmatism reclaims the contextually embedded nature of inquiry. When science is embedded in a wider ethical context, the meaning and purposes of environmental knowledge become central questions of policy. The procedural ethics of both liberal and Habermasian politics cannot address these questions, however, because they relegate questions of the public good to the realm of individual choice. Instead, I argue that public dialogue, guided by a praxisoriented virtue ethics, is required to recover objective environmental goods in the policy process. I also argue that Aristotlean rhetoric, with its focus on the credibility of expertise, is the mode of persuasive argument most appropriate for dialogical public forums. The public philosophy of civic environmental pragmatism is therefore presented as a richer theoretical framework for understanding the contribution of both experts and citizens in the development of environmental knowledge for policy. As a dialogical framework for SEA, civic environmental pragmatism constructively combines the critical/normative and instrumental/descriptive aspects of policy inquiry, both of which are required in the development of socially robust knowledge and politically feasible policy decisions.

Questions of uncertainty and value conflict are increasingly pervasive challenges confronting policy makers seeking to address the range of environmental problems generated by contemporary technological systems. Yet these questions are ultimately political and moral in nature, and require a framework of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) that is marked by informed and democratic civic governance. Reflecting this, the original, civic purposes of environmental assessment (EA) embraced science and public participation as interdependent elements in the creation of more sustaining forms of human-nature interaction. However, formal models of EA have forsaken meaningful democratic engagement to technique. Based on the instrumentalist assumption that better science automatically leads to better policy, EA has externalised the civic source of political energy that underpins its environmental expertise. Moreover, debates become polarised when science is uncritically imported into the adversarial forums of interest-based politics, so that environmental science is increasingly unable to support political action. I shall argue that the revolutionary potential of SEA to transform the policy process rests upon a recovery of its original, civic purposes. My thesis is that a deeper understanding of the relationship between scientific knowledge and political action is required if SEA is to be rigorous, and also relevant to public concerns. Philosophical pragmatism contributes epistemological resources vital to this task. By situating knowledge in the context of practice, and by recognising the dialogical, judgmental nature of rationality, the practical philosophy of pragmatism reclaims the contextually embedded nature of inquiry. When science is embedded in a wider ethical context, the meaning and purposes of environmental knowledge become central questions of policy. The procedural ethics of both liberal and Habermasian politics cannot address these questions, however, because they relegate questions of the public good to the realm of individual choice. Instead, I argue that public dialogue, guided by a praxisoriented virtue ethics, is required to recover objective environmental goods in the policy process. I also argue that Aristotlean rhetoric, with its focus on the credibility of expertise, is the mode of persuasive argument most appropriate for dialogical public forums. The public philosophy of civic environmental pragmatism is therefore presented as a richer theoretical framework for understanding the contribution of both experts and citizens in the development of environmental knowledge for policy. As a dialogical framework for SEA, civic environmental pragmatism constructively combines the critical/normative and instrumental/descriptive aspects of policy inquiry, both of which are required in the development of socially robust knowledge and politically feasible policy decisions.

Questions of uncertainty and value conflict are increasingly pervasive challenges confronting policy makers seeking to address the range of environmental problems generated by contemporary technological systems. Yet these questions are ultimately political and moral in nature, and require a framework of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) that is marked by informed and democratic civic governance. Reflecting this, the original, civic purposes of environmental assessment (EA) embraced science and public participation as interdependent elements in the creation of more sustaining forms of human-nature interaction. However, formal models of EA have forsaken meaningful democratic engagement to technique. Based on the instrumentalist assumption that better science automatically leads to better policy, EA has externalised the civic source of political energy that underpins its environmental expertise. Moreover, debates become polarised when science is uncritically imported into the adversarial forums of interest-based politics, so that environmental science is increasingly unable to support political action. I shall argue that the revolutionary potential of SEA to transform the policy process rests upon a recovery of its original, civic purposes. My thesis is that a deeper understanding of the relationship between scientific knowledge and political action is required if SEA is to be rigorous, and also relevant to public concerns. Philosophical pragmatism contributes epistemological resources vital to this task. By situating knowledge in the context of practice, and by recognising the dialogical, judgmental nature of rationality, the practical philosophy of pragmatism reclaims the contextually embedded nature of inquiry. When science is embedded in a wider ethical context, the meaning and purposes of environmental knowledge become central questions of policy. The procedural ethics of both liberal and Habermasian politics cannot address these questions, however, because they relegate questions of the public good to the realm of individual choice. Instead, I argue that public dialogue, guided by a praxisoriented virtue ethics, is required to recover objective environmental goods in the policy process. I also argue that Aristotlean rhetoric, with its focus on the credibility of expertise, is the mode of persuasive argument most appropriate for dialogical public forums. The public philosophy of civic environmental pragmatism is therefore presented as a richer theoretical framework for understanding the contribution of both experts and citizens in the development of environmental knowledge for policy. As a dialogical framework for SEA, civic environmental pragmatism constructively combines the critical/normative and instrumental/descriptive aspects of policy inquiry, both of which are required in the development of socially robust knowledge and politically feasible policy decisions.

Various international conventions and several theories and approaches from the planning and environment fields of study have focused on enhancing the public’s access to information and its participation in strategic decision making. However, it seems that it is challenging to encourage a meaningful public participation in decision making processes, since it is difficult to engage civil society in strategic discussions, it is complex to institutionalise participative processes, and it is demanding to include traditionally marginalised groups in current debates on development. Despite this, it appears that deciding how participative approaches should be designed and when these approaches should be applied is of crucial importance to secure appropriate forums for dialogue. To study these claims and foster participation and dialogue, a study was carried out to examine the development of flexible, adaptable and participative strategic environmental assessment processes. Even though designing the processes demanded time and constant adaptation, it is argued that adequately conceptualising and implementing flexible, adaptable and participative approaches to strategic environmental assessment can lead to inclusive, legitimate and anchored outputs that can significantly influence decision making processes.
QC 20111115

Abstract SEA is currently becoming an important tool for sustainable development. The main principles of SEA are to incorporate environmental considerations to the process of development of strategic documents and to make the process of the decision-making more transparent. Over the past years, there have been an increasing number of countries especially transitional and developing countries such as Belarus that consider joining the international conventions for SEA such as EU Directive 2001/42/EC (the SEA Directive) and UNECE SEA Protocol. This research focuses on the capacity assessment for SEA implementation in Belarus. The benchmarks for SEA capacity assessment were defined. For identifying the approaches for SEA implementation in the countries in transition, the experience of the countries of Central and Eastern Europe was analyzed. The capacity assessment for Belarus was made involved three levels, namely, system level, as well as organizational and individual levels. The paper analyses strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for SEA implementation in Belarus. The study concludes with some suggestions that might help to improve capacity for SEA implementation.

With the advent of digital imaging technology, the options available to consumers in consumer imaging have increased tremendously. From image capture through image processing and output, many options have emerged; however, the relative environmental impacts of these different options are not clear cut. Simplistically, one might say that the use of a digital camera has a lesser environmental burden than the use of a reloadable film camera because the image produced as a result of using the digital camera avoids chemicals in film developing. However, digital cameras require electronics and computers that need energy; and, energy production is one of the contributors to greenhouse gasses like CO2. Assessment of the environmental impacts of these different options can help provide feedback to decision makers and insights that will help reduce environmental impact through product system design. One tool that has been used to relate environmental impacts with functions provide to consumers through products or services is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA, which has been standardized by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in ISO14000, is used here to evaluate both traditional film and digital imaging systems. Data from publicly available databases and both external and internal Eastman Kodak Company studies were utilized to develop LCA modules for the different processes involved. Product and service business models are explored for both technologies through ten different imaging and output scenarios. The functional unit used is the capture, processing and output of one 4 x6 image. Four impact categories (energy use, greenhouse emission, water use and waste generation) across four life cycle phases (upstream, distribution, use, and end of life) are explored for the ten scenarios. LCA is also evaluated as a tool to help facilitate strategic level environmental performance issues with both new and established business activities. Sensitivity analysis is also performed to evaluate the impact of assumptions made in the course of the assessment and comments are made regarding the effectiveness of LCA for strategic assessment and product service strategies in lowering environmental impact. Results indicate that the lowest impact scenarios are Digital Capture to LCD Display for Greenhouse Emissions and Energy Use and Film Capture to Wholesale Print for Water Use and Waste Generation. Highest impacts were seen for Greenhouse Emissions in the Film Capture to Retail Print scenario. In the Energy Use and Water Use category, the Digital Capture to CRT Computer Display was the highest scenario. For Waste Generation, the Digital Capture to Inkjet Print was the highest impact scenario.

Since the beginning of the 1990s, a discussion has been going on in most western countries about the introduction of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in planning systems. As a result, SEA has been incorporated in national legislation for the assessment of government plans and programs. Additionally, developing nations have started to consider strategic environmental issues and SEA due to the stimulus that has been given by international environmental conventions like the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. However, until now few investigations have been carried out to assess how the current SEA framework suits developing nations. That is why an SEA pre-study that applies the current SEA process together with Ramsar specifications was developed in a case study for the Sonso Lagoon in Colombia. In this study an account of both the positive and negative experiences that resulted from applying the SEA/Ramsar framework is given, the importance of stakeholder participation throughout the SEA process is stressed, stakeholder inequalities created by social differences in developing nations are discussed, the importance of an interdisciplinary working approach is highlighted, and finally a strategic working methodology is proposed for the Sonso Lagoon.

The thesis develops a framework and system for integrating Strategic Environmental Assessment [SEA] into Malaysian land use planning, for the purposes of achieving sustainable development. The emphasis is upon procedural and resource aspects of SEA rather than on methodologies. The research includes review and analysis of international and Malaysian published literature, government documents, case study analyses, a postal questionnaire survey and interviews. The development of the proposals is based on the identification of philosophies, principles and links between three main concepts, namely sustainable development, land use planning and Strategic Environmental Assessment. Examples of approaches and experiences of SEA from the United Kingdom, United States of America, Canada and elsewhere are analysed and evaluated. These are assessed against Malaysian national planning and land use planning systems and frameworks, and current Malaysian practices in environmental impact assessment. An evaluation of the strengths and shortcomings of the Malaysian systems, procedures, processes and resources is used to justify and form the basis for the proposals. The thesis describes the research framework and methodologies; the basic concepts of sustainable development, land use planning and SEA/ElA; and the Malaysian political, legislative, institutional and planning frameworks. The proposals include an idealised SEA framework within a proposed national integrated planning system for Malaysia; the functions of Malaysian SEA; a proposed structure plan process with SEA; an outline strategy for actions; and subjects for further research.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has been associated with 'good governance' by bodies at national and international levels including the World Bank, OECD and UK and Scottish Government. Invoking concepts including transparency, accountability, public participation and partnership working, this SEA/good governace nexus has been promoted in Scotland where the government sees SEA as central to its sustainable development aspirations. The research examines the operation of the SEA/good governance nexus in the SEA processes of two Scottish cases: the A96 corridor Masterplan and the Clackmannanshire Alliance Community Planning environment framework, Greening Clackmannanshire. Data-gathering took place between 2007 and 2010 using a mix of qualitative methods. The data were then analysed using a realist governmentality lens to view SEA as a technique of government ostensibly seeking to instil environmentally-focused governance. Employing a framework drawn from Foucault and summ arised by Darier (1996), the analysis is focused around three axes. The first axis, which considers centralisation tendencies in government, is crucial in considering whether SEA can be a useful meeting point between top-down and bottom-up approaches to sustainable development. The second, 'intensification of the effects of power', requires clear conduits for the flow of an environmentally-focused governmentality if Thérivel's (2004) aspiration of having decision makers 'thinking SEA' is to be realised. Finally, the power-knowledge axis opens up for discussion the role of expertise vis-à-vis the admittance to SEA of 'early and effective' public participation and an increasing emphasis on social learning in assessment. Crucially, a governmentality approach also admits a central theme in Foucault's conception of power: resistance. In contrast to providing opportunity to futher the legitimising aims of the SEA/good governance nexus in Scot exposes instances of resistance to both thedemocratising elements of good governance and to SEA itself, as the public and statutory consultation authorites find their efforts to constructively engage with the SEA process thwarted.

Thesis (PhD) -- University of Stellenbosch, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The dissertation traces the development of environmental assessment and environmental ethics as these disciplines have evolved independently in response to the global environmental crisis. The aim is to determine the extent to which they can promote the integration of the dissociated objective and subjective spheres of human valuation of the environment. This is a necessary condition, it is argued, for arresting the pathology in the human-environment relationship. The study concludes that both disciplines were initially trapped in narrow, monistic approaches, which rendered them largely ineffective. However, their evolutionary advancement, and a common grounding in a radical conceptualization of sustainable development, greatly enhances their usefulness in environmental decisionmaking.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die verhandeling ondersoek die evolusionêre ontwikkeling van omgewingsimpakbepaling en die filosofie van omgewingsetika, na die ontstaan van die twee disiplines in reaksie tot die globale omgewingskrisis. Die studiedoelwit is om te bepaal tot watter mate hulle die integrasie van die gedissosieerde objektiewe en die subjektiewe sfere van menslikeomgewingswaardering kan bevorder. Daar word geredeneer dat sodanige integrasie noodsaaklik is om die patologie in die verhouding tussen die mens en sy omgewing te stuit. Die belangrikste gevolgtrekking is dat beide disiplines, tydens hulle aanvangsstadia, vasgeval was in 'n monistiese benadering wat hul doeltreffendheid belemmer het. Die onlangse ontwikkeling van omgewingsimpakbepaling en omgewingsetika, sowel as 'n gemeenskaplike uitgangspunt binne 'n radikale vertolking van volhoubare ontwikkeling, versterk grootliks hulle bruikbaarheid vir omgewingsbesluitneming.

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is a systematic process for assessing and evaluating the potential environmental effects of proposed policies, plans and programmes (PPPs) and their alternatives, in order to identify and address such issues at the early (pre-project) stages of strategic planning and decision-making. Although SEA is a key aspect of current and evolving environmental assessment theory and practice, the primary focus thus far has been on its statutory application to public-sector planning initiatives. Despite previous comments that SEA should also be applicable and of interest to corporations, there has been very little evidence or investigation of its potential voluntary adoption and application in this context. Important questions therefore remain about what might motivate or deter a corporation from deciding to use SEA, and if so, the particular timing or stage of planning at which it is to be applied, the environmental issues upon which it would focus, and the SEA approach and methods to be used. This study has therefore been designed and conducted to investigate corporate decision-making about whether, why, when and how to voluntarily adopt and apply SEA. Due to a lack of previous research on this topic, and the overall inapplicability and inadequacy of other existing theory and knowledge to it, the study has adopted a qualitative and inductive (exploratory) approach. The research methods involved a series of semi-structured interviews and subsequent focus group sessions with strategic planning personnel within electricity utilities in Canada, in order to identify and seek to understand their views and decisions about the possible voluntarily adoption and application of SEA. The results of the study indicate that a variety of factors are considered by corporations in decision-making about the potential use of SEA. This includes issues related to: 1) The type and level of environmental uncertainty and risk that is perceived to be associated with the company’s overall strategic planning initiatives (PPPs); 2) The particular reasons for it perceiving a need to proactively address environmental risks at the strategic level as opposed to at later stages of planning or during PPP implementation; 3) The specific rationale for, and objectives and desired outcomes of, any such SEA use by the corporation; and 4) the perceived applicability of SEA to the corporation’s planning and business activities, and its likely effectiveness in achieving the above referenced objectives and outcomes. A number of internal and external contextual factors were also found to be influential in corporate views about whether SEA is considered to be necessary, possible, applicable and likely effective, including the perceived benefits, costs, risks and challenges associated with its use. As a key outcome of the study, these research findings are used in the development and discussion of a conceptual framework that identifies the occurrence, influence and interrelationships of these factors and the manner and order in which they are recognized and considered in corporate decisions about SEA and its use. A summary of the main results of the study, including the resulting conceptual framework, was subsequently provided to all interviewees and focus group participants and is included as an appendix to the thesis. In addition to providing an opportunity to generate new knowledge in relation to this previously uninvestigated subject, this research has also provided an interesting and unique context through which to investigate and evaluate longstanding and more recent and evolving theoretical perspectives about SEA, as reflected in the current literature. The study’s results highlight a number of new and important dimensions of how SEA is viewed and potentially used in certain contexts, including issues related to its perceived purpose and objectives, approaches, and potential and desired outcomes, which are presented and evaluated herein in order to contribute to the further advancement of SEA theory.

Thesis (M.A.)--Stellenbosch University, 2001.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There is a general consensus that EIA is limited in its scope. The main concern in this regard is that EIA generally fails to handle cumulative impacts effectively, due to its focus on individual projects. Cumulative effects are changes to the environment that are caused by an action in combination with other past, present and future human actions. The evaluation of cumulative effects generally focuses on potential pervasive, regional environmental problems. Due to its strong focus on sustainable development, Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), by definition, should address cumulative effects. EIAs in South Africa traditionally only considered the "footprint" or area covered by each project component. However, in recent years the cumulative nature of environmental impacts of human actions has increasingly become a visible concern to the South African public, which has led to the need to infuse cumulative effects concepts into environmental assessments. In theory, a SEA is aimed at improving the way in which cumulative effects are dealt with in environmental assessments. This raises the question of whether past and present South African SEA approaches have effectively addressed the issue of cumulative effects. This thesis provides a critical reappraisal of recent experience in SEA with particular reference to its application in South Africa. It is in this context, of the opportunities and constraints of current SEA application, that this study attempts to determine how best to infuse cumulative effects methodology and philosophy into the emerging South African SEA process. This study evaluates three SEA case studies undertaken in South African, in order to assess how effectively cumulative effects are addressed within the current South African SEA process. The analysis focuses on both innovative approaches used in each study, as well as the limitations and deficiencies of each approach. A generic framework was developed in order to provide broad guidelines for practitioners and reviewers. These guidelines focus on how best to infuse cumulative effects philosophy and methodology into the current SEA process. It is envisaged that this methodology will enhance the current SEA process, in order to ensure that environmental issues are placed on the same level as economic and social considerations in future decision making, to achieve sustainable development.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Geen opsomming beskikbaar.

Accurate urban water demand forecasting plays a key role in the planning and design of municipal water supply infrastructure. The reliable prediction of water demand is challenging for water companies, specifically when considering the implications of climate change (Zubaidi et al., 2018). Several studies have documented that weather variables drive water consumption in the short-term, and it enhances the accuracy of the prediction model when it is combined with socio-economic factors. However, the impact of climate change on the municipal water demand has yet to be challenged. To surmount this challenge, more research work is needed to accurately estimate the required quantity of water with increasing water demands. Recently, Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) have been found to be an innovative approach to predict water demand. This PhD study aims to develop a novel methodology to forecast the impact of climate change on municipal water demands for a long-term time series based on the baseline period 1980-2010. It should be highlighted that, based on our knowledge, this is the first study of substantial duration, based on data collected from 1980-2010, which focuses on the associations between monthly climate change and municipal water consumption. A new approach is therefore proposed to quantifying municipal water demands through the assessment of climatic factors, using a combination of a Singular Spectrum Analysis (SSA) technique, three hybrid computational intelligence algorithms and an ANN model. These hybrid algorithms include a Lightning Search Algorithm (LSA-ANN), a Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA-ANN) and Particle Swarm Optimisation (PSO-ANN). The SSA technique is adopted to decompose the time series of water consumption and climate variables to detect the stochastic signal for each time series. In the same context, the hybrid algorithms are used to find the best value of learning rate coefficient and the number of neurons in both hidden layers of the ANN model. Based on the performance of each hybrid algorithm, the most accurate and reliable water demand forecast model will be selected and used for estimating future water consumption. The considered environments of this study are applied in Australia and the United States from America for mitigating the uncertainty associated with the geographic location (the data of the United States of America was used to support the reliability of developing the municipal water demands prediction model). Furthermore, the Long Ashton Research Station Weather Generator (LARS-WG) model is utilised to simulate future climate factors over three periods (2011-2030, 2046-2065 and 2080-2099) based on the B1, A1B and A2 emission scenarios and seven General Circulation Models (GCMs). The future projection of these climate factors is applied directly to the impact model of water consumption to obtain the projected municipal water demand for different future periods and different greenhouse emission scenarios. The principal findings of this research are the following: from the model perspective, 1) the SSA is a powerful technique when used to remove the effect of socio-economic factors and noise, and detect the stochastic signal time series for water consumption. 2) The ANN model has better performance in term of optimising the correlation between observed and predicted water consumption when using the (LSA-ANN) algorithm. 3) The evaluation of the ANN model (using a validation data set) for Melbourne and Columbia Cities gives a correlation coefficient of 0.96 and 0.95, and the root mean square errors are 0.025 and 0.016 respectively. These findings indicate the capability of the proposed model to predict water demands with high accuracy in different continents. 4) The high performance of LARS-WG model results are found to be appropriate for the simulation of future climate variables. 5) The harmonisation between future monthly water demand (for the periods 2011-2030, 2046-2065 and 2080-2099) and stochastic signals of climate variables, relative to baseline period 1980-2010, emphasises the reliability of the present methodology. However, from the water demand perspective, the water percentage demand (WPD) are likely to rise in winter, drop in summer and fluctuate in both spring and autumn seasons for all periods and under all greenhouse emission scenarios. The results of WPD distribute between -3.5% and 3% for all periods and emission scenarios. The A2 scenario shows the highest and lowest values of WPDs compared to the A1B and B1 scenarios, in particular, in the 3rd period. The mean of seasonal WPD values shows that there is no dominant scenario as the best or the worst case of water demand over all future periods. The highest amount of seasonal demand happens in winter (A2 scenario, 3rd period), and the lowest amount of seasonal demand occurs in autumn (A1B scenario, 3rd period). In conclusion, this study facilitates the conception of the impact of climate change on municipal water demand from the baseline period 1980-2010.

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) has the potential to improve strategic planning. However, meeting this expectation is a major challenge since SEA practice still constraints itself to assess the impacts of strategic planning initiatives. To advance the role of SEA beyond impact assessment, it has been argued that SEA needs to adapt to strategic planning contexts. Yet, there is a lack of consensus on how SEA should adapt to strategic planning contexts as these are complex, vary considerably and carry high levels of uncertainty. Against this background, the aim of this thesis is to contribute to the development of SEA by creating knowledge on ways in which it can be contextualized to different strategic planning situations. Three case studies addressing different values and strategic planning contexts were designed from which experiences on SEA conceptualization were drawn. The results show that developing strategic focused SEA frameworks that enhance dialogue, collaboration and knowledge generation on multiple values can address issues such as: the lack of data and objectives in developing planning contexts; gaps in knowledge and uncertainty associated to environmental monitoring in transboundary contexts; and the recognition of the importance of ecosystem services and their needed green qualities in urbanizing contexts. Based on the gained case study experiences, it is argued that SEA contextualization can mean addressing strategic planning intentions, identifying and engaging actors, deriving and prioritizing key values, collaborating to generate knowledge on key issues, and using this knowledge to shape strategic planning. Due to the complexity of the issues involved, contextualizing SEA is considered to be challenging to achieve and requires time and resources. However, based on the SEA case studies, it can be argued that the value added to strategic planning outweighs these requirements. Continuing to study the practice of context adaptable, strategic focused and participatory based SEA processes may contribute to advance SEA’s role beyond impact assessment and enable reaching its expected potentials.

QC 20150525

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has a prominent position in the ongoing search for instruments that can help governments and other organisations to pursue the complex goal of sustainable development. Academic literature and practitioners have devoted increasing attention to this instrument since the late 1980s, and the mid- 1990s have witnessed a surge in legislation and methodological guidance throughout both developed and developing countries. However, the theoretical basis of this instrument remains weak and this thesis contends that the actual reason for its existence (raison d'être) of SEA is inadequately conceptualised. The first stage of the research critically reviews the theory and practice of SEA, identifying tensions, weaknesses and promising trends in the concepts underlying its three dimensions: strategic, environmental and assessment. These show that the idea that there is something 'strategic', whose environmental effects should be assessed - is misleading, as well as simplistic, thus supporting the call for a re-conceptualisation of SEA. The meaning of two common claims (that SEA is to contribute to sustainable development and to the improvement of policy-making processes) in academic and policy literatures is explored in detail. Combining environmental assessment literature with work related to the knowledge perspective of policy-making, policy learning and policy analysis, the thesis then develops a series of propositions for a new interpretation of SEA's raison d'être. These relate to four themes: context, object, purpose and assessment. The second stage seeks to deepen the understanding of the trends and propositions identified, and to verify their relevance in a developing context. Using a range of methods, from interviews to seminars, a case study of Chile - a middle-income country - investigates the interpretation of the purpose and role of SEA according to a range of stakeholders, and in more detail within the Ministry of Public Works. This leads to the proposition, and testing, of a framework that emphasises the need to interpret and operationalise SEA at the level of organisations (such as ministries or multi-lateral development agencies), not of economic sectors alone. It centres on the interactions of the context, the nature of strategic objects, the framing of 'environmental', the purpose of SEA, and the assessment's approach and tools. The most important conclusion is that SEA can only facilitate more environmentally sustainable forms of development, if conventional wisdom about its raison d'être is questioned. This thesis rejects the rhetorical claims in normative interpretations of SEA which identify strategic initiatives, and particularly policies, plans or programmes, as the defining feature of SEA, and the main meaning of its 'strategic' dimension. It proposes that the context, and in particular organisations, should be the focus of a new conception of SEA which seeks to institutionalise rational and argumentative learning as a means to promote environmentally sustainable policy-making. These findings therefore contribute to both the theory and practice of SEA.

Urbanisation and infrastructure developments impact on the surrounding natural environment and threaten biodiversity. The fragmentation of natural habitats in particular is a major obstacle for the preservation of biodiversity in a long-term perspective. In the planning process, both the environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental assessment processes play a central role in the identification and prediction of impacts on biodiversity. At the same time, the devel-opment of GIS technologies and GIS-based ecological models offer new perspectives in the elaboration of predictions. In order to analyse current practices and identify the need for im-provements in the environmental impact process, a review of environmental impact assessment reports was carried out. Further, a review of existing GIS methods and GIS-based ecological models is presented. The results of the review of environmental impact assessment reports show a lack of predictions in current biodiversity assessments. These asssessments often concentrate on impacts at the local scale, failing to consider large-scale and widespread impacts at the ecosys-tem and landscape levels. The review of GIS methods and GIS-based ecological models demon-strate the possibility to generate quantitative predictions for a specific area as well as for it’s sur-rounding environment. At the same time, the flexibility and reproducibility of such methods would allow predictions to be made for different alternatives or scenarios, therefore providing decision makers with relevant information of potential impacts on biodiversity. This would, in turn, result in an improved integration of biodiversity issues in physical planning and contribute to a sustainable development.

This study attempts to emphasize on the need for Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) implementations for Turkey, particularly for strategic level planning activities. 1/25.000 scaled Territorial Plans are subject to be strategic level plans in Turkey since there are no regional plans developed in Turkey. Although these plans should carry the role of strategic decisions for the sector development of regions, they do not provide sufficient output for development for many reasons today. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the role of Strategic Environmental Assessment in integrating environment into strategic decision making -particularly for 1/25.000 territories plans- and propose a prototype SEA approach for Turkey. An integrated structure of SEA and planning activities might provide healthier implementations for Territory plans and SEA might be used as an enhancement toll for our current planning system with its transparent, participatory, coordinating and auditing nature.

Contributing to sustainable development is commonly noted as an overall goal for both Sustainability Appraisal (SA) and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). Over a decade ago, EU Directive 2001/42/EC (SEA Directive) reinforced the need for strategic assessment of plans and programmes in the UK. However, the SEA Directive does not stipulate the methodological approach and, as environmental matters are devolved to the individual nations of the UK, implementation is varied. This research considers strategic assessment processes in England and Scotland and the implications of system variation upon the contribution made to sustainable development. Attention is paid to the purposes expressed for strategic assessment, the roles and relationships between actors and organisations involved and also the processes, practices and outcomes of SA and SEA. Two case studies of SA in England and two of SEA in Scotland as applied to development plans are analysed. A range of purposes for both SA and SEA are identified, including; regulatory compliance, identifying and documenting impacts, considering options and alternatives, allowing consultation, and informing and influencing plans. This research concludes that there exists variation between cases in the ambition held for strategic assessment, ranging from basic compliance to influencing plans. This research then focuses on the relationships between actors and organisations involved in SA and SEA with particular attention given to the role of assessment practitioners, planners and consultees. It is found that independence or ‘distance’, to provide legitimacy, and ‘closeness’, to enable influence, are both considered desirable features of the relationship between planning and assessment. In addition, overlap between consultation on both plans and assessment reports adds complexity to the role of consultees. Finally, this research concludes that strategic assessment influence is largely limited to marginal modifications to policy wording and explanatory text, including; strengthening language, increasing clarity, cross referencing to other policies and plans, and requiring lower tier assessments. Thus, strategic assessment fails to achieve more substantial influence, significantly limiting its ability to contribute to sustainability transition in development planning. A number of institutional barriers to increasing strategic assessment influence and contribution to sustainable development or sustainability are identified.

The Swedish Act on Municipal Energy Planning was written in 1977 in a time of energy crisis and requires each municipality to have a plan for rational supply and distribution of energy. With regards to the on-going climate change however, there is a need for energy planning to emphasise on shifting towards an efficient energy system with high share of renewables, and low impacts on the climate and the environment. The legislation is therefore argued to be outdated and is currently under review. This study shows that most municipalities are working with the energy issue, as 71% have adopted a policy document with focus on energy and climate. However, 41% has not adopted an energy plan as referred to in the Act on municipal energy planning. The results show that the energy strategies have a wider focus than what is stated in the legislation, which strengthens the view that the legislation can be regarded as outdated. Energy Strategies however still have an important function at the municipal level, as they can help to integrate energy aspects into spatial planning, as well as function as support for the daily energy and climate work in the choice of strategies and measures. The study further shows that the use of Strategic Environmental Assessment has potential to increase the consideration of environmental quality objectives, especially those that might be impacted from the energy plans, but the use of it has been fairly limited and only conducted in 6% of the energy plans. It is therefore recommended that the Act on Municipal Energy Planning is revised to instead include requirements for municipal energy and climate strategies, and that they are made subject to Strategic Environmental Assessment, thus promoting a transition to a sustainable energy system, where environmental objectives are taken into account and possible conflicts can be addressed early in the planning process.
Med beaktande av klimatförändringarna finns ett stort behov av att energiplaneringen har ett holistiskt och strategiskt förhållningssätt med hänsyn till klimat- och miljöpåverkan. Kommunerna har en viktig roll i utformandet av den hållbara staden på grund av sitt planmonopol, och ska även enligt lag ha en aktuell energiplan. Lagen om kommunal energiplanering skrevs dock vid en tid av energikris och fokuserar mer på tillgång och distribution av energi än ett hållbart energisystem. Kommunala energiplaner omfattas även av det så kallade SMB-direktivet och som huvudregel ska en strategisk miljöbedömning göras för samtliga energiplaner. Det övergripande syftet med denna studie är att undersöka nuvarande praxis för kommunal energiplanering, genom att kartlägga kommunernas energistrategier antagna under åren 2004-2015. Vidare studeras ifall strategisk miljöbedömning ökar hänsyn till nationella miljökvalitetsmål relaterade till energi och om kommunal energiplanering har influerat översiktsplaner genom mål och strategier. Kartläggningen visar att de flesta kommunerna arbetar med energifrågan, då 71 % har antagit någon form av policy-dokument med fokus på energi och klimat inom tidsintervallet. En tämligen stor andel (41 %) har dock inte antagit en energiplan såsom lagen åsyftar. Intervjustudien stärker även bilden att kommunerna har ett vidare fokus än vad som anges i lagen om kommunal energiplanering, och att lagen därmed är utdaterad. Energistrategierna fyller dock viktiga funktioner på den kommunala nivån, dels för att de kan bidra till att integrera energiaspekter i fysisk planering, men även som stöd i det dagliga energi- och klimatarbetet vid val av strategier och åtgärder. Strategisk miljöbedömning har gjorts i ganska begränsad omfattning, för cirka 6 % av energiplanerna. Resultat från intervjuer pekar på att de inte har ökat hänsyn av miljökvalitetsmålen i någon större utsträckning, men däremot fungerat som en försäkran för att de beaktades. De kvantitativa resultaten pekar dock på att för miljökvalitetsmål som inte har en så tydlig koppling till energi och klimat, men där negativa miljökonsekvenser likväl kan uppstå, så ökar strategisk miljöbedömning att dessa tas i beaktande. Det är därför rekommenderat att lagen om kommunal energiplanering revideras till att istället omfatta krav på kommunala energi- och klimatstrategier, och att strategisk miljöbedömning görs för dessa. På så vis främjas en omställning till ett hållbart energisystem, där miljökvalitetsmålen beaktas och eventuella målkonflikter kan behandlas tidigt i planeringsprocessen.

To achieve a sustainable development, impacts onbiodiversity of urbanisation, infrastructure, land use changesand other developments must be considered on a landscape andregional scale. Landscape ecology can provide a conceptualframework for the assessment of consequences of long-termdevelopment processes like urbanisation on biodiversity on alandscape scale, and for evaluating the impacts of alternativeplanning scenarios. The aim of this study was to explore theeffects of habitat quality, quantity and connectivity on forestbird diversity in an urban-rural gradient. The purpose of theanalyses was to develop knowledge and methods for integratingbiodiversity issues in planning and assessments in anurbanising environment, on landscape and regional scales.

The study area was situated in and around Stockholm, thecapital of Sweden, covering the city centre, suburbs andperi-urban areas. Data on breeding forest birds were collectedthrough bird censuses in an urban-suburban gradient. In orderto embrace also the peri-urban areas for a more completeurban-rural gradient, data on two fragmentation-sensitiveforest grouse species were obtained through a questionnaire tohunters in the whole study area. Response variables in theanalyses were forest bird species richness and diversity,relative species richness and occurrence of single sensitivespecies like selected sedentary forest birds, including theforest grouse species, and red list species. Habitat quality,quantity and connectivity were analysed using available data onabiotic conditions, including urban disturbances, andvegetation in geographical information systems. In addition, afield study on vegetation structure and composition wasperformed in a subset of the smaller sample sites.Relationships between the response variables and habitatquality, quantity and connectivity were explored usingstatistical methods like multivariate statistics and regressionmodelling. Further, for some models, spatial dependencies werequantified and accounted for. When habitat models wereretrieved, they were used for spatial predictions of habitatsuitability. They were also applied on future planningscenarios in order to predict and assess the impacts onsensitive species. In the urban-rural gradient, the foreststructure and composition changed, so that in more urban areas,coniferous forest on rich soils, wet forests and wetlandsbecame less abundant and more scattered. Sensitive birdspecies, tied to these habitat types, were shown to besensitive to habitat fragmentation caused by urbanisation.Large, well-connected habitat patches and aggregations ofsuitable habitat in the landscape had a higher probability ofoccupancy when compared to other patches. For the forest grousespecies, effects of car traffic added to the explanation oftheir distribution. By contrast, deciduous forest was stillquite common in predominantly urban areas, due to both latechanges in land use and a history of human preferences. Certainred listed bird species tied to deciduous forest did not seemto be affected by isolation, and also occurred in suitablehabitats in some highly urbanised areas. Furthermore, relativespecies richness in the urban-suburban gradient was related tomulti-layered deciduous forest habitats with a large amount ofdead wood. Such habitats were associated with natural shorelineand with old pastures and parks. From the derived statisticalmodels, describing the relationships between sensitive speciesand environmental variables, predictive habitat maps could becreated for the present situation and for planning scenarios.The predictions of the impacts on habitats of sensitive speciesmade it possible to quantify, integrate and visualise theeffects of urbanisation scenarios on aspects of biodiversity ona landscape scale.

Formal processes for environmental assessment (EA) have been established throughout the world. In Western Australia (WA) informal strategic advice, which sits outside of the formal or legally binding project based environmental impact assessment process required for significant development proposals, has been in use for nearly two decades. Such advice, prepared by the Environmental Protection Authority under s16 of the Environmental Protection Act 1986, is an early form of EA intended to inform the pre-project stages of development. No previous studies have investigated this informal strategic advice in WA. Through literature review, interviews with EA practitioners and two case studies, this research investigated the value and influence of informal non-binding strategic advice for EA in WA. While the international literature gives a limited account of the potential value and influence of informal approaches to EA, the main results were obtained from interviews with 29 practitioners who have been involved in the formulation or use of this advice in WA. The majority of those interviewed believe strategic advice is of value with respect to providing upfront early advice, greater certainty and clarity on what is acceptable (including direction and guidance to both proponents and regulatory authorities). However a number of limitations in its use were also identified including the cost, time and resources it requires in providing advice, its currency and shelf life, uptake and issues with implementation of recommendations which are not enforceable. Provision of clear objectives, as well as improvements in the timing and relevance of advice and making more use of advice (as a guide for developers) were identified as positive ways forward. The case studies revealed similar results with the more focused advice for a specific project or environmental issue in the early stages being held to be more favourable. Overall the results recognise the value of informal strategic advice as a means to complement formal EA and as a useful tool to assist with making better informed decisions earlier in the assessment process.

IntroductionLao People Democratic Republic (Lao PDR / Laos) has a population of 5.8 million people and is today one of the least developed countries in Asia. That Luang Marsh (TLM) is the largest remaining urban wetland (2000 hectare) in Vientiane Capital, which historically has supplied wildlife and local people with several eco-services. Some important functions are wastewater treatment, flood control (water storage), and several agricultural and aquacultural services. Due to the flat landscape and the low permeability in soil, the area becomes naturally flooded during the wet season when the water level in the Mekong River is high. All storm water in Vientiane is drained through TLM. There have been several projects in Vientiane aimed to solve the drainage and sanitarian situation. However, the problems have still not been completely solved today. Aim and objectives This Master of Science thesis aims at providing a prestudy for a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), which may be used for creating a full-scale SEA in the future. The main objectives that will be analyzed are: Wastewater treatment in Vientiane. The environmental impact caused by human activity and how it can be reduced in TLM / Vientiane / Mekong River. Sustainable development in Vientiane. The need of SEA in TLM. Flood control in Vientiane. • Agriculture and aquaculture in Vientiane. The WATER Project and New Town Development Project. Socioeconomic overview of Laos / Vientiane. Methodology This thesis is a collaboration between the Swedish university KTH and the Thai university AIT. The student (author of this report) was linked to Dr. Shipin, co-advisor at AIT through Dr. Frostell, supervisor at KTH, and Dr. Berg. A field study was made from October 2008 - December 2008 in Vientiane Capital, Laos. The student has collected information from NGOs, institutions, departments, laboratories, libraries, local people, and Internet in the form of hardcopy literature, electronic documents, e-mail contacts, and interviews. During two days the student had the favour to join a team sent out by WWF for collecting water samples around the marsh. The team consisted of representatives from WWF and the three districts that surround That Luang Marsh. Strategic Environmental Assessment The main purpose of a SEA is to support sustainable decision-making processes in an area. Except from environmental aspects, the SEA also considers socioeconomical aspects. SEAs may differ in terminology and practice between countries and organisations but do usually include stages like preliminary scan, conduction of SEA, preparation of the report, implementation of SEA in PPP (policy, plans, or programmes), and review of the implementation. This report gives a short briefing about how SEAs are produced by CIDA (Canadian International Development Agency) and according to the European Directive. The European Directive is the standard SEA for several European countries. The report does also present the project oriented EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment) Wetland valuation Wetlands may be valuated in different ways. This report explains one method where the valuation is separated into: DUV (Direct Use Value), IUV (Indirect Use Value), OV (Option Value), and NUV (Non Use Value). These are added to TEV (Total Economical Value). WATER Project The WATER project is a response to the environmental and socioeconomical problems that have occurred in Vientiane. Several past projects have been less successful, which have resulted in adverse impact on the society and the ecosystem. The WATER project tries to highlight the wetland values and convince authorities to use CWs (Constructed Wetlands) instead of conventional wastewater treatment plants for treating wastewater. This project will first do five pilot studies in Vientiane. Three will be used for treating domestic wastewater and two for industrial. The project is a part of the Wetland Alliance Programme. Main partners during the project are the government of Lao PDR, WWF Laos, WWF Germany, Wild Fowl & Wetland Trust (WWT). Other involved partners are CORIN, AIT, WFC, CIDA, and Sida. It seems that the authorities will allocate 22 hectares for constructing a CW that will purify Vientiane’s most polluted urban water canal Hong Ke. The WATER Project recommends that even Hong Xeng is included which totally requires 61 hectare CW area. New Town Development Project The New Town Development is a collaboration between the Lao and Chinese government. The plan is to develop the city so it attracts more foreign and domestic investors. 1000 hectares low valued land will be developed for business and 200 hectare will be used for creating an artificial lake aimed for compensating lost wetland area. As a part of the negotiations, the Chinese has already constructed a stadium that was used during the SEA Games 2009. 670 hectare will be developed in TLM, 100 hectare in Dongphosy Forest, and 430 hectare close to the new stadium. The Chinese investors will lease the developed land for 50 years. This may be used for business. When the project period is over, the Lao government have the right to reclaim all developed land without compensation. The Chinese Suzhou City stands as model for the development project in Vientiane. The estimated cost of the project is USD 800-1000 million. Discussion and conclusions Choosing SEA, CEA (Cumulative Effect Assessment), or another strategic assessment method should not be the main issue. As long as the method contributes to a strategic sustainable development and is internationally accepted it may be used for PPPs. The main issue of SEA is not to create a report, but convincing authorities about the importance of sustainable decision-making processes. Factors that may inhibit a sustainable development in Laos are low education, corruption, and greedy investors that devastate the environment for own profit. The laws are in several cases enough but due to the lack of a judicial organization and economical funding the legislative system becomes inefficient. It is difficult to valuate wetlands. The greatest challenge is to valuate OVs and NUVs. OVs are difficult because they are just options. NUVs are based on a subjective estimation because these consider cultural and aesthetical values. A problem with the New Town Development Project is that some vulnerable groups that live in TLM will be forced to live in a resettlement area. These people may have difficulties to adapt to the new environment. It is important that the authorities work extra hard with helping project affected people. Wetland degradation is probably a result of i) intense water pollution (wastewater from households and industries), ii) physical destruction (housing, filling, and artificial drainage), iii) overuse of wetland VI resources, iv) invasions or invitations of new species (golden apple snail). In theory, wetlands may be replaced with modern technology for protecting the city against flooding. One way is to build a cement layer in Houay Mak Hiao River for increasing the drainage capacity. However, because the country has very small economical margins and the hydrological situation is not completely investigated, this could be treated as a risk project. Another problem is that the wastewater capacity will reduce and the biodiversity in the river will be lost. The loss of wastewater treatment needs to be compensated with modern technology. Something needs to be done for increasing the sanitarian situation in Vientiane. This report has compared the benefits of using conventional wastewater treatment plants and CWs. Probably the most reasonable solution is to use a CW for treating the wastewater in Hong Ke while the new centre in TLM uses a conventional wastewater treatment plant. This is an optimal solution because a conventional wastewater treatment plant for treating the water in Hong Ke would require a completely new sewage system, which could become very expensive. Maintaining a conventional wastewater treatment plant is also expensive and requires special trained staff. An easier alternative would be to use CWs for the old part of Vientiane. Because the new centre will be built in a modern style with new infrastructure this part of Vientiane could treat wastewater conventionally. Building a conventional wastewater treatment plant would also save some high-valuated land. Conventional Wastewater TreatmentAdvancedStandardizedQuick turnover timeRequire small spaceCould be more sanitarianProcesses better evaluated Constructed WetlandLong lifetimeEffective in warm climatesNo chemical inputEasy to maintainLow sludge productionAestheticalLess need to change infrastructureLow running cost (flat topography) The author will not decide if Vientiane should develop into a top modern city or remain as a small sized capital as it is today. However, today the situation is unsustainable and something needs to be done. Better organization and planning is necessary for not repeating mistakes that were made during past projects. All decisions have to be based on a non-corruptive process and sustainable thinking. Integrating an environmental and socioeconomical strategy into the future of Vientiane should be of interest for all Laotians. Vientiane is the economical centre of Laos and an increased discharge of polluted water into the Mekong would increase the stress of the important river. A collapse of the biodiversity in the Mekong would strike hard on Laos’ fishing industry and economy. Decisions made today will surely more or less affect people at local, regional, national, and international level in the future.
Inledning Mänsklig aktivitet har på vissa håll resulterat i en allvarlig miljöpåverkan. Laos har en befolkningsmängd på 5,8 miljoner invånare och räknas idag som ett av Asiens minst utvecklade länder. That Luang Marsh (TLM) är huvudstaden Vientianes största urbana våtmarksområde (2000 hektar). Våtmarksområdet bjuder på flertalet ekologiska tjänster som under historiens lopp gynnat både människor och djur. Några av dessa är naturlig vattenrening och översvämningsskydd (vattenlager). Våtmarken bidrar till ett rikt jordbruk och akvakultur. Under regnperioden stiger vattennivån i Mekongfloden så att området naturligt svämmas över. Dräneringen av Vientiane försvåras eftersom landskapet är platt och permeabiliteten i jorden är låg. Huvudsakligen flödar vattnet ut via TLM och floden Houay Mak Hiao innan det når Mekongfloden. Flertalet projekt har försökt effektivisera Vientianes dräneringseffektivitet och minska de sanitära problemen. Dock finns det en hel del kvar att göra. Syften och mål Detta examensarbete är en förstudie till en Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). Förstudien skulle kunna utnyttjas till uppbyggandet av en komplett SEA. Huvudområden som undersöks i denna rapport är: Vattenreningen i Vientiane. Den mänskliga miljöpåverkan och hur denna kan lindras i TLM / Vientiane / Mekongfloden. Hållbar utveckling i Vientiane. Behovet av SEA i TLM. Översvämningsskydd i Vientiane. Jordbruk och akvakultur i Vientiane. Projekten WATER Project och New Town Development Project. En socioekonomisk översikt för Laos /Vientiane. Metod Projektet är ett samarbete mellan det svenska universitet KTH och det thailändska universitet AIT. Författaren till denna rapport, Fredrik Olsson är mastersstudent på KTH och har genomfört och utvecklat projektet tillsammans med handledaren Dr. Frostell, KTH och bihandledaren Dr. Shipin, AIT. Även Dr. Berg har haft en viktig roll i utvecklandet och det praktiska genomförandet av projektet. Oktober 2008 – december 2008 genomfördes fältstudier i Vientiane, Laos. Fakta till rapporten inhämtades främst från NGOs (Non- Governmental Organizations), institutioner, laboratorier, bibliotek, lokalbefolkning och internet. Detta skedde i form av tryckta papper/avhandlingar, elektroniska dokument, e-mail kontakter samt intervjuer. Under två dagar genomfördes fältstudier i TLM i samarbete med WWF. Syftet var att mäta vattenkvaliteten i våtmarken på ett antal förutbestämda platser. Gruppen bestod av en representant från WWF samt representanter från de tre distrikt som delar TLM. Strategic Environmental Assessment (Strategisk Miljöbedömning) Syftet med en SEA är att skapa hållbarhet i myndigheters beslutsprocesser. SEA integrerar både miljö och socioekonomiska aspekter i samma studie där målet är att sträva mot en hållbar utveckling. Olika SEA kan skilja sig i utformningen beroende på vilken handledning som används. Dock är dessa skillnader små och inträffar oftast i form av annorlunda terminologi och utförande. Normalt ingår moment som preliminär undersökning, genomförande av SEA, förberedelse av rapport, implementering av SEA i PPP (Policy, Plan och Program) samt utvärdering av implementeringen. Den här rapporten redovisar ytligt hur VIII en SEA genomförs enligt CIDA-modellen (Canadian International Development Agency) och enligt Europeiska Direktivet. Den senare handledningen används som standard i flertalet europeiska länder. Denna rapport kommer även att redovisa grunderna i EIA (Environmental Impact Assessment). Värdering av våtmarker Det finns ett antal olika sätt att värdera våtmarker. Ett sätt som redovisas i rapporten är att separera värderingsområdena till DUV (Direct Use Value), IUV (Indirect Use Value), OV (Option Value), och NUV (Non Use Value). Dessa summeras sedan till TEV (Total Economic Value). DUV beskriver de direkt synliga värdena av att bevara en våtmark, IUV de värden som är indirekta, OV de värden som kan vara möjliga i framtiden, NUV de värden som inte kan bedömas ur ett ekonomiskt och TEV våtmarkens sammanlagda värde. WATER Project Detta projekt är ett svar på de sanitära och ekologiska problemen som förekommer i Vientiane. Flertalet projekt har varit mindre framgångsrika vilket påverkat både samhället och ekosystemet negativt. För att råda bot på de sanitära problemen pågår för närvarande ett försök att informera myndigheterna om fördelarna med att bygga konstruerade våtmarker. Dessa skulle kunna vara ett alternativ till konventionella reningsverk. För att bevisa våtmarkernas effektivitet planeras nu byggandet av fem pilotanläggningar i Vientiane. Tre kommer användas för att rena kommunalt avloppsvatten medan två är avsedda för industriellt bruk. Projektet är en del av Wetland Alliance Programme. Samarbetspartners för WATER Project är laotiska staten, WWF Laos, WWF Tyskland och Wild Fowl & Wetland Trust (WWT), CORIN, AIT, WFC, CIDA och Sida. Indikationer tyder på att konstruerade våtmarker (22 hektar) kommer att byggas för rening av vattnet i dräneringskanalen Hong Ke. Detta är Vientianes mest förorenade kanal. Dock önskar WATER Project att totalt 61 hektar avsätts så att även kanalen Hong Xeng kan renas. New Town Development Project Projektet är ett samarbete mellan den laotiska och kinesiska staten. Planen är att ett omfattande utvecklingsprojekt ska locka flera utländska och inhemska investerare till Vientiane. Totalt kommer 1000 hektar lågt värderad mark att kommersialiseras. Ytterligare 200 hektar kommer att användas till byggandet av en konstgjord sjö som kompenserar för förlorad våtmarksyta. Kineserna har i gengäld lovat att bygga en sportarena för SEA Games 2009. 670 hektar kommer exploateras i TLM, 430 hektar i närheten av den nya sportarenan och 100 hektar i Dongphosy skogen. Kinesiska investerare kommer att arrendera marken under 50 år. Under denna period kan investerarna fritt göra affärer och har rätt att sälja marken till vem de vill. När 50 år har passerat har den laotiska staten rätt att ta tillbaka den arrenderade marken utan kompensation. Som modell för utvecklingsprojektet står kinesiska Suzhou City. Projektet beräknas kosta 800-1000 miljoner amerikanska dollar. Diskussion och slutsats Det spelar ingen större roll vilken metod som används för att nå en hållbar utveckling om den har någon form av internationell acceptans, är strategisk och tar hänsyn till att integrera både miljö och socioekonomiska frågor i samma studie. SEA och CEA (Cumulative Effect Assessment) är endast några alternativ. Målet med en SEA är först och främst inte avsedd för att skapa en rapport utan snarare hållbarhet i beslutsprocesser på PPP-nivå. Faktorer som motverkar hållbar utveckling i Laos är bland annat korruption, dålig utbildning och giriga investerare som maximerar sina ekonomiska vinster på miljön och samhällets bekostnad. Det är svårt att värdera OV eftersom denna parameter endast tar hänsyn till möjliga framtida värden. Samtidigt är NUV näst intill omöjligt att värdera eftersom denna parameter värderar kulturella och etiska värden. Värderingen av NUV blir då en subjektiv bedömning. Under New Town Development Project kommer flertalet människor i TLM tvingas flytta till en mer urban miljö. Dessa grupper är ofta speciellt sårbara eftersom de har bristfällig kunskap om urbana arbeten. Det är extra viktigt att myndigheterna följer upp dessa människor så att deras lidande minimeras. Förstörelsen av våtmarker beror troligtvis på i) stor tillförsel av vattenföroreningar (kommunalt och industriellt avloppsvatten), ii) fysisk destruktion (husbyggen, utfyllnad och konstgjorda dräneringssystem), iii) överutnyttjande av våtmarksresurser samt iv) invasioner och införanden av främmande arter som till exempel ”golden apple snail”. Teoretiskt skulle det vara möjligt att ersätta våtmarker med moderna tekniska lösningar för att undvika översvämningar. En lösning skulle vara att floden Houay Mak Hiao beläggs med ett cementlager för att öka vattenflödet ut från Vientiane. Dock har landet mycket svårt att finansiera denna typ av projekt och efterkommande underhåll på grund av små ekonomiska marginaler i statens budget. Det är heller inte helt kartlagt hur hydrologin i området fungerar. Ett annat problem med denna typ av lösning är att Houay Mak Hiaos vattenreningskapacitet och biodiversitet går förlorad. Om projektet genomförs måste vattenrening ske på annat sätt. Den här rapporten har försökt jämföra fördelarna med att använda konstruerade våtmarker (CW) istället för traditionella vattenreningstekniker. Att använda CW för att rena vattenmassorna i Hong Ke (avloppsvatten från gamla Vientiane) är nog det enklaste och billigaste alternativet medan den nya stadsdelen i mitten av TLM skulle kunna utrustas med ett konventionellt reningsverk. Detta eftersom de utländska stadsutvecklarna antagligen kommer ha tillräckligt med medel och kunskap för att stödja modern vattenreningsteknik som rymmer inom New Town Development Project. Infrastrukturen för att använda konventionella reningsverk är inte tillräckligt utvecklad i resterande Vientiane så att bygga ett konventionellt reningsverk i dessa delar av staden kan bli kostsamt. Dock blir situationen en annan i den nya stadsdelen eftersom denna byggs upp från grunden. Eftersom marken beräknas få ett avsevärt högre marknadsvärde kommer antagligen modern reningsteknik spara en del yta. Fördelar med konventionella reningstekniker är att dessa allmänt är mer avancerade, standardiserade, har en snabb omsättningstid på avloppsvattnet, är mindre platskrävande och processerna i dessa verk är bättre kartlagda. Däremot kan CWanläggningar användas under en längre tidsperiod, de har en hög effektivitet i varma klimat, har låg slamproduktion, kräver mycket små tillsatser av kemikalier, är enkla att underhålla, är mer estetiska, kräver enklare infrastruktur och har en låg driftskostnad. Författaren till denna rapport kan inte avgöra om det bästa för staden är att utvecklas till ett modernt urbant komplex. Dock är den nuvarande situationen ohållbar och därför bör någon form av åtgärder vidtas. Om organisationen och planering inom och mellan projekt förbättras minskar risken för misslyckade projekt. Det är viktigt att alla beslut som fattas grundas på ett korruptionsfritt hållbarhetstänkande. Om Vientiane strävar mot att ta ett större ansvar för miljö och socioekonomi så kommer landet som helhet att gynnas, eftersom huvudstaden är motorn i Laos ekonomi. Ett ökat okontrollerat utsläpp av vattenföroreningar från Vientiane kommer att öka belastningen på Mekongfloden. En biodiversitetskollaps i Mekongfloden skulle få allvarliga konsekvenser för landets fiske och ekonomi. De beslut som fattas idag kommer i framtiden att mer eller mindre påverka människor på ett lokalt, regionalt, nationellt och internationellt plan.

Traditional theories, models, and methods often address a general view of the environment including sociocultural, technological, political, and economic factors. However, there is a lack in infrastructural attention in these concepts which this thesis intends to contribute with by analyzing how regional specific infrastructural variables can be aggregated to one comparative measure and what that measure’s scope of use could be in the market analysis? Hence, the purpose of this thesis is to contribute to the strategic planning process research with a supporting quantitative tool, based on statistical metrics, for determining the market potential.

This thesis has an inductive approach and is primary based on documentary secondary data and the strategic planning process is the main theory of concern when evaluating the possibilities of infrastructural assessment. As a complement, the infrastructural concerns in the economics are also dealt with.

The empirics are compiled and calculated in a manner which allows an indexing and the finalized result is presented as an Infrastructural Status Index (InfraStat Index). Some of the utilities of this index are that it can be a complementary part of the PEST- and SWOT-models and a supporting tool in companies’ strategic planning processes. The index has both business and macroeconomic scopes of use and one of the summarizing conclusions is that further research within this concept should incorporate more variables in order to retrieve a more comprehensive result.

Environmental assessments and authorisations surrounding project level developments are often made in isolation, without consideration of the regional or strategic context within which individual developments are done. This research investigates the quality of Environmental Management Frameworks (EMF) as strategic environmental instrument. EMF is a unique South African instrument that was first conceptualised in 1989, enacted in 2006 and updated in 2010. EMFs were developed to map environmental sensitivity to aid the screening out of undesired developments in sensitive environments and to minimise unnecessary project level assessments in preferred development areas. EMFs form an important link between environmental assessment (EA) processes and planning strategies such as Spatial Development Frameworks (SDFs) and Integrated Development Plans (IDPs), due to their spatial output of environmental sensitivity maps and their ability to feed strategic assessment processes required by SDFs. They have a legal mandate which ensures their assimilation and use. This research uses a multiple case study approach to review seven EMF documents for their quality. The quality aspects identified are the process, methodology and documentation components, using the printed EMF documentation as primary information source. Quality review criteria were subsequently developed to investigate these inputs, using the legal mandate of EMF as basis. Each case was rated for compliance with the quality criteria using a six–level rating schedule. Further analyses were made by comparing the performance of cases against one another. Public participation emerged as the weakest component of EMF practice, while aspects of sensitivity analysis also performed weaker than other aspects. More focus is required on aligning scales and resolutions of map inputs, mapping methods and general integration of spatial data, especially those of adjoining districts. The need to substantiate a rationale for buffer determination also requires further refinement. The practice of conducting EMF is well established and it can be valuable in sustainable development planning and decisionmaking. Recommendations to enhance the sustainability outcomes and hence effectiveness of this instrument are made, as well as future research objectives for increasing its utility.
Thesis (M. Environmental Management)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.