Tesis sobre el tema "Spatial income inequality"

This paper investigates the nexus between regional income levels and inequality. We present a novel small-scale inequality database for Austrian municipalities to address this question. Our dataset combines individual tax data of Austrian wage tax payer on regionally disaggregated scale with census and geographical information. This setting allows us to investigate regional spillover effects of average income and various measures of income inequality. Using this data set we find distinct regional clusters of both high average wages and high earnings inequality in Austria. Furthermore we use spatial econometric regressions to quantify the effects between income levels and a number of inequality measures such as the Gini and 90/10 quantile ratios. (authors' abstract)
Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

This thesis investigates spatial patterns of income-based residential segregation at the neighborhood level in the Russian capital city Moscow within new administrative boundaries, which have received relatively little attention in prior studies. It is argued that Moscow faces high levels of income inequality exacerbated by growing levels of spatial segregation between the affluent and prestigious Center – South-West and poor industrial South – South-East. Applying a whole set of quantitative methods complemented with computer mapping techniques, based on the latest 2013 data by the City of Moscow Territorial Branch of the Federal State Statistics and 2010 Census data, this study provides new insights into spatial differentiation processes and elaborates policy solutions aimed at addressing economic disparities in the city. A key finding of this thesis is that income segregation in the study area has been driven to a larger extent by the isolation of very poor neighborhoods from middle- and upper-income areas.

This thesis analyses how the degree of dependence on natural resources can help explain the persistently high levels of income inequality in Chile. Using data at the municipal level, it also explores the causal effect of income inequality on the level of efficiency of local authorities. Finally, given the social upheaval experienced in Chile in 2019, the thesis investigates the impact of economic and racial heterogeneity on the erosion of social cohesion in the country.

The concept of economic development has broadened to include environmental quality and population health. Interactions between income and pollution, income and health, and pollution and health have been studied separately by researchers from various disciplines. This study attempts to unify several different research strands and analyze simultaneous interactions between population health, measured by the infant mortality rate, pollution, and income in one endogenous system. Socioeconomic, racial, and rural urban disparities in infant mortality, pollution, and income are analyzed. The simultaneous equation system, estimated using the two-stage least squares method, tests whether pollution effects on infant mortality are outweighed by income effects. The study finds that income is a stronger determinant of infant mortality than pollution. Evidence for the environmental Kuznets curve is ambiguous. Disparities in infant mortality, pollution, and income are correlated with counties rural-urban status, income inequality, and ethnic diversity. Regional patterns identify wide geographical differences in levels of pollution, income, and infant mortality. The Southeast region stands out as a region with the highest infant mortality rate, relatively high levels of air pollution and chemical releases, and low per capita incomes.

This thesis consists of four separate chapters which address different aspects of inequality and income determination. The first three chapters are country-level studies which examine (1) how incomes are shaped by spatial price differences, (2) the factor income composition, and (3) enterprise size. The final chapter analyses how income inequality changed at the global level. The first chapter investigates the implications of regional price differences for earnings differentials and inequality in Germany. I combine a district-level price index with administrative earnings data from social security records. Prices have a strong equalising effect on district average wages in West Germany, but a weaker effect in East Germany and at the national level. The change in overall inequality as a result of regional price differences is small (although significant in many cases), because inequality is mostly explained by differences within rather than between districts. The second chapter is motivated by the rapid increase in top income shares in the United States since the 1980s. Using data derived from tax filings, I show that this pattern is very similar after controlling for changes in tax unit size. Over the same period as top income shares increased, the composition of these incomes changed dramatically, with the labour share rising. Using a non-parametric copula framework, I show that incomes from labour and capital have become more closely associated at the top. This association is asymmetric such that top wage earners are more likely to also receive high capital incomes, compared with top capital income recipients receiving high wages. In the third chapter, I investigate the positive cross-sectional relationship between enterprise size and earnings using panel data from Ghana. I find evidence for a significant firm size effect in matched firm-worker data and a labour force panel, even after controlling for individual fixed effects. The size effect in self-employment is stronger in the cross-section, but it is driven by individual time-invariant characteristics. The final chapter studies the global interpersonal income distribution using a newly constructed and improved database of national household surveys between 1988 and 2008. The chapter finds that the global Gini remains high and approximately unchanged at around 0.7. However, this hides a substantial change in the global distribution from a twin-peaked distribution in 1988 into a single-peaked one now. Furthermore, the regional composition of the global distribution changed, as China graduated from the bottom ranks. As a result of the growth in Asia, the poorest quantiles of the global distribution are now largely from Sub-Saharan Africa. By exploiting the panel dimension of the dataset, the analysis shows which decile-groups within countries have benefitted most over this 20-year period. In addition, the chapter presents a preliminary assessment of how estimates of global inequality are affected by the likely underreporting of top incomes in surveys.

This paper analyzes if neighborhood income inequality has an effect on informal regulation of environmental quality, using census tract - level data on industrial air pollution exposure from EPA's Risk Screening Environmental Indicators and income and demographic variables from the American Community Survey and EPA's Smart Location Database. Estimating a spatial lag model and controlling for formal regulation at the states level, we nd evidence that overall neighborhood inequality - as measured by the ratio between the fourth and the second income quintile or the neighborhood Gini coefficient - increases local air pollution exposure, whereas a concentration of top incomes reduces local exposure. The positive coefficient of the general inequality measure is driven by urban neighborhoods, whereas the negative coefficient of top incomes is stronger in rural areas. We explain these findings by two contradicting effects of inequality: On the one hand, overall inequality reduces collective action and thus the organizing capacities for environmental improvements. On the other hand, a concentration of income at the top enhances the ability of rich residents to negotiate with regulators or polluting plants in their vicinity.
Series: Ecological Economic Papers

This paper analyzes if neighborhood income inequality has an effect on informal regulation of environmental quality, using census tract-level data on industrial air pollution exposure from EPA´s Risk Screening Environmental Indicators and income and demographic variables from the American Community Survey and EPA´s Smart Location Database. Estimating a spatial lag model and controlling for formal regulation at the states level, we find evidence that overall neighborhood inequality - as measured by the ratio between the fourth and the second income quintile or the neighborhood Gini coefficient - increases local air pollution exposure, whereas a concentration of top incomes reduces local exposure. The positive coefficient of the general inequality measure is driven by urban neighborhoods, whereas the negative coefficient of top incomes is stronger in rural areas. We explain these findings by two contradicting effects of inequality: On the one hand, overall inequality reduces collective action and thus the organizing capacities for environmental improvements. On the other hand, a concentration of income at the top enhances the ability of rich residents to negotiate with regulators or polluting plants in their vicinity. (authors' abstract)
Series: Department of Economics Working Paper Series

Diferenças regionais de rendimento em Portugal: uma análise de convergência RESUMO O objectivo principal desta dissertação é o de proceder à investigação das diferenças de rendimento entre as unidades espaciais que compõem o território de Portugal Continental, ao nível das regiões NUTS III e dos concelhos, avaliar a respectiva convergência ou divergência no crescimento do rendimento e testar empiricamente a hipótese de que a convergência β é condição necessária, mas não suficiente, para a existência de convergência σ, mediante a aplicação e análise dos dois conceitos no nosso conjunto de dados. Começamos por apresentar o quadro conceptual subjacente à nossa investigação, nomeadamente no que respeita às teorias inerentes ao estudo da distribuição de rendimento e ao estudo da convergência (ou divergência) entre as economias, ao longo do processo de crescimento, o qual justifica e condiciona as escolhas metodológicas no desenvolvimento do trabalho. Depois de abordarmos alguns desenvolvimentos recentes da economia portuguesa, numa perspectiva regional, os quais representam o enquadramento socioeconómico do estudo, efectuamos uma análise da distribuição do rendimento entre os concelhos e entre as regiões NUTS III de Portugal Continental, através da aplicação de medidas convencionais como os índices de desigualdade, em conjunto com outros indicadores propostos. Na análise de convergência comparamos os resultados ao nível da convergência real dos concelhos e regiões de Portugal Continental, perante a utilização de duas variáveis alternativas: as remunerações, para os concelhos e para as regiões NUTS III, e o PIBpc, apenas disponível para as regiões NUTS III. No caso dos concelhos, a localização revela-se como uma componente chave que afecta os padrões de crescimento, de uma forma heterogénea, pelo que temos que a considerar na especificação dos modelos a estimar. Regional income differences in Portugal: a convergence analysis ABSTRACT The aim of this dissertation is to study the regional income differences among the regions NUTS III and municipalities of Portugal. We intend to evaluate convergence or divergence in income growth and test empirically the theoretical hypothesis that β-convergence, although necessary, is not a sufficient condition for σ-convergence. After presenting a brief overview of the main concepts on income distribution and convergence analysis, we study the income distribution among regions NUTS III and municipalities of Portugal, using conventional measures and other indicators, being aware the regional differences in economic performance. In convergence analysis, we intend to conclude about differences in convergence patterns among regions and among municipalities. To study convergence, we use information about GDP for regions NUTS III, and wages for regions NUTS III and municipalities. We observe spatial dependence between municipalities, so we estimate spatial econometric models to test convergence.

Drawing mainly on Lefebvre’s, Soja’s and Smith’s theorizations of space in order to understand the spatial dynamics of social inequality, this study investigates how a low-income Syrian refugee community negotiates its precarious location in a neighborhood on the periphery of one of Cairo’s desert ‘New Towns’. It also examines the way in which urban spatiality shapes the everyday lived reality of this particular community of Syrians. Through an ethnographic focus, I explore how Syrian people living in Cairo are marginalized through broader processes of neoliberal capitalist development which in turn give rise to socio-spatial disparities within cityspace. By developing the concept of socio-spatial exclusion imbued with defiant (hyper)locality, I argue that although these Syrian refugees lack access to transportation and other types of social services, they nevertheless manage to disrupt the spatial status-quo by devising creative solutions to problems concerning amenity availability in the neighborhood where they live. The investigation of these urban trajectories are guided by the notion that spatiality is at once a social product as well as a force in shaping social life. Research for this project draws on multiple sources, including conversations with neighborhood residents, interviews with NGOs and Cairo-based specialists on refugees and urban development, as well as ethnographic observation, an online questionnaire, satellite imagery and social media content.

Esta dissertação analisou a divisão social do espaço residencial intra-urbano a partir da sua relação com a desigualdade de renda. Utilizou-se como caso de estudo a cidade de Porto Alegre no período 1991-2000. A segmentação do espaço residencial urbano envolve a distribuição desigual dos poderes e direitos sobre a localização das moradias nas cidades, o que gera consequências significativas e duradouras nas características do tecido urbano, na formação de preços dos imóveis e no encontro entre grupos socialmente distintos. Duas hipóteses foram consideradas no presente estudo: a primeira hipótese associa a concentração de renda no espaço urbano à polarização socioespacial das áreas residenciais, nesta leitura os espaços residenciais estariam sofrendo um processo de homogeneização de renda combinado à redução dos espaços de classe média, esta hipótese aponta para a emergência de uma cidade dualizada entre ricos e pobres; a segunda hipótese associa a concentração de renda no espaço urbano ao aumento da seletividade e à fragmentação espacial das áreas residências dos estratos mais ricos, simultaneamente estaria ocorrendo o aumento da heterogeneidade dos espaços residenciais de classe média e dos pobres. Utilizou-se a variável renda do responsável por domicílio extraída do banco de dados dos Censos Demográficos de 1991 e 2000. O nível de desagregação da variável utilizada foi o setor censitário. As medidas de desigualdade de renda e de seletividade residencial utilizadas foram: índice de Gini, curva de Lorenz, renda relativa, curva de segregação, índice de dissimilaridade, índice de correlação espacial e análise de cartogramas. Os resultados encontrados apontam para a convergência das duas hipóteses. Por um lado, o espaço residencial dos mais ricos se tornou muito mais homogêneo, mas por outro lado, essas áreas estão relativamente mais concentradas no tecido urbano, demonstrando que a valorização territorial na década de 90 ocorreu principalmente nas adjacências de áreas que já eram ocupadas pelos mais ricos no início do período. Verificou-se também um relativo aumento da heterogeneidade do espaço da classe média e dos pobres, combinado à redução no percentual de domicílios nos espaços de classe média. Os resultados apontam para o aumento de domicílios nos espaços dos estratos superiores e inferiores de renda, o que sinaliza para uma polarização socioespacial. Conclui-se que a cidade de Porto Alegre se tornou mais desigual espacial e economicamente no período analisado.
This study examined the social division of intra-urban residential space from its relationship with income inequality. It was used as a case study the city of Porto Alegre in the period 1991-2000. The segmentation of urban residential space involves the unequal distribution of powers and rights on the location of housing units, which generates significant consequences on the spatial configuration, the pricing of real estate and in the encounter between different social groups. Two hypotheses were considered in this study: in the first hypothesis income inequality is associated with polarization of the residential areas, residential spaces in this reading would be undergoing a process of homogenization of income combined with the reduction of spaces for the middle class, this hypothesis points to the emergence of a dualized city between rich and poor; the second hypothesis associates the concentration of income in urban areas to increase the selectivity and the spatial fragmentation of the residential areas of the richest people, while there would be an increased heterogeneity of spaces middle class and poor people. We used the variable income per head of household extracted from the database of the population censuses of 1991 and 2000. The level of disaggregation of the variable used was the census sector. The measures of income inequality and residential selectivity were used: the Gini index, Lorenz curve, relative income, curve segregation, dissimilarity index, index of spatial correlation and analysis of maps. The results point to the convergence of two hypotheses. On the one hand, the richest of residential space has become much more homogeneous, but on the other hand, these areas are relatively more concentrated in the city, demonstrating that the recovery in the 90 territorial mainly occurred in the vicinity of areas that were already occupied by the rich at the beginning of the period. There was also a relative increase of the heterogeneity of the middle class and poor people, combined with the reduction in the percentage of households in the spaces of the middle class and increase in space from the upper and lower income, which points to a socio-spatial polarization. It is concluded that the city of Porto Alegre has become increasingly unequal spatial and economically in this period.

This dissertation aims to improve our understanding of the link between migrant ethnicity, space and socio-economic inequality. In the last three decades, the migratory pressure in Europe has reached significant levels. The massive flux of different ethnic groups has created significant tensions in many countries, causing widespread political conflicts and is now eroding the credibility of traditional political institutions. Here, we focused on three main issues, i.e., the residential segregation of immigrants, the immigrant’s earnings at the neighbourhood level and the school choice of immigrant families. Our approach has been quantitative and has tried to combine and integrate certain social, economic and geographical factors. The core of our study has been a detailed analysis on a census-style database on the Italian city of Brescia, which permitted us to geolocalise households at a block level. The structure of the dissertation includes four main chapters followed by a conclusion chapter. First presents an extensive literature review that examined various socio-economic aspects of migrations. We first considered housing market discrimination, segregation theories, segregation measurement. Besides we introduced literature on labour market discrimination, social inequality and neighbourhood and network effects. Furthermore, we reviewed second generation problems, education inequality, social cohesion and assimilation theories. The second presents an empirical study on Brescia, one of the most relevant cities in Italy for the share of immigrants. While this context allowed us to reflect on complex forms of segregation in South Europe, we explored segregation in the city. We analysed segregation by aggregate ethnic groups to cover the whole city immigrant population. These aggregates are East Europeans, South Asians, Middle Easterns and North Africans, Sub Saharan Africans, Chinese, East and South East Asians and South Americans. Segregation is particularly strong for South Asians and Chinese communities. The third chapter examines neighbourhood effect on immigrants’ earnings. The chapter considers the economic and social nexus of segregation by estimating neighbourhood effects on immigrants’ earnings within an urban context. For doing this, we linked socio-economic and spatial-demographic characteristics of immigrants by following an “egohood” approach, which jointly considers socialisation and proximity effects. An egohood is an ego-centred circular neighbourhood of given dimension around individual residence. We found that immigrants in areas with high probability to meet co-ethnics had lower earnings; there was no effect for the probability to meet natives. The fourth examines ethnic differentials in school choices in primary school as a determinant of education inequality. Education inequality is crucial in countries receiving considerable levels of migrations. We hypothesised that households choose schools by homophily, i.e. they chose a school with a high percentage of co-ethnics. Furthermore, we hypothesised that and households prefer schools with a high share of high socio economics status-pupils while being constrained by geographical proximity. Households are sensitive to socio-economic status, ethnic composition and home-school distance. However, we also found that choices by second-generation immigrants, i.e., those who were born in Italy, had lower differences with natives, while born abroad children display different choices. The fifth presents conclusions, limitation and future developments of this dissertation. Finally, some chapters reproduce independent research articles. This implies that some repetitions are possible, especially when discussing previous research and presenting the study context.

Orientador: Tirza Aidar, José Marcos Pinto da Cunha
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estsadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas
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Resumo: Diante da crescente importância que os programas de transferência de renda vêm apresentando nos últimos anos, cabe perguntar. Será que eles têm gerado influência em áreas que não eram pretendidas? Pensando que os fluxos migratórios diferenciam-se conforme a realidade sócio-econômica e que devido às desigualdades regionais as pessoas se locomovem em busca de melhores condições de vida, faz sentido pensar que os programas que visam melhorar a condição de vida da população e por conseqüência amenizar tais desigualdades, podem acabar por influenciar a migração? Esta dissertação pretende buscar indícios de que programas de transferência de renda como a Aposentadoria Rural, o Benefício de Prestação Continuada e, principalmente, o Programa Bolsa Família (PBF), tem influenciado na dinâmica migratória no estado da Bahia. Visando o alcance desse objetivo foram analisadas informações dos Censos Demográficos de 1991 e 2000, que cobrem o início e consolidação dos dois primeiros programas, e das PNAD's 2004 e 2009, período de implementação e crescimento da cobertura do PBF. Por intermédio de análises descritivas, contando também com registros de origem administrativa, avaliou-se a importância dos programas para a economia dos municípios baianos e o crescimento populacional vis a vis os Índices de Eficácia Migratória, segundo porte municipal e estrato de renda domiciliar per capita. Por último, analisou-se também o peso das transferências na composição da renda domiciliar, conforme o status migratório dos chefes de domicílio. Os resultados mostram indícios de maior retenção migratória, bem como um crescimento populacional diferenciado entre a população de baixa renda, principalmente nas cidades pequenas e médias e nas áreas rurais, onde se observa também maior importância do Programa Bolsa Família, que cresce na composição da renda entre os imigrantes de retorno
Abstract: In face of the growing importance that income transfer programs have been showing in the last years, it's suitable to ask: Have them shown importance in areas for which they were not intended? Thinking that migratory fluxes distinguish from one another accordingly to the economic and social reality of each one and that as a consequence of social inequality people move in the search for social mobility, it makes sense to think that the programs which intend to improve population life condition and as consequence eases such inequalities, may influence in migration? This dissertation intends to seek some sign that income transfer programs such as Rural Retirement, the Continued Provision Benefit and above all the Bolsa Família Program, have been influencing in the migratory dynamics of the state of Bahia. In the search for such an objective it will be utilized the Demographic Census of 1991 and 2000, which covers the beginning of the consolidation of the first two programs, and the PNAD's of 2004 and 2009, the period of implementation and growth of BFP. By means of descriptive analysis, relying also on the records of administrative origin, it was evaluated the importance of such programs to the economy of Bahia municipalities and the population growth in face to the Index of Migratory Efficiency, according to the municipality size and per capita house income cut. Finally, it was analyzed also the importance of the transferences in the composition of house income, according to the migratory status of the house head. The results show the bigger migratory retention, as well as a differentiated population growth between the low income population, mainly in small and average cities in rural areas, where it can be observed the greater importance of Bolsa Família Program, which grows in the income composition of return immigrants
Mestrado
Demografia
Mestre em Demografia

L’analyse des inégalités de développement régional au Royaume d’Arabie saoudite constitue l’objet de cette recherche qui a favorisé en premier lieu l’étude des facteurs qui expliquent la disparité spatiale. Il s’agit des facteurs naturels, historiques et humains mais aussi des différentes politiques économiques et du modèle de développement adoptés par les pouvoirs publics qui ont contribué à une répartition inégale des richesses et par conséquent du niveau de développement régional. En deuxième lieu et à travers un ensemble de variables économiques et sociales, les niveaux de développement entre les régions du Royaume ont été analysé ce qui a permis de distinguer deux trames de l'organisation de l'espace saoudien : un axe horizontal dans lequel sont concentrés la majorité de la population et des activités économiques, Dammam - Riyad - La Mecque ; et un axe vertical dominé par les grandes villes de la côte de la mer Rouge. En dernier lieu, l'étude de la politique de développement régional adoptée par les pouvoirs publics grâce d’une part à la « stratégie nationale spatiale » et d’autre part à l’adoption d’une politique de transferts sociaux, a permis d’analyser au niveau spatial les effets des centres de croissance et de corridors de développement et au niveau social les effets de la vulgarisation des infrastructures d'éducation et de santé
The analysis of the regional development inequalities in the Saudi Arabia kingdom make up the subject of this research, which favours, firstly the study of the factors that explain the spatial disparity. They are natural, historical and human factors but the are also different economical policies and development standards adapted by the Public Authorities that, consequently, contributed to an inequitable distribution of wealth as far as the regional development is concerned. Secondly, and through a range of social and economical variables, the development levels between regions of the Kingdom had been analysed, which allowed us to distinguish two grids in the organisation of the saudi space: a horizontal axis in which the majority of population and the economical activities are concentrated, Damma – Ryad – Mecca ; and a vertical axis dominated by the Red Sea Coasts big cities. Eventually, we studied the regional development policy adapted by the public authorities thanks to the « spatial national strategy » on the one hand and the adoption of the policy of social relocations on the other hand, which allowed us to analyse at the spatial level, the effects of growth centres and corridors of development and at the social level, the effects of popularization of health and education infrastructures

Spatial income inequality has received a considerable interest in the empirical literature. This stylized fact drives diverse aspects of regional economic growth with important consequences in social, geographical and political aspects. Moreover, regional disparities affect socio-economic development of individuals and extend their effects to the unequal distribution of living standards and opportunities across communities. One manifestation of spatial income inequality can be observed in the stratification of socioeconomic groups across space by linking this fact directly with the provision of local public services. In this sense, segregated groups not only reside in isolated communities but also, they live in diverse local jurisdictions that can differ in terms of fiscal and administrative capacities to provide local public services. Therefore, local governments matter because can exacerbate spatial income inequality due to its influence on the spatial distribution of local public services. The last element is crucial to understand why the quantity or quality of local public services differs across communities by affecting mainly to the poorest population, who are the most important target group for the application of these public policies. This thesis consists of three chapters that explore the relationship between spatial income inequality and the distribution of local public services. Particularly, the three chapters consider the relevant role that local governments play in the provision of these services. By doing so, we analyze the case of Chile, one of the most unequal countries of the world with a Gini index above 50 percent. This country has received a remarkable attention by scholars, researchers, and policymakers mainly for two aspects. First, the outstanding economic performance of Chile that can be observed on crucial socioeconomic indicators such as the poverty rate with a significant reduction from 40 percent in 1987 to 14 percent in 2014. Second, an important interest has received the high and persistent income inequality that the country exhibits where space plays an important role in its composition. Paredes, Iturra, and Lufin (2014) showed that 21 percent of income inequality can be attributable to differences across communities. Although this aspect is crucial to understand its persistence over time, this new evidence does not provide a complete picture of how this spatial income inequality is working. This thesis contributes to the better comprehension of this problem by considering the provision of local public services as a critical source of spatial income inequality. Therefore, differences in terms of financial and administrative capacities of local governments can determine the distributional effects of decentralized public policies such as education or healthcare which are designed to reduce income inequality. Finally, this thesis contributes to improving the association between the spatial income inequality manifestations and institutional aspects for a better understanding of this aspect which has been relatively less explored by the empirical literature. Chapter 1 studies how the omission of local public policies can affect the results of conventional measures of spatial income inequality. This paper offers an interesting overview of spatial income inequality and how it is affected by the provision of local public services in Chile. In this sense, we recognize that financial and institutional restrictions that local government face can explain the unequal distribution of local revenues across communities. Main results suggest that local public policies have been more effective than cash transfers to reduce income inequality. However, the inclusion of local public services managed largely by local governments increase spatial income inequality by about 20 percent. In this way, this paper highlights the surge of local public governments as a new potential source of inequality which cannot be ignored by the literature. This last statement is used as starting point for the second chapter to study how disparities in the provision of local public services can be observed in the space. Chapter 2 goes beyond the role of local public services by studying the relationship between their spatial distribution and residential segregation. The latter is considered as the most important manifestation of spatial income inequality because relates the location and characteristics of individuals with social equity issues. In this vein, the paper studies how the spatial accessibility to local public services is equitably distributed among different social and economic groups across the Metropolitan Area of Santiago (MR), Chile. In this way, we assume the residential segregation is not only observed in the clear distinction of economic groups across communities, also, it can be reinforced by the unequal distribution of local public services across the space. From this analysis, we can observe high disparities for accessing to local public services which are affecting more to the poorest population. Under this scenario, this crucial target group of public policies is affected by a “double-disadvantage” due to their exclusion from urban systems and their limited access to services such as education, healthcare or transportation (Borsdorf, Hidalgo, & Zunino, 2013) (Li H. , Wang, Shi, Deng, & Wang, 2017). Moreover, we found evidence that confirms that Chilean social housing policies could be considered as one cause of residential segregation given the resettlement of the poorer population to the periphery of the MR which is reinforced by the insufficient accessibility levels they must assume. Finally, Chapter 3 explores other aspects of spatial income inequality issues that concern the relationship between the spatial distribution of urban amenities and housing prices. Urban amenities have received a great attention by the scientific literature because can explain why some cities are more attractive than others. On the other hand, a large empirical body recognizes that the spatial distribution of amenities matters because they might stimulate regional economic growth, urban population, and employment. In this paper, we address this relationship through a hedonic pricing modeling and a set of urban amenities that includes local private and public services. Moreover, we recognize that capitalization of urban amenities into housing prices can be spatially heterogeneous distributed. Main results suggest that urban amenities play an important role in the definition of housing prices. However, we found important differences between private and local public services. Particularly, private services such as schools or hospitals have positive capitalizations in housing prices, meanwhile their public versions have negative valuations in housing prices. Again, these results can be related to administrative and financial restrictions that municipalities face providing local public services. Lastly, public policy implications can be redirected to optimize the spatial distribution of local public services by improving the match between residents’ demand and their provision.

碩士
淡江大學
產業經濟學系碩士班
106
There are many reasons can make income inequality expending, such as technological progress, human capital, globalization and changes in the labor market structure. However, when the economy depressed, the government often uses monetary policy to stimulate the economy, then many article show that the effect of monetary policy has positive and negative results. Therefore, this article follow Davide Furceri et. al., (2016), and studies whether the unexpected changes in the monetary policy of 56 countries in the world from 1998 to 2012 will increase the income inequality. In this paper, the variation of the Gini coefficient is used as the interpreted variable, and the change of the unanticipated monetary policy used as the explanatory variable. By using panel regression, quantile regression, spatial econometric regression and spatial quantile regression, we want to know three point. First, monetary policy change will effects income inequality; second, the monetary policy have the spatial effect; last, the effect of the monetary shock will have different effect in different country. Finally, this study leads to the following conclusions. First, when monetary policy tightening is not expected, the gini coefficient will be reduced in the short term, and increased in the medium term. Compared with Davide Furceri et. al., (2016), the gini coefficient is difference between the first and the second regression, the change is negative effect, and this result is just the opposite of Draghi (2016). Furthermore, when using regional data, spatial regression need to be used. The results of panel regression and spatial autocorrelation regression can be explained. Finally, The spatial quntile regression results show that in the low and middle quantile, the tight monetary policy will reduce the Gini coefficient, while the high quantile will increase the gini coefficient. The monetary shock will significantly effect gini coefficient with the economy in severe recession.

碩士
淡江大學
產業經濟學系碩士班
102
Corruption seems to be accompanied with the development of human history and exists in most countries in the world, including developed countries and developing countries. Corruption is defined as use of public office for private gain. Corruption will not only distort the market and the allocation of resource but also affect the growth of country and cause income inequality and poverty. Therefore, we are interested in how the severity of corruption impact on country''s income distribution in this article, and due to the behavior of the international cross-border exchanges, the spillover effects of corruption are brought into consideration. In this article we use not only the traditional Panel fixed effect model estimation but also Spatial Durbin Model to process empirical analysis. This study was conducted within 2003 to 2006 and used a sample of 92 countries. That results in a panel data set with 368 samples. Then these countries are classified as developed countries and developing countries to do extended research. The results show that the income inequality of a country is affected by neighboring countries’ corruption. It refers that corruption in neighboring countries will affect the domestic administrative system and thus have an impact on the domestic trade and income inequality. And the impact of corruption on the developed countries is more significant than others.

碩士
淡江大學
產業經濟學系碩士班
106
Education is an important factor in the formation of human capital. Improving the educational level is an objective pursued by governments. Taiwan has implemented nine-year national education since 1968. The educational inequality in Taiwan has been declining yearly, but the the income gap has increased year by year. Most of the literature is concerned about the uneven distribution of income and the lack of focus on education inequality. This study will use regional data from 1999 to 2014 in Taiwan to explore the relationship between education inequality and income gap. Each county and city is convenient for transportation, but due to different factors such as the geographical location, culture, and government policies of each county and city, the educational development and income gap of each county and city will be affected by the spillover effects of neighboring counties and cities in addition to their own influence. Therefore, this study will use the spatial econometric model to avoid the bias caused by omitted variables and use simultaneous equations to eliminate the endogenousness . The empirical result is that both educational inequality and income gaps have positive spatial autocorrelation.The more equal of counties and cities will be adjacent to each other, the smaller the difference between the county and city will be adjacent to each other. The educational inequality is negatively related to the income gap. The income gap will expand result in a decline in education inequality and a drop in education inequality, which will increase the income gap. This may due to the widening income gap, the greater the willingness of the poor to upgrade their academic qualifications, and the better job will improve their life, education inequality will decline, and unfair education will reduce employers'' wages to people with poorer education, thus the income gap will expand.

碩士
淡江大學
產業經濟學系碩士班
101
In the past twenty years, homeownership rate and income inequality in Taiwan have been increasing significantly. As we know, income is always a very important factor in housing decision. However, homeownership rate has been increasing substantially while the gap between the rich and the poor in Taiwan is increasing. This phenomenon leads us to study the causality of homeownership rate and income inequality in Taiwan’s 22 regions. By using data from the Survey of Family Income and Expenditure of DGBAS, we calculate homeownership rates and Gini coefficients for each of the Taiwan’s 22 regions from 1982 to 2006. Moreover, we use not only the panel VAR model for the estimation, but also the spatial panel VAR model, which considers the spillover effect across regions for the variables concerned. We also conduct Granger causality test and impulse response function after VAR estimation. The empirical results of spatial panel VAR estimation show that regional income inequality has no influence on regional homeownership rate in Taiwan’s 22 regions. On the other hand, regional homeownership rate and the spatial lags of income inequality have positive influences on regional income inequality in Taiwan regions. Moreover, the spatial lags of regional homeownership rate have negative influences on regional income inequality in Taiwan regions and the spatial spillover effect does exist in regional income inequality in Taiwan’s 22 regions.

This thesis studies the role of spatial factors in influencing the observed inequality in various spheres of life. Despite extensive research, the efforts to identify and tackle inequalities are nested in two interrelated but somehow separate domains. One genre of literature focuses on inequalities in "aspatial" form: inequality of income, wealth, consumption and inequalities due to gender, parental background, race and ethnicity. The other body of literature instead studies inequalities in a "spatial" form, which can be generalized as inequalities due to location: inequality in access to education, health services, public goods and to decent employment. Thus, there is often no explicit correspondence between the spatial and aspatial measures put forth and employed to empirically implement inequality investigations. This thesis aims to narrow this gap by employing methods and theories from both approaches. The notion of equality adapted by the thesis is defined as equality of opportunity (EOp), which holds in a society when the life chances of individuals depend solely on their own effort purged off exogenous factors that are defined as circumstances such as gender, race, ethnicity and family background. The thesis is comprised of three chapters, the first two chapters aim to bridge the theory and methods of EOp literature to Spatial Accessibility and Neighbourhood Effects studies respectively and the last chapter studies the Spatial Segregation by Income, motivated by the implications of equal opportunities arguments. The first chapter contributes to both accessibility and EOp literatures by a normative consideration of spatial equality analysing the physical distance from opportunities and the social distance between socio-economic groups. Moreover, using a survey data (Inserimento professionale dei laureati, 2011), the chapter shows that despite the expansion of higher education(HE) supply in the Italy took place during the period 1990-1997, there is still a high inequality in access to HE due to spatial distribution of opportunities and additional disparity due socioeconomic factors. The second chapter studies the role of parental neighbourhoods influencing the life chances of children both in terms of immediate effects on education and long-term effects on earnings. The chapter contributes to the neighbourhood studies by constructing individualized neighbourhoods based on a k nearest neighbour (knn) algorithm, which in return enhances the understanding of the temporal effects of neighbourhoods. Additionally, using the Place longitudinal data, the chapter quantifies the relative contribution of parental neighbourhoods to inequality of opportunity in Sweden. The third chapter of the thesis proposes a new index of spatial segregation by income and based on the evidence from Sweden, the chapter demonstrates the robustness of the proposed index.