Tesis sobre el tema "Spiral bulges"

A major aim of current astrophysical research is the development of models of galaxy formation that are consistent with observational data. Until recently, the main tools of such research were broadband colours. However, the Lick system of indices has recently provided researchers with a more accurate tool for probing galaxy populations. The work in this thesis compares Lick indices in bright elliptical galaxies with those in the bulges of spiral galaxies, in an effort to compare, contrast and constrain their star formation histories. Long-slit spectroscopic observations of line-strengths and kinematics were carried out along the minor axes of 32 galaxies (ellipticals, SOs and spiral bulges). This study shows bulges to have central line-strengths comparable with those of single stellar populations of approximately solar metallicity or above. In bulges, central line-strengths are shown to lie close to, or within, the loci defining solar abundance ratio SSPs. The large number (24) of indices measured in this study, in conjunction with models of the effects of varying abundance ratios, permit the breaking of age/metallicity degeneracy and allow estimation of enhancements in specific light elements. Estimates of luminosity-weighted age, metallicity and abundance ratio show that, while early-type galaxies exhibit a large range of ages (2 to 13 Gyr), bulges are generally younger, and less enhanced in light elements. Trends involving age and metallicity also differ between early and late types. An anti-correlation is found between age and metallicity in early-type galaxies in the sample, while, in bulges, metallicity is correlated with velocity dispersion. Metallicity gradients are detected in all galaxies in the sample. Age gradients are also detected. No gradients are detected in abundance ratios. A "single zone with in-fall" model of galactic chemical evolution is used to constrain star formation histories of the galaxies observed. It is shown that monolithic collapse models can not reproduce the line-strengths observed in either early- or late-type galaxies. However, models including more extended star formation (e.g. mergers or secular evolution) can. The results of this work are, therefore, at odds with the received wisdom that bulges and elliptical galaxies are old and coeval, with indices in bulges more consistent with secular evolution models of formation, and those in early-type galaxies more consistent with merger models.

2006/2007
In this thesis I develop a chemical evolution model which takes advantage of the most recent high-quality abundance observations in the Galactic bulge to put constraints on its formation and evolution and to obtain a baseline model for bulges in general. I adopt updated massive star nucleosynthesis and follow the evolution of several alpha-elements and Fe by varying the evolutionary parameters. The [alpha/Fe] ratios in the bulge are correctly predicted to be supersolar for a wide range in [Fe/H], and the stellar metallicity distribution is reproduced assuming a short formation timescale, a high star formation efficiency and an initial mass function flatter than the disk. Metallicity-dependent oxygen yields with stellar mass loss are included in the chemical evolution models for the bulge and the solar neighbourhood. The agreement between predicted and observed [O/Mg] trends above solar metallicity is significantly improved; a normalisation problem probably indicates that the adopted semi-empirical yields need adjustment. The difference between [O/Fe] and the other [alpha/Fe] ratios in the bulge and solar neighbourhood is explained. I test the so-called universal initial mass function, suitable for ellipticals and disks, to see if the bulge stellar metallicity distribution can be reproduced by varying the yields for very massive stars, and included M31 in my analysis. I show that assuming a flatter initial mass function than the universal one is necessary, and that a variation exists in the initial mass function among different environments. Finally, I investigate the evolution of spiral bulges hosting Seyfert nuclei, with detailed calculations of the galactic potential and of the feedback from the central supermassive black hole in an Eddington-limited accretion regime. New spectro-photometrical evolution codes covering a wide range of stellar ages and metallicities allowed to model the photometric features of local bulges. I successfully predict the observed black hole-host bulge mass relation. The observed present-day nuclear bolometric luminosity is achieved only for the most massive bulges, otherwise a rejuvenation is necessary. The observed high star formation rates and metallicities, constancy of chemical abundances with the redshift and bulge present-day colours are reproduced, but a steeper initial mass function is required to match the colour-magnitude relation and the present K-band bulge luminosity.
In questa tesi, ho sviluppato un modello di evoluzione chimica che si avvale di recenti osservazioni ad alta qualità di abbondanze chimiche nel bulbo della Via Lattea, per porre dei vincoli sui suoi meccanismi di formazione ed evoluzione e ottenere un modello generale per i bulbi di spirale. Ho adottato una nucleosintesi aggiornata per le stelle massicce e seguito l'evoluzione di diversi elementi-alpha e del ferro, variando i parametri evolutivi. Si prevede correttamente che i rapporti [alpha/Fe] nel bulbo siano soprasolari per un ampio intervallo in [Fe/H]. La distribuzione in metallicità è riprodotta con un tempo di formazione breve, un'alta efficienza di formazione stellare e una funzione iniziale di massa più piatta che nel disco. Yields di ossigeno con perdita di massa stellare in funzione della metallicità sono stati inclusi nei modelli di evoluzione chimica del bulbo e dei dintorni solari. L'accordo tra gli andamenti di [O/Mg] previsti e osservati per metallicità soprasolari risulta sensibilmente migliorato; si spiega inoltre la differenza tra il rapporto [O/Fe] e gli altri [alpha/Fe] nel bulbo e nei dintorni solari. Un problema di normalizzazione indica che probabilmente gli yields semi-empirici adottati necessitano una revisione. Ho verificato se con la cosiddetta funzione iniziale di massa universale, adeguata per galassie ellittiche e dischi, la distribuzione in metallicità stellare del bulge può essere riprodotta calibrando gli yields delle stelle supermassicce, includendo M31 nell'analisi. Si dimostra che una funzione iniziale di massa più piatta di quella universale è necessaria, e che esiste una variazione nella funzione iniziale di massa tra i diversi ambienti. Infine, ho studiato l'evoluzione di bulbi di spirali che ospitano galassie di Seyfert, mediante calcoli dettagliati del potenziale galattico e del feedback dal buco nero supermassiccio centrale in un regime di accrescimento limitato dal tasso di Eddington. Nuovi codici spettro-fotometrici che coprono un ampio intervallo di età stellari e di metallicità hanno permesso di modellizzare le caratteristiche fotometriche dei bulbi locali. La relazione osservata tra massa del buco nero e del bulbo ospite è prevista con successo. La luminosità bolometrica nucleare misurata al tempo presente si consegue solo per i bulbi più massicci, negli altri casi è necessario un "ringiovanimento". Le osservazioni di alto tasso di formazione stellare, alte metallicità, invarianza di abbondanze chimiche col redshift e colori dei bulbi locali sono riprodotte; una funzione iniziale di massa più ripida è invece richiesta per la relazione colore-magnitudo e la luminosità dei bulbi in banda K al tempo presente.
XX Ciclo
1979

Spiral galaxies contain large amounts of interstellar dust, that absorbs and scatters their photons. This results in strong distortions and changes of their observed stellar images from what would be observed in the absence of the dust. Because of this the measured structural parameters of spiral galaxies, and indeed, knowledge of some of the most fundamental physical attributes of galaxies - their stellar distributions - is strongly biased. I present here the results of a study to quantify the effects of dust on the derived photometric parameters of disks (old stellar disks and young stellar disks) and bulges in spiral galaxies: scale-lengths, axis-ratios, central surface-brightness, effective radii and Sersic indices. The goal of this study is to provide corrections for dust effects to observers by following the procedures and algorithms they use to perform surface brightness photometry of real images of galaxies. The changes in the derived photometric parameters from their intrinsic values (as seen in the absence of dust) were obtained by fitting simulated images of disks and bulges produced using radiative transfer calculations. The fits to the simulations were performed using GALFIT 3.0.2 data analysis algorithm and the fitted models were the commonly used infinitely thin disks described by exponential, general Sersic and de Vaucouleurs distributions. The analysis was done firstly for disks and bulges seen in isolation (thus quantifying dust and projection effects) and subsequently for the same morphological components seen together (thus quantifying the dust effects on bulge-disk decomposition). This is the first time a systematic and self-consistent quantification of these effects has been performed covering the whole parameter space and all photometric parameters of spiral galaxies and its constituent stellar components. The approach proposed here allows a clear separation of projection effects, dust effects and decomposition effects, through chain corrections. For single morphological components, I find the young stellar disks to suffer the most severe variation in the photometric parameters due to dust effects. In this context I also present corrections for narrow line (Balmer line) images. Old stellar disks are also significantly affected by dust, in particular when fits are performed with exponential functions. The photometric parameters of bulges are to a lesser extent affected by dust. I also find that the variation of dust corrections with face-on dust opacity and inclination is similar for bulges with different intrinsic stellar emissivities (different Sersic index), with differences manifesting only close to edge-on orientations of the disk. Dust corrections for bulges are found to be insensitive to the choice of the truncation radius and ellipticity of the bulge. I find that dust effects on the photometric parameters of decomposed disks and bulges increase with the Sersic index of bulge intrinsic volume stellar emissivity distribution and depend on the bulge-to-disk ratio for galaxies with bulge stellar emissivity described by higher Sersic index functions. All the numerical results are listed in the Appendices and made available to the scientific community.

The work presented in this thesis is aimed at the observational characterization of the physical properties of galaxies to place constraints on their scenarios of formation and evolution. In particular, I have focused on the determination of how the environment in which galaxies evolve affects their structural and kinematic properties, and their stellar populations. In the first part of my thesis I studied the properties of the dwarf early-type galaxy population in two nearby galaxy clusters: Centaurus and Perseus. For the Centaurus Cluster, I analysed X-Shooter spectroscopy of a sample of eight dwarf elliptical galaxies and two compact elliptical galaxies. The visible arm high-resolution spectra were employed to derive the internal velocity dispersion of the galaxies, together with an estimate of their dynamical mass and their mass-to-light ratios. I used the internal velocity dispersion measurements to compute the first estimate of the Faber-Jackson relation of dwarf galaxies in the Centaurus Cluster. I used the medium resolution optical spectra to characterize the stellar populations of the dwarf and compact galaxies. In addition, I analysed fibre spectroscopic data of low-luminosity ellipticals in the Perseus Cluster. My investigation of the global cluster kinematics confirmed the different origin of the faint galaxy population with respect to the bright galaxies. Measurements of the properties of the stellar populations were performed on all the cluster early-type galaxies, and were used to derive the first estimate of the mass-metallicity relation for the Perseus Cluster. In the second part of my thesis I analysed the stellar populations of a sample of bulges in twelve isolated disc galaxies and in four spiral galaxies with a high surface brightness disc. I derived the structural parameters of the bulges by performing two-dimensional photometric decomposition of galaxy images. I analysed long-slit spectroscopy to derive the age, metallicity, and \afe\ enhancement in the central part of the bulge and at the radius where the bulge contributes the same surface brightness as the other galaxy components. The bulges of isolated galaxies are characterized by intermediate and old ages, a large spread in metallicities ranging from sub- to super-solar values, and super-solar [α/Fe] enhancements. The high [α/Fe] ratios indicates shorter star formation timescales with respect to galaxies in denser environments. All the sample bulges also show a negative gradient for the [α/Fe] enhancement, in agreement with the predictions of the dissipative collapse formation scenario. By comparing our analysis with those of selected samples from the literature, I was able to confirm that environment-driven processes play an important role in the evolution of bulges in high density environments. In particular, repeated interactions and merging with other galaxies tend to erase the stellar population gradients of the bulges and prolong their star formation histories.
L'obiettivo del lavoro presentato in questa tesi è la caratterizzazione osservativa delle proprietà fisiche delle galassie, per vincolarne gli scenari di formazione ed evoluzione. In particolare mi sono concentrato nel determinare come l'ambiente, in cui evolvono le galassie, influisca sulle loro proprietà strutturali e cinematiche e sulle loro popolazioni stellari. La prima parte della tesi è focalizzata sulle proprietà delle galassie nane dei primi tipi morfologici negli ammassi di galassie del Centauro e di Perseo. Per l'Ammasso del Centauro, ho analizzato gli spettri ottenuti con X-Shooter di un campione di 8 galassie ellittiche nane e 2 galassie ellittiche compatte. Gli spettri nella banda ottica ad alta risoluzione sono stati utilizzati per ricavare la dispersione di velocità interna delle galassie, insieme alla stima della loro massa dinamica e del rapporto massa/luminosità. Ho utilizzato le dispersioni di velocità per calcolare la prima stima della relazione di Faber-Jackson per le galassie nane dell'Ammasso di Centaurus. Ho sfruttato gli spettri nella banda ultravioletta e blu a media risoluzione per caratterizzare le popolazioni stellari delle galassie nane e delle galassie compatte. Successivamente ho effettuato l'analisi di spettroscopia da fibre ottiche di galassie ellittiche a bassa luminosità nell'Ammasso di Perseuo. La mia indagine della cinematica globale dell'ammasso ha confermato la diversa origine della popolazione di galassie a bassa brillanza rispetto a quelle ad alta brillanza. La misura delle proprietà delle popolazioni stellari è stata condotta su tutte le galassie ellittiche e lenticolari dell'ammasso, ed ha permesso di ricavare la prima stima della relazione massa-metallicità per l'Ammasso di Perseo. Nella seconda parte della tesi ho analizzato le popolazioni stellari di un campione di sferoidi in 12 galassie a disco isolate ed in 4 galassie a spirale di alta brillanza superficiale. Ho derivato i parametri strutturali degli sferoidi attraverso la decomposizione fotometrica. Ho analizzato spettroscopia di fenditura per ricavare l'età, la metallicità, il rapporto [α/Fe] nella parte centrale degli sferoidi ed in corrispondenza del raggio dove lo sferoide contribuisce la stessa frazione di brillanza superficiale rispetto alle altre componenti della galassia. Gli sferoidi delle galassie isolate sono caratterizzati da età intermedie ed elevate, da una metallicità molto varia e da alti valori di del rapporto [α/Fe], che indicano come i tempi scala di formazione stellare siano più corti rispetto a quelli delle galassie in ambienti più densi. Tutti gli sferoidi del campione presentano anche gradienti del rapporto [α/Fe] negativi, in accordo con le previsioni del modello di formazione per collasso dissipativo. Confrontando la mia analisi con campioni selezionati dalla letteratura, ho potuto confermare che i processi di interazione con l'ambiente hanno un ruolo importante nell'evoluzione degli sferoidi in ambienti ad alta densità. In particolare, interazioni ripetute e fusioni con altre galassie tendono a cancellare i gradienti nelle popolazioni stellari degli sferoidi e prolungano i tempi di formazione stellare.

Les bulbes sont présents dans environ 80% des galaxies spirales locales de masse intermédiaire. Les galaxies spirales représentent environ 70% des galaxies de masse intermédiaire (typiquement avec des masses comprises entre 2 × 10^10 et 10^11 masses solaires) de l’Univers local. Alors que les bulbes classiques sont généralement associés aux résultats de fusions, les pseudo-bulbes sont plutôt associés à l’évolution séculaire. Cependant, le modèle cosmologique ΛCDM prévoit une croissance hiérarchique des galaxies par les fusions alors que l’on trouve plus de 50% de pseudo-bulbes dans les galaxies spirales de masse intermédiaire de l’Univers local. Le but de la thèse est de vérifier s’il est possible de construire des pseudo-bulbes à partir de fusions majeures riches en gaz. La première partie de cette thèse est consacrée à la présentation du sujet ainsi qu’à l’état de l’art sur la formation et l’évolution des bulbes galactiques.La deuxième partie de cette thèse porte sur la description de la méthodologie mise en place pour analyser les bulbes des galaxies spirales et comprendre leur formation. La thèse com- porte deux axes d’études, une partie observationnelle avec l’analyse de deux échantillons complets de galaxies spirales locales de masse intermédiaire pour déterminer la proportion de pseudo-bulbes dans ces échantillons et avoir une référence robuste. Une autre partie, qui est le coeur de l’étude, est dédiée à l’analyse de simulations numériques de fusions majeures de deux progéniteurs riches en gaz réalisées avec un code N-body/Hydrodynamique (GADGET2). L’objectif est de reproduire ce type de galaxies et d’étudier leurs propriétés grâce à une décomposition bulbe+disque.Dans la troisième partie, je montre que, dans les limites données par les simulations, nous pou- vons reproduire des galaxies spirales présentant des pseudo-bulbes via des fusions majeures riches en gaz. Cette thèse propose un nouveau scénario de formation des pseudo-bulbes grâce à la formation de barres durant les fusions majeures qui permet d’amener du gaz dans les parties centrales. De plus, beaucoup de structures observées comme des barres, anneaux ou double-disques sont reproduits dans les simulations. Les différents paramètres des simulations ont ensuite été modifiés (fraction de gaz, rapport de masses, masse des progéniteurs, feedback, extension du gaz, pericentre) pour explorer leur impact sur les résultats. On constate que les disparités des indices de Sersic et des rapports B/T proviennent autant de la différence entre les orbites que de celle entre les paramètres physiques initiaux choisis pour les simulations, mais certaines grandes tendances peuvent tout de même être extraites. Par exemple, l’étude montre que plus la fraction de gaz des progéniteurs est élevée, plus les indices Sersic et le rapport B/T diminuent, plus le nombre de barres et leur taille augmentent
Bulges are present in almost 80% of nearby spiral galaxies of intermediate mass. Spiral galaxies represent about 70% of the intermediate-mass galaxies (typically with a mass between 2 × 10^10 and 10^11 solar masses) in the local Universe. While classical bulges have been associated to the result of major mergers, pseudo-bulges have been rather associated to secular evolution. However, the cosmological ΛCDM model predicts a hierarchical growth of galaxies via mergers while pseudo-bulges are found in > 50% of large nearby spiral galaxies. The aim of this thesis is to verify if we can build pseudo-bulges with gas-rich major mergers. The first part of this thesis is devoted to the presentation of the subject and the state of the art on the formation and evolution of galactic bulges.The second part of this thesis is focusing on the methodology developped to analyse bulges of spiral galaxies and understand their formation. The thesis has two axes of study, an observational part with the analysis of two complete samples of local spiral galaxies of intermediate mass to determine the proportion of pseudo-bulges in these samples and to have a reliable reference. Another part, which is the core of the study, is dedicated to the analysis of nume- rical simulations of gas-rich major mergers done with a N-body / SPH code (GADGET2). The aim is to reproduce this type of galaxy and to study their properties thanks to a bulge + disk decomposition.In the third part, I show that, within the limits given by the simulations, we can reproduce spiral galaxies with pseudo-bulges via gas-rich major mergers. This thesis propose a new scenario of pseudo-bulge formation thanks to the formation of a bar, which bring gas into the central parts. In addition, most of the observed structures, such as bars, rings or double-disks, are reproduced in the simulations. The different parameters of simulations has been then modified (gas fraction, mass ratio, mass of progenitors, feedback, gas extension, pericenter) to explore their impact on the results. We found that the disparities on Sersic index and B/T ratio comes as much from the difference between orbits as from between initial physical parameters chosen for simulations but we can still extract some trends. For instance, I show that the higher the gas fraction of the progenitors, the lower the Sersic index and the B/T ratio, the more the number of bars and their size increases

Depuis quelques années, l'importance de la barre dans l'évolution des galaxies spirales n'est plus remise en cause. Cette importance apparaît à la fois dans les observations et dans les simulations. Cette thèse est une contribution à l'étude de l'influence de la barre sur l'évolution des galaxies spirales. Elle se décompose en trois parties : 1. J'ai d'abord extrait les indices spectrophotométriques centraux Mg2 et des spectres 88 galaxies spirales barrées et non barrées. Ces indices, mis en relation avec d'autres paramètres physiques, comme la vitesse de dispersion centrale ou la vitesse de rotation maximale du disque, me permettent de proposer un scénario de formation des bulbes à partir de deux populations d'étoiles. La première population ("primordiale") trouverait son origine dans un effondrement précoce de gaz. La seconde population ("secondaire") se formerait plus lentement et sur une longue durée, probablement tout au long de la vie de la galaxie. Suivant l'importance relative de ces deux populations, j'identifie trois familles de galaxies. Le lien entre ces familles et la présence d'une barre permet de supposer que la population secondaire provient d'une alimentation en gaz ou même directement en étoiles du bulbe par la barre. 2. J'ai utilisé la base de données LEDA pour étudier l'influence de la présence d'une barre sur la taille des galaxies spirales. Je montre que, globalement, les galaxies barrées sont plus grandes que les non barrées. C'est particulièrement significatif pour les objets tardifs de type Sb à Sd. Divers tests sont utilisés pour montrer que cet effet n'est pas dû à un biais quelconque de l'échantillon. Néanmoins, compte tenu de biais cachés possibles, ce résultat doit être considéré comme une limite supérieure de la différence de diamètre isophotal entre les galaxies barrées et non barrées. 3. J'ai extrait les courbes de rotation du gaz et des étoiles d'un ensemble de onze galaxies ayant un anneau circumnucléaire. Ces profils me permettent de préciser la structure cinématique des galaxies barrées et pour un objet particulier, NGC5430, j'utilise la méthode de Tremaine-Weinberg pour estimer la vitesse de rotation de la barre. J'ai également déterminé pour deux objets, le profil spatial de l'indice combiné du calcium (CaT). Cela permet d'évaluer l'importance relative des populations d'étoiles massives en fonction du rayon.

Cette thèse traite des interactions entre les sphères financière et réelle de l'économie. Elle se compose de quatre chapitres. Dans les deux premiers chapitres, nous étudions l'existence et les fluctuations d'une bulle spéculative rationnelle, comme source de la volatilité des prix d'actifs, en prenant en compte les imperfections financières dans la modélisation des choix des ménages. L'existence d'un choix de portefeuille et de frictions financières favorisent l'émergence des fluctuations d'une bulle et des cycles économiques endogènes. Dans un tel contexte, nous analysons le rôle stabilisateur des politiques fiscales et/ou monétaires. Dans le chapitre 1, nous montrons qu'une politique monétaire répondant aux prix des actifs permet de stabiliser l'économie dans son ensemble. Dans le chapitre 2, nous comparons les vertus stabilisatrices d'un impôt progressif sur le revenu de capital à celles d'une politique monétaire régie par une règle de Taylor. Nous montrons qu'un impôt progressif sur le capital permet de stabiliser l'économie en réduisant la probabilité d'apparition des fluctuations endogènes, alors qu'une règle de Taylor a des vertus stabilisatrices mitigées. Nous étudions, dans le chapitre 3, l'existence de bulles rationnelles dans une économie ouverte à deux pays et la transmission internationale de leur éclatement. L'éclatement de la bulle dans un pays se transmet nécessairement à l'autre pays. L'effet de l'éclatement peut être positif ou négatif sur l'autre pays. Dans le chapitre 4, nous analysons le rôle de l'hétérogénéité sur la dynamique des prix d'actifs et les inégalités lorsque les agents ont des préférences pour la richesse
This thesis deals with the interplay between the financial and real sectors of the economy. This thesis consists of four chapters. In the first two chapters, we study the existence and endogenous fluctuations of rational speculative bubbles, as a source of volatility in asset prices, taking into account the financial imperfections at the household level. We argue that the existence of a portfolio choice and financial frictions promote the emergence of bubble fluctuations and endogenous business cycles. In this context, we analyze the stabilizing role of fiscal and/or monetary policies. In Chapter 1, we show that a monetary policy responding to asset prices can stabilize the economy as a whole. In Chapter 2, we compare the stabilizing virtues of a progressive taxation on capital income with those of a monetary policy managed by a Taylor rule. We show that a progressive taxation on capital may rule out endogenous fluctuations, whereas a monetary policy under a Taylor rule has a mitigated stabilizing role. In Chapter 3, we study, the existence of rational bubbles in a two-country economy, and the international transmission of their bursting. A bubble bursting in a country necessarily transmits to the othercountry. The effect of a bubble crash in one country onthe bubble issued by the other country can be positive or negative. In Chapter 4, we analyze the role of heterogeneity on the dynamics of asset prices and inequalities when economic agents have preferences for wealth. Heterogeneity in preferences, but also in income, can heighten social inequalities and increase the asset price in the long run, but also promote asset price volatility in the short run

Notre étude, expérimentale, s’inscrit dans le contexte de la réduction de frottement de paroi par injection de bulles millimétriques. Elle fait suite aux travaux de Mehel (2006), et de Fokoua (2013). On s’intéresse à la modulation du frottement, aux caractéristiques des cellules de Taylor et à la structuration de la phase gazeuse, pour des régimes de coexistence (alternance de motifs toroïdal-spiral). La géométrie d’entrefer est caractérisée par un rapport des rayons de 0,9. Le Reynolds varie entre [1700-50000] et la fraction volumétrique d’air entre [0-0,1%]. Par visualisations haute fréquence et analyse des défauts (dislocations et fusions de cellules), on a caractérisé la transition entre les régimes de coexistence structurée, coexistence déstructurée et chaos développé. Par Stéréo-PIV (2D3C), on a caractérisé la phase liquide dans un plan méridien et discriminé les contributions respectives des mouvements aléatoire et cohérent à la turbulence. Les mesures en simultané du couple exercé sur le cylindre intérieur ont mis en évidence que différents mécanismes influencent le frottement de paroi : cisaillement turbulent dû au sillage des bulles, dû aux jets entre cellules et relaxation du gradient de vitesse azimutale. L’analyse en fonction des motifs et des régimes montre que le couple maximum est atteint pour le motif toroïdal en régime structuré. Les images haute fréquence des bulles ont été analysées en discriminant les bulles par leur position radiale dans l’entrefer. On obtient des lois de similitude pour le taux de vide et la vitesse axiale du gaz en fonction des nombres de Froude de rotation des cellules ou du cylindre intérieur. La fraction volumétrique d’air contrôle la vitesse ascensionnelle des cellules, la vitesse azimutale du gaz et la fréquence de l’onde azimutale
This experimental study deals with wall friction reduction by injection of millimetric bubbles. This work is in the continuity of Mehel (2006) and Fokoua (2013) PHDs. We focus on the friction modulation, Taylor's cells characteristics and the gas phase structure, for coexistence regimes (alternance between toroidal-spiral patterns). The gap geometry is characterized by the ratio of radii (0,9). The Reynolds and the air volumetric fraction are varied in the ranges [1700-50000] and [0-0,1%] respectively. By high-frequency visualizations and defect (dislocations and cell fusions) analysis method, we characterized the transition between the regimes of structured coexistence, unstructured coexistence and developed chaos. By Stereo-PIV (2D3C) measurements, we characterized the liquid phase in a meridian plane and discriminated the contributions of random and coherent motions to the turbulence. Simultaneous measurements of the torque exerted on the inner cylinder evidence different mechanisms influencing the wall friction: turbulent shear either due to the bubbles wake or to the jets between cells and relaxation of the azimuthal velocity gradient. The analysis according to the patterns and regimes shows that the maximum torque is reached for the toroidal pattern and structured regime. The high frequency images of the bubbles were analyzed by discriminating their radial position in the gap. Self-similar laws with respect to the rotational Froude numbers either characterizing the cells or the inner cylinder are obtained for both void fraction and axial velocity of the gas phase. The air volumetric fraction controls the rising velocity of the cells, the azimuthal velocity of the gas and the frequency of the azimuthal wave

In this thesis I investigate the dynamics and stellar populations of a sample of 28 edge-on early-type (S0--Sb) disk galaxies, 22 of which host a boxy or peanut-shaped bulge. I begin by constructing mass models of the galaxies based on their observed photometry and stellar kinematics. Subject to cosmologically motivated assumptions about the shape of dark haloes, I measure in a purely dynamical way their stellar and dark masses. I make a preliminary comparison between the dynamically determined stellar masses and those predicted by stellar population models. I then compare the Tully-Fisher (luminosity--velocity) relations of the spirals and S0s in the sample. I show that S0s are systematically fainter at a given rotational velocity, but the amount by which they are fainter is less than expected by models in which they are the products of truncation of star formation in spirals. This raises the possibility that S0s are smaller or more concentrated than spirals of the same mass. I then study the vertical structure of the boxy and peanut-shaped bulges of a subset of the sample. Among this sample of five galaxies, I find one example in which the stellar populations show no evidence that the bulge and the disk formed in different processes, and in which the bulge is in perfectly cylindrical rotation, i.e. its line-of-sight velocity does not change with height above the disk. This galaxy is probably a pure disk galaxy. However, even with this small sample, I also show that cylindrical rotation and homogeneous stellar populations are not ubiquitous properties of boxy and peanut-shaped bulges. Finally I analyse central and radial trends in the stellar populations of the bulges of full sample of 28 galaxies. I find that, at a given velocity dispersion, the central stellar populations of these barred early-type disk galaxies are identical to those of elliptical galaxies, which suggests that secular evolution does not dominate the centre of these galaxies. However, the radial metallicity gradients are shallower than those of ellipticals. This is qualitatively consistent with chemodynamical models of bar formation, in which radial inflow and outflow smears out pre-existing gradients.

Les lésions médullaires traumatiques (LMT) conduisent à une atteinte des voies nerveuses sensitives et motrices. Leur taux de mortalité reste très élevé, d'où la nécessité de trouver de nouveaux traitements. Les Cellules Gliales Olfactives (CGOs) représentent un candidat intéressant de par leur fonction au sein du système olfactif primaire. La découverte d'une population de cellule souche neurale bordant le canal central de la moelle spinale (MS) adulte, appelées cellules épendymaires, suscite un nouvel espoir dans le domaine des biothérapies. Ce travail de thèse a permis d'étudier l'effet d'une transplantation de CGOs sue le comportement des cellules résidentes de la moelle spinale et notamment les cellules souches épendymaires qui, en association avec les astrocytes et les péricytes, participent aux mécanismes de guérison des LMT. L'utilisation du modèle murin hFoxJ1-CreERT2::YFP (permettant le suivi spécifique des cellules épendymaires et de leur progénie), a montré que les CGOs augmentaient in vitro le potentiel d'auto-renouvellement des cellules souches de la MS et modifiaient leur voie de différenciation vers un type neural. In vivo, la transplantation de CGOs augmente la prolifération des cellules épendymaires ainsi que leur différenciation en astrocytes hypo-réactifs conduisant à la formation d'un environnement post-lésionnel bénéfique à la survie neuronal et l'établissement d'une neurogenèse. Nos travaux ont montré pour la première fois que la transplantation de CGOs après LMT permettait la génération de nouveaux neurones. Ceci constitue un nouvel espoir dans l'établissement de stratégies thérapeutiques pour le traitement des LMT chez l'Homme
The spinal cord injuries (SCI) lead to the damages of the spinal cord or nerves and often cause permanent changes in body functions leading to the death. Cell therapies have raised great hope for regenerative medicine. Clinical data showed that the olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) enhanced functional recovery after SCI and could be a very attractive therapeutic approach. Moreover, the discovery of a new endogenous resident stem cell population, lining the central canal of the spinal cord, named ependymal stem cells, represents a new hope for the therapy. This thesis analyzed the role of OECs transplantation, on the behaviour of ependymal stem cells since these cells, together with astrocytes and pericytes significantly contribute to the recovery of SCI. The use of the mouse model hFoxJ1-CreERT2::YFP (allowing to specifically follow the ependymal stem cells ant their progeny) showed that OECs increased in vitro the self-renewal potential of spinal cord stem cells and modified their differentiation pathway towards a neural type. In vivo, OECs transplantation significantly increases the proliferation of ependymal cells and their differenciation into hypo-reactive astrocytes leading to the formation of a beneficial environment to neuronal survival and the neurogenesis establishment. Our results also showed for the first time that OECs transplantation after SCI allows the generation of new neurons by non-ependymal cell-derived progenitors. These results represent a new hope in the establishment of therapeutic strategies for the treatment of SCI in humans

In questa tesi si vuole fornire una descrizione delle proprietà morfologiche delle galassie per poi passare ad una analisi dettagliata della struttura e della cinematica della Via Lattea. Il primo capitolo è basato sulle informazioni generali che caratterizzano e classificano le galassie, partendo dalla classificazione di Hubble per poi analizzare nel dettaglio i diversi tipi di galassie. Il secondo capitolo si concentra in particolar modo sulla struttura della Via Lattea, descrivendo in modo dettaglio tutte le componenti morfologiche che la costituiscono. Il terzo ed ultimo capitolo si concentra sugli aspetti cinematici delle galassia a spirale applicati alla Via Lattea.

Cette thèse a pour but de faire le lien entre l’évolution des galaxies, leur morphologie et les processus physiques internes, notamment la formation stellaire comme le résultat du milieu interstellaire turbulent et multiphase, en utilisant les simulations cosmologiques zoom-in, les simulations des galaxies isolées et en interaction, et le modèle analytique de la formation stellaire. Dans le chapitre 1, j’explique la motivation pour cette thèse et je passe brièvement en revue le contexte nécessaire lié à la formation des galaxies et la modélisation en utilisant les simulations numériques. Tout d’abord, j’explore l’évolution de la morphologie des galaxies du type de la Voie Lactée dans la série des simulations cosmologiques zoom-in à travers l’analyse des barres. J’analyse l’évolution de la fraction des barres avec le redshift, sa dépendance en fonction de la masse stellaire et l’histoire d’accrétion de galaxies individuelles. Je montre en particulier, que la fraction de barres décroit avec le redshift croissant, en accord avec les observations. Ce travail montre également que les résultats obtenus suggèrent que l’époque de la formation des barres correspond à la transition entre une phase précoce “violente” de la formation de galaxies spirales à z > 1, pendant laquelle elles sont souvent perturbées par les fusions avec les galaxies de masse comparable ou par multiple fusions avec les galaxies de petite masse, mais aussi les instabilités violentes de disque, et une phase "séculaire" tardive à z < 1, quand la morphologie finale est généralement stabilisée vers une structure dominée par le disque. Cette analyse est présentée dans le chapitre 2. Étant donné que ces simulations cosmologiques forment trop d'étoiles trop tôt par rapport aux populations de galaxies observées, je me concentre dans le chapitre 3 sur la formation stellaire dans un échantillon de simulation de galaxies en isolation, à bas redshift, et à résolution du parsec et sous-parsec. J'étudie l'origine physique de leurs relations de formation stellaire avec les cassures, et montre que le seuil de densité surfacique pour une formation stellaire efficace peut être lié à la densité caractéristique d'apparition de turbulence supersonique. Ce résultat s'applique aussi bien aux galaxies qui fusionnent, dans lesquelles l'augmentation de la turbulence compressive déclenchée par les marées compressives les conduit au régime de sursaut de formation d'étoiles. Un modèle analytique idéalisé de formation stellaire liant la densité surfacique de gaz au taux de formation stellaire comme une fonction de la présence de turbulence supersonique et la structure associée du milieu interstellaire est ensuite présenté dans le chapitre 4. Ce modèle prédit une cassure à basse densité de surface qui est suivie par un régime de loi de puissance à haute densité dans différents systèmes en accord avec les relations de formation stellaire des galaxies observées et simulées. La dernière partie de cette thèse est dédiée à la technique alternative de zoom-in cosmologique (Martig et al. 2009) et son implémentation dans le code à raffinement de maillage adaptatif RAMSES. Dans le chapitre 5, je présente les caractéristiques de base de cette technique aussi bien que certains de nos tout premiers résultats dans le contexte de l'accrétion cosmologique diffuse
This thesis aims at making the link between galaxy evolution, morphology and internal physical processes, namely star formation as the outcome of the turbulent multiphase interstellar medium, using the cosmological zoom-in simulations, simulations of isolated and merging galaxies, and the analytic model of star formation. In Chapter 1, I explain the motivation for this thesis and briefly review the necessary background related to galaxy formation and modeling with the use of numerical simulations. I first explore the evolution of the morphology of Milky-Way-mass galaxies in a suite of zoom-in cosmological simulations through the analysis of bars. I analyze the evolution of the fraction of bars with redshift, its dependence on the stellar mass and accretion history of individual galaxies. I show in particular, that the fraction of bars declines with increasing redshift, in agreement with the observations. This work also shows that the obtained results suggest that the bar formation epoch corresponds to the transition between an early "violent" phase of spiral galaxies formation at z > 1, during which they are often disturbed by major mergers or multiple minor mergers as well as violent disk instabilities, and a late "secular" phase at z < 1, when the final morphology is generally stabilized to a disk-dominated structure. This analysis is presented in Chapter 2. Because such cosmological simulations form too many stars too early compared to observed galaxy populations, I shift the focus in Chapter 3 to star formation in a sample of low-redshift galaxy simulations in isolation at parsec and sub-parsec resolution. I study the physical origin of their star formation relations and breaks and show that the surface density threshold for efficient star formation can be related to the typical density for the onset of supersonic turbulence. This result holds in merging galaxies as well, where increased compressive turbulence triggered by compressive tides during the interaction drives the merger to the regime of starbursts. An idealized analytic model for star formation relating the surface density of gas and star formation rate as a function of the presence of supersonic turbulence and the associated structure of the ISM is then presented in Chapter 4. This model predicts a break at low surface densities that is followed by a power-law regime at high densities in different systems in agreement with star formation relations of observed and simulated galaxies. The last part of this thesis is dedicated to the alternative cosmological zoom-in technique Martig et al. 2009 and its implementation in the Adaptive Mesh Refinement code RAMSES. In Chapter 5, I will present the basic features of this technique as well as some of our very first results in the context of smooth cosmological accretion

Contrary to historic assumptions, bulges in the local Universe present a heterogeneous class of objects. Observations indicate that bulges are bimodal in structure, interstellar medium, stellar populations and dynamical state. Using observations in the UV, optical, near-infrared and mid-infrared we study the nature of local bulge-disk galaxies. The aim is first to find consistent means to differentiate different bulge types. Then we can use these diagnostic methods to study the properties of bulges of each type, thereby better understanding the possible formation mechanisms of each type. Finally, we will use these diagnostic methods to determine how many of each type of bulge exists in the local Universe, and thus understand how the heterogeneity of bulges may affect our understanding of galaxy evolution. Using 3.6-8.0 micron colors we show that dichotomy in bulge morphology is closely tied to the dichotomy in bulge interstellar medium. We find that those bulges with active interstellar medium, per unit stellar mass, have morphological features commonly found in disks (e.g. nuclear spirals, bars and rings). We follow this up with more robust star formation rates, as measured by linear combining UV and 24 micron luminosity, and determine that the boundary is near specific star formation rate ~30 Gyr⁻¹. We also find that the shape of bulge surface brightness profiles correlates well with morphology. When parameterized by a Sérsic function, we find that bulges with n[subscript b]<2 have disk-like morphology and those bulges with n[subscript b]>2 have morphology that is very similar to that of an elliptical galaxy. We thus conclude that bulges with disk-like nuclear morphology, specific star formation rate that is less than 30 Gyr⁻¹, and/or Sérsic index n[subscript b]<2 represents a distinct class of object. We refer to these bulges as "pseudobulges" and the complimentary set of bulges that are inactive, with high Sérsic index, and morphologically like elliptical galaxies is referred to as "classical bulges." We find that a significant amount of evidence points to pseudobulges and classical bulges originating from separate formation mechanisms. First, we rule out the possibility that pseudobulges are the result solely from mass dependent phenomenon. Rather, pseudobulges and classical bulges over lap significantly in mass, luminosity and size. Also, they are found in galaxies of similar mass, luminosity and size. Therefore, pseudobulges are not simply a low-mass phenomenon of the same process. Also, we find that many of the properties of pseudobulges are connected to properties of the outer disk. We find that the half-light radius of pseudobulges correlates linearly with the scale-length of the outer disk. Furthermore, this correlation does not exist for classical bulges. Also, the mass of pseudobulges correlates with the mass of the outer disk. We find that the star formation rate density of pseudobulges is a function of the stellar mass of the exponential outer disk such that pseudobulges with high star formation rate densities only occur more massive stellar disks. Thus it appears that both structure and growth of pseudobulges is a function of the properties of the outer disk. However, classical bulges do not show the same correlations. Also, we find that the star formation rate density of pseudobulges positively correlates with the mass density, classical bulges do not show an analogous correlation. If secular growth were responsible for the formation of pseudobulges, such a correlation should exist. Furthermore, we find that the specific star formation rates of most pseudobulges are high enough to account for the stellar mass within the typical ages of disk (~10 Gyr). We also show that classical bulges participate in the same structural parameter correlations as elliptical galaxies. Just like elliptical galaxies, as classical bulges become brighter they also become larger in radius, lower in surface density, and have higher Sérsic index. However pseudobulges behave very differently. There is little-to-no correlation between the size of pseudobulges and the luminosity, surface brightness or Sérsic index. We stress that this observation extends of 9 magnitudes in brightness. Therefore the size of pseudobulges, has thus far only been found to correlate with the size of the outer disk. Furthermore we find that pseudobulges show a positive correlation between surface density and luminosity. The behavior of pseudobulges in these parameter correlations implies that they are not virialized stellar systems that have experienced violent relaxation. Thus it is likely that the formation of pseudobulges is not like that of elliptical galaxies and classical bulges. Furthermore, the connection between pseudobulge properties and those of their associated outer disk seem to favor long-term growth that is more likely to be driven by disk processes, commonly called "secular evolution." Finally we show that the dichotomy of bulge types has a strong influence on our understanding of galaxy evolution. We find that global galaxy properties are tied to the bulge dichotomy. Galaxies with pseudobulges are found to be in "blue sequenc" galaxies and those with classical bulges are found to be in "red sequence" galaxies. A large body of literature has shown that blue and red galaxies appear to be distinct classifications of galaxies. The correlation with bulge type implies that the bulge dichotomy may be also be a consequence of the bimodal nature of galaxy evolution. Finally, we show that in the local Universe pseudobulges are by far the most common type of massive galaxy. We find that only 17% of galaxies have a detectable classical bulge. Also we show that over 3/4 of the star formation in spiral and elliptical galaxies in the local Universe occurs in galaxies with pseudobulges. Thus understanding pseudobulges is a necessary step to understanding the processes that have lead to the population of galaxies in the nearby Universe.
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We explore the dynamics of four elliptical and bulge galaxies. We focus on the outer parts where the mass is dark-matter dominated and the orbital structures describe the formation histories. We combined the measured kinematics of planetary nebulae (PN) with integrated light kinematics and photometry to provide a radially complete set of compatible observational constraints. The sample is comprised of NGC 1399, NGC 3923, NGC 1316 and NGC 4594. NGC 1399 is one of the nearest cD galaxies and is an archetypal, slow-rotating, giant elliptical. NGC 3923 has a spectacular system of 22 shells left over from a merger. NGC 1316 is the brightest cluster galaxy in Fornax and is a recent merger remnant. NGC 4594 (M104, Sombrero) has a large bulge and a nearly edge-on dusty disk. In each case, we study the rotation and dispersion profile of the kinematic tracers. For the first three galaxies, we explore the dark matter content and the orbital structure using dynamical models. We generated four PN velocity catalogs plus a catalog of PNe in NGC 1317. The kinematics of the four galaxies describe the varied formation histories of the sample. The marginal rotation in NGC 1399 contrasts with the clear rotation signal in NGC 1316. The PN in NGC 4594 confirm observations of non-cylindrical rotation. Rotation in the outer parts of NGC 3923 is surprising given the alignment and regularity of the shell system. The halo dispersion profiles range from gently rising in NGC 3923 to steeply falling in NGC 1316. We performed Jeans modeling of NGC 3923 and NGC 1316 and applied the made-to-measure N-body code, NMAGIC, to NGC 1399. All of our models require dark matter in the outer parts in order to fit the observed PN kinematics. Comparing the models and observations, we use the four galaxies in this sample to learn about the formation and evolution of elliptical and bulge galaxies. Based on this sample, we find that very evolved systems like cD galaxies have triaxial distributions and marginal rotation. In contrast, NGC 1316, the dominant galaxy in its subcluster, shows very different dynamics: strong rotation and an axisymmetric distribution. Clearly the later stages of hierarchical assembly have a big impact on the dynamics of early-type galaxies. Our observations of NGC 3923 indicate that shells around galaxies can be formed in less restricted circumstances than previously thought (Hernquist & Quinn 1989) and they are robust. Bulge galaxies have characteristics in common with both elliptical and disk galaxies. The rotation of the PN sample in NGC 4594 underscores the impact of scale on the classification of these objects - near the disk the bulge rotates strongly, but in the outer parts it has more in common with an elliptical. Dark matter composes between 5% and 31% of the total mass within 1 R{u212F}. The transition to dark matter dominance occurs in the range of 2-4 R{u212F}, in agreement with the result from Gerhard et al. (2001).