Tesis sobre el tema "Sodicity"

Saline, sodic, and saline-sodic ground waters are problematic throughout the Northern Great Plains and Red River Valley. High sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and low electrical conductivity (EC) of soil solution and irrigation waters are known to create issues with saturated soil hydrologic conductivity. Our objective was determine the impact of saline, sodic and saline-sodic solutions on soil shrinkage and soil hydrologic properties. Soil shrinkage, water retention, and hydraulic conductivity were determined on a variety of soil textures following saturation with salt solutions of variable EC and SAR combinations. Data were fitted with simple theoretical models then model parameters statistically compared. Increasing SAR and decreasing EC of increased soil shrinkage, decreased hydraulic conductivity, and increased water retention near saturated conditions (i.e., > -100 cm H2O). Whereas saline-sodic waters resulted in the greatest rate of decline in saturated conductivity over time such as when salts would be managed without maintaining divalent cations.

Soil is the world’s largest terrestrial carbon (C) sink, and is estimated to contain approximately 1600 Pg of carbon to a depth of one metre. The distribution of soil organic C (SOC) largely follows gradients similar to biomass accumulation, increasing with increasing precipitation and decreasing temperature. As a result, SOC levels are a function of inputs, dominated by plant litter contributions and rhizodeposition, and losses such as leaching, erosion and heterotrophic respiration. Therefore, changes in biomass inputs, or organic matter accumulation, will most likely also alter these levels in soils. Although the soil microbial biomass (SMB) only comprises 1-5% of soil organic matter (SOM), it is critical in organic matter decomposition and can provide an early indicator of SOM dynamics as a whole due to its faster turnover time, and hence, can be used to determine soil C dynamics under changing environmental conditions.¶ Approximately 932 million ha of land worldwide are degraded due to salinity and sodicity, usually coinciding with land available for agriculture, with salinity affecting 23% of arable land while saline-sodic soils affect a further 10%. Soils affected by salinity, that is, those soils high in soluble salts, are characterised by rising watertables and waterlogging of lower-lying areas in the landscape. Sodic soils are high in exchangeable sodium, and slake and disperse upon wetting to form massive hardsetting structures. Upon drying, sodic soils suffer from poor soil-water relations largely related to decreased permeability, low infiltration capacity and the formation of surface crusts. In these degraded areas, SOC levels are likely to be affected by declining vegetation health and hence, decreasing biomass inputs and concomitant lower levels of organic matter accumulation. Moreover, potential SOC losses can also be affected from dispersed aggregates due to sodicity and solubilisation of SOM due to salinity. However, few studies are available that unambiguously demonstrate the effect of increasing salinity and sodicity on C dynamics. This thesis describes a range of laboratory and field investigations on the effects of salinity and sodicity on SOC dynamics.¶ In this research, the effects of a range of salinity and sodicity levels on C dynamics were determined by subjecting a vegetated soil from Bevendale, New South Wales (NSW) to one of six treatments. A low, mid or high salinity solution (EC 0.5, 10 or 30 dS/m) combined with a low or high sodicity solution (SAR 1 or 30) in a factorial design was leached through a non-degraded soil in a controlled environment. Soil respiration and the SMB were measured over a 12-week experimental period. The greatest increases in SMB occurred in treatments of high-salinity high-sodicity, and high-salinity low-sodicity. This was attributed to solubilisation of SOM which provided additional substrate for decomposition for the microbial population. Thus, as salinity and sodicity increase in the field, soil C is likely to be rapidly lost as a result of increased mineralisation.¶ Gypsum is the most commonly-used ameliorant in the rehabilitation of sodic and saline-sodic soils affected by adverse soil environmental conditions. When soils were sampled from two sodic profiles in salt-scalded areas at Bevendale and Young, SMB levels and soil respiration rates measured in the laboratory were found to be low in the sodic soil compared to normal non-degraded soils. When the sodic soils were treated with gypsum, there was no change in the SMB and respiration rates. The low levels of SMB and respiration rates were due to low SOC levels as a result of little or no C input into the soils of these highly degraded landscapes, as the high salinity and high sodicity levels have resulted in vegetation death. However, following the addition of organic material to the scalded soils, in the form of coarsely-ground kangaroo grass, SMB levels and respiration rates increased to levels greater than those found in the non-degraded soil. The addition of gypsum (with organic material) gave no additional increases in the SMB.¶ The level of SOC stocks in salt-scalded, vegetated and revegetated profiles was also determined, so that the amount of SOC lost due to salinisation and sodication, and the increase in SOC following revegetation relative to the amount of SOC in a vegetated profile could be ascertained. Results showed up to three times less SOC in salt-scalded profiles compared to vegetated profiles under native pasture, while revegetation of formerly scalded areas with introduced pasture displayed SOC levels comparable to those under native pasture to a depth of 30 cm. However, SOC stocks can be underestimated in saline and sodic landscapes by setting the lower boundary at 30 cm due to the presence of waterlogging, which commonly occurs at a depth greater than 30 cm in saline and sodic landscapes as a result of the presence of high or perched watertables. These results indicate that successful revegetation of scalded areas has the potential to accumulate SOC stocks similar to those found prior to degradation.¶ The experimental results from this project indicate that in salt-affected landscapes, initial increases in salinity and sodicity result in rapid C mineralisation. Biomass inputs also decrease due to declining vegetation health, followed by further losses as a result of leaching and erosion. The remaining native SOM is then mineralised, until very low SOC stocks remain. However, the C sequestration potential in these degraded areas is high, particularly if rehabilitation efforts are successful in reducing salinity and sodicity. Soil ecosystem functions can then be restored if organic material is available as C stock and for decomposition in the form of either added organic material or inputs from vegetation when these salt-affected landscapes are revegetated.

Surface salinity processes are highly dynamic and the methods needed to properly detect them must respond to that dynamism making remote sensing a tool particularly well-suited for the management of salinized lands. It allows the monitoring of affected lands for the prevention of serious degradation through appropriate and timely action it is less costly in terms of time and resources than conventional methods and it is suited to the monitoring of large areas. Researchers are exploring how it can be adapted to the detection of moderate levels of salinity that could perhaps help to better prevent further degradation. The main aim of this research is to assess for the first time the potential of the ALI sensor (Advanced Land Imager) on board the EO-1 satellite, with its rich infrared bands, for the identification and mapping of salinity and sodicity. Through the testing of different salinity indices found in the literature, semi-empirical predictive models were developed which could be suited to the characterization and mapping of sodic and saline soil conditions in semi-arid agricultural areas, using the Tadla's irrigated perimeter of Morocco as a test case. Predictive models were based on a second order regression analysis calculated between the E.C. of soils affected by salinity and sodicity, and different spectral salinity indices using spectroradiometric ground measurements. Emphasis was placed on detecting slight and moderate soil salinity and sodicity, which has been considered a challenge in the past. Semi-empirical models were derived from the data, and applied to an ALI image for analysis. Visual comparisons and statistical validation of these models using ground truth were undertaken in order to identify the best model for the mapping of salinity and sodicity in the Tadla's irrigated perimeter of Morocco.

Soil salinity (due to ingress of excess amounts of dissolved salts in soil pores) and soil sodicity (due to excess amounts of sodium ions attached to the clay surface) are significant forms of land degradation in many parts of the world in particular in arid and semi arid regions. In Australia, soil salinity has long been identified as the major form of land degradation and the greatest environmental threat. Saline soils cover almost 6% of Australia’s land mass and impose severe threats on agricultural productivity and built infrastructure with an estimated annual loss of $250 million. In recent years, ‘soil sodicity’ is recognised as a far more significant form of land degradation and a severe environmental problem both in terms of affected land area and impact on the environment than is salinity as a problem in Australia. One third of Australian land mass is occupied by sodic soils costing an estimated $2 billion each year in lost production alone, with further significant impacts on the economy due to extensive damage to infrastructure facilities and the environment. [...]
Doctor of Philosophy

Soil salinity (due to ingress of excess amounts of dissolved salts in soil pores) and soil sodicity (due to excess amounts of sodium ions attached to the clay surface) are significant forms of land degradation in many parts of the world in particular in arid and semi arid regions. In Australia, soil salinity has long been identified as the major form of land degradation and the greatest environmental threat. Saline soils cover almost 6% of Australia’s land mass and impose severe threats on agricultural productivity and built infrastructure with an estimated annual loss of $250 million. In recent years, ‘soil sodicity’ is recognised as a far more significant form of land degradation and a severe environmental problem both in terms of affected land area and impact on the environment than is salinity as a problem in Australia. One third of Australian land mass is occupied by sodic soils costing an estimated $2 billion each year in lost production alone, with further significant impacts on the economy due to extensive damage to infrastructure facilities and the environment. [...]
Doctor of Philosophy

Soil salinity (due to ingress of excess amounts of dissolved salts in soil pores) and soil sodicity (due to excess amounts of sodium ions attached to the clay surface) are significant forms of land degradation in many parts of the world in particular in arid and semi arid regions. In Australia, soil salinity has long been identified as the major form of land degradation and the greatest environmental threat. Saline soils cover almost 6% of Australia’s land mass and impose severe threats on agricultural productivity and built infrastructure with an estimated annual loss of $250 million. In recent years, ‘soil sodicity’ is recognised as a far more significant form of land degradation and a severe environmental problem both in terms of affected land area and impact on the environment than is salinity as a problem in Australia. One third of Australian land mass is occupied by sodic soils costing an estimated $2 billion each year in lost production alone, with further significant impacts on the economy due to extensive damage to infrastructure facilities and the environment. [...]
Doctor of Philosophy

This study investigates the relationships between vegetation and salinity and sodicity in wetland meadows in the Chilcotin region of British Columbia. Eleven vegetation communities and one group of releves with no vegetation were identified using cluster analysis. An exchangeable sodium per cent of 15 and an electrical conductivity of 4 mmhos/cm were found to be appropriate boundaries for distinguishing between saline and sodic tolerant and intolerant vegetation communities. Some salt tolerant species and communities occurred in fresh conditions; however, intolerant species and communities were rarely found in saline or sodic conditions. Most meadows have soils that are low in salts, but 20 per cent had a high electrical conductivity and 18 per cent had a high exchangeable sodium per cent.
Land and Food Systems, Faculty of
Graduate

Salt affected soils and their effects on land and water resources have been identified as one of the most severe environmental problems facing Australia. This current study focused on the incorporation of recycled organic products (RO) into an acidic saline soil that had been irrigated with an industrial effluent (IE), specifically to investigate the potential for these organics to be used in rehabilitation. Compost incorporated into the acidic saline soil was able to raise pH to more favourable levels required for plant growth (pH 6 – 7.5). Plant growth was however dependent on the input material of the compost as well as the irrigation scheme. The soils amended with this compost generally showed higher and more rapid microbial activity, measured by CO2 emissions, in all amendment rates than the plant derived compost. Overall it could be concluded that the application of RO on saline soils improved the establishment and growth of plants and alleviated to some degree the negative effects of IE. However great care should be taken at the selection of the input material, as high rates of ammonium, calcium and other soluble salts can increase the EC of an amended soil further.

Salt affected soils and their effects on land and water resources have been identified as one of the most severe environmental problems facing Australia. This current study focused on the incorporation of recycled organic products (RO) into an acidic saline soil that had been irrigated with an industrial effluent (IE), specifically to investigate the potential for these organics to be used in rehabilitation. Compost incorporated into the acidic saline soil was able to raise pH to more favourable levels required for plant growth (pH 6 – 7.5). Plant growth was however dependent on the input material of the compost as well as the irrigation scheme. The soils amended with this compost generally showed higher and more rapid microbial activity, measured by CO2 emissions, in all amendment rates than the plant derived compost. Overall it could be concluded that the application of RO on saline soils improved the establishment and growth of plants and alleviated to some degree the negative effects of IE. However great care should be taken at the selection of the input material, as high rates of ammonium, calcium and other soluble salts can increase the EC of an amended soil further.

Extreme salinity is one of the most common environmental constraints with which legume/rhizobia symbionts must deal in arid and semi-arid regions of the world. In some areas, with good management, it has been economically possible to ameliorate the saline soil with calcium. The objective of this study, therefore, was to investigate calcium amelioration of salinity (sodicity) on nitrogen fixation, stomatal resistance, potassium/sodium ratio, and total nitrogen of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Seeds of snapbeans were grown in pots under green house conditions and were irrigated with NaCl concentrations of 0, 0.4, 0.8 or 1.2 S m-1 combined with CaS04 . 2H20 or CaCl2. 2H20 , each at concentrations of 0, 4, and 8 mM . The results show that increasing NaCl concentration decreased leaf water potential, total leaf chlorophyll, shoot and root dry weight, and nitrogen fixation but increased stomatal diffusive resistance. At the highest level of NaCl, addition of CaS04to NaCl increased leaf water potential via increasing stomatal diffusive resistance. Such effects were not observed with the addition of CaCl2 to NaCl. Addition of CaS04 to all levels of NaCl increased total leaf chlorophyll. The shoot and root dry weight and nitrogen fixation was also increased when CaS04 was added to 0.4 and 0.8 S m-1 NaCl. Again, such effects were not observed with the addition of CaCl2 to NaCl. Furthermore, analysis of leaf mineral composition showed that leaf Ca2+ , Mg2+ and K+ were increased with each increase in NaCl concentration, whereas the K+/ Na+ ratio was decreased. Also, the total leaf nitrogen increased with 0.4 and 1.2 S m-1 NaCl as well as with all levels of CaS04. Neither CaS04 nor CaCl2 had any significant effect on leaf K+, Na+, or Mg2+ of the plant when they were added to different levels of NaCl. However, leaf Ca2+ increased with an increase in concentration of CaS04 or CaCl2, but only CaS04 exhibited an interaction when combined with NaCl. Speciation modeling showed that a considerable amount of S04 was complexed as the CaS04° and NaS04- species. In spite of this, CaS04 treatment had ameliorating effect on NaCl induced salinity symptoms in snapbeans.

This thesis contributes to identifying the importance of studying the specific nature of soils pertaining to soil impacts subjected to irrigation with coal seam gas water. Focusing on the sodium impact, changes in soil behaviour as well as the sodium adsorption potential of three Queensland soils were observed and analysed. In doing so, it was found that beneficial reuse of CSG water can be used on agricultural land provided irrigation is carefully managed.

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In regions of arid and semiarid weather, due to high evaporation rates and low annual rainfall, there is the formation of soils with high levels of soluble salts and / or exchangeable sodium, affecting directly their physical and chemical characteristics, limiting or even preventing plant growth. This problem is old, but its magnitude and intensity have been increasing due to the adoption of inappropriate farming practices, especially in areas where soils are more susceptible to natural degradation process. Aiming to evaluate the effect of gypsum on the modification of physico-chemical properties of saline-sodic soils collected in the Irrigated Perimeter of Ibimirim-PE, an experiment was carried out in soil columns installed in the Laboratory of Soil Mechanics and Utilization Waste from the Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco-UFRPE. The treatments were arranged in a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement of two soils (S1 and S2) and seven levels of gypsum requirement (50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 and 200%) determined by the Method Laboratory Schoonover -M1. The plaster was incorporated to the soil in three replicates, totaling 42 experimental units. The parameters evaluated were: Electrical Conductivity (EC), Soluble Cations and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) in the saturation paste extract of soil, the sodium and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP), the EC and the soluble sodium of solution drained, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ko) and degree of flocculation (DF). The level of the 100% of plaster need caused decreased of sodicity to values of SAR < 13 mmolc L-1 and ESP <15%, presenting itself as an effective method in reducing the levels of exchangeable sodium in salt-affected areas. The water depth of three times the volume of pores decreased the EC of folder saturation to values < 4 dS m-1, is indicated for the correction of soils salinity in the study. Increasing amounts of the levels of correctives resulted in increased levels of saturated hydraulic conductivity of soils and degree of flocculation.
Em regiões de clima árido e semiárido, devido às altas taxas de evaporação e a baixa precipitação pluviométrica anual, ocorre a formação de solos com teores elevados de sais solúveis e/ou sódio trocável, afetando diretamente suas características físicas e químicas, limitando ou até mesmo impedindo o crescimento das plantas. Esse problema é antigo, mas sua magnitude e intensidade vêm aumentando devido à adoção de práticas agrícolas inadequadas, especialmente em áreas de solos mais sensíveis ao processo de degradação natural. Com o objetivo de avaliar o efeito da aplicação do gesso na alteração das características físico-químicas de solos salino-sódicos coletados no Perímetro Irrigado de ibimirim-pe, um experimento foi realizado em colunas de solo instaladas no Laboratório de Mecânica do Solo e Aproveitamento de Resíduo da Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco-UFRPE. Os tratamentos foram dispostos num delineamento inteiramente casualizado coda necessidade de gesso (50, 75, 100, 125, 150, 175 e 200%) determinado pelo Método de Laboratório Schoonover-M1. O gesso foi incorporado ao solo, em três repetições, totalizando 42 unidades experimentais. Os parâmetros avaliados foram: a Condutividade Elétrica (CE), cátions solúveis e Relação de Adsorção de Sódio (RAS) no extrato da pasta de saturação do solo; o sódio e a Percentagem de Sódio Trocável (PST), a CE e o sódio solúvel da solução drenada; a condutividade hidráulica saturada (Ko) e o grau de floculação (GF). O nível de 100% da necessidade de gesso causou diminuição da sodicidade para valores de RAS < 13 mmolc L-1 e PST <15%, apresentando-se como método eficiente na redução dosm esquema fatorial de dois solos (S1 e S2) e sete níveis teores de sódio trocável em áreas afetadas por sais. A lâmina de lixiviação de três vezes o volume de poros reduziu a CE para valores < 4 dS m-1, sendo indicada para a correção da salinidade dos solos em estudo. As quantidades crescentes dos níveis do corretivo provocaram aumento na condutividade hidráulica saturada dos solos e no grau de floculação.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior
To estimate clay dispersion susceptibility, the water dispersible clay (WDC) is determined in the laboratory. This analysis may not correspond to reality observed in the field, when saline and saline-sodic soils are present, due to the relatively high salt concentration in the soil solution. In addition, results of determinations of saturates hydraulic conductivity (K0) in the laboratory with distilled or deionized water, may also not match the field conditions in these soils. Thus, we determined the dispersed clay (DC) and the K0, in the laboratory using working solutions of different electrical conductivities (EC) in seven representative soils of Pernambuco State, with exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) set in the range of 5-30%. In the determination of DC was used a factorial arrangement (7x6x5): 7 soils, 6 adjustments in ESP values (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30%) and 5 EC (0, 0.3, 0.6; 0.9 and 1.2 dS m-1). In the K0 assay was used a factorial arrangement (7x3x3): 7 soil, 3 adjustments in ESP values (5, 15 and 30%) and 3 EC (0, 0.6 and 1.2 dS m-1). The adjustment of ESP was performed by saturating the soil with solutions of sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) appropriate. The DC was obtained by stirring a suspension of 400 ml in 500 mL containers, using a Wagner rotary shaker for 16 h, at 50 rpm. The K0 was measured using constant head permeameter. The experimental results show that there was an increase in the values of DC directly related to the increase in ESP and decrease in EC, also resulting in a decrease in the value K0. The response to treatment was more pronounced in soils with higher proportions of active clays compared to those with a strong presence of iron oxides. The presence of more active clay causes reduction in K0 compared to soils with high percentage of oxides. Those soils are more susceptible to K0 variations due to ESP. Also there is a marked influence of water EC used in the analysis or for irrigation. Measurements of WDC and K0, usually associated with problems of infiltration, erosion and deterioration of the soil structure, are generally performed in laboratories with deionized or distilled water, EC close to 0 dS m-1. However, for salt affected soils, the analysis should be carried out with solutions of EC ≠ 0 dS m-1, using values close to the EC of the saturation extract.
Para estimar a tendência à dispersão de argilas, determina-se, em laboratório, o teor de argila dispersa em água (ADA). Essa análise pode não corresponder à realidade no campo em solos salinos e salino-sódicos, em que a solução desses apresenta concentrações relativamente elevadas de sais. Em acréscimo, resultados de determinações da condutividade hidráulica em meio saturado (K0) em laboratório, com água destilada ou deionizada, podem também não corresponder às condições de campo nesses solos. Determinaram-se a argila dispersa (AD) e a K0, em laboratório, utilizando soluções de trabalho de diferentes condutividades elétricas (CE) em sete solos representativos do Estado de Pernambuco, com percentagem de saturação de sódio (PST) ajustada no intervalo de 5-30%. Na determinação da AD, utilizou-se arranjo fatorial (7x6x5): sete solos, seis ajustes nos valores da PST (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 e 30%) e cinco CE (0; 0,3; 0,6; 0,9; e 1,2 dS m-1). No ensaio da K0, usou-se arranjo fatorial (7x3x3): sete solos, três ajustes nos valores da PST (5, 15 e 30 %) e três CE (0; 0,6 e 1,2 dS m-1). O ajuste da PST foi realizado, saturando os solos com soluções de relação de adsorção de sódio (RAS) apropriadas. A AD foi obtida agitando-se 400 mL de suspensão em recipientes de 500 mL, em agitador rotatório Wagner, durante 16 h, a 50 rpm. A K0 foi quantificada por meio de permeâmetros de carga constante. Os resultados experimentais evidenciaram que houve incremento nos valores da AD diretamente relacionado com o aumento da PST e a diminuição da CE na solução de trabalho, resultando também na diminuição nos valores da K0. A resposta aos tratamentos foi mais acentuada nos solos com maiores proporções de argilas ativas frente àqueles com presença marcante de óxidos de ferro. A presença de argilas mais ativas leva à diminuição da K0, quando comparada com solos com maior proporção de óxidos, tornando esses mais susceptíveis a variações de K0, em decorrência da PST, com marcada influência da CE da água eventualmente utilizada na análise ou na irrigação. As determinações da ADA e de K0, geralmente associadas a problemas de infiltração, erosão e degradação da estrutura dos solos, são realizadas em laboratórios com água deionizada ou destilada, de CE próxima de 0 dS m-1; no entanto, para solos afetados por sais, as análises deveriam ser realizadas com soluções de CE ≠ 0 dS m-1, utilizando valores próximos aos do extrato da pasta de saturação.

The Central Queensland University developed an on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology. Septic tanks were used for primary treatment and the discharged effluent was then pumped though a series of contained channels. The channels were designed to be a modified evapotranspiration trench; they were comprised of an aggregate layer and a soil layer in which were planted a variety of plants. The aggregate and the soil provided physical filtration, the microorganisms within the effluent, aggregate and soil provided nutrient reuse and transformation and the plants also used the nutrients and reused the treated effluent through evapotranspiration. Any effluent that was not transpired was returned to a holding tank and pumped through the evapotranspiration again. The treatment technology was assessed in relation to its ability to treat effluent in a sustainable manner. The water and soil was examined for concentrations of nutrients, heavy metals, salts, sodium, and organic carbon %. The pH, temperature and number of colony forming units of certain microorganism potential pathogens were also inspected in the soil and the water. The plants grown within the evapotranspiration channels were assessed in regards to their health, water usage, and in some cases potential pathogens on fruit. The infrastructure that was used to construct the wastewater treatment and reuse system was also evaluated in regards to reliability and maintenance. Certain limiting factors, in particular sodicity and salinity were identified, but the trial was successful and a sustainable form of on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology was developed.

Foram realizadas análises isotópicas, físicas e químicas na água, no solo e nas plantas do Sistema de Produção Integrado Utilizando Efluentes de Dessalinização, criado pela Embrapa Semiárido, como uma alternativa para a reutilização desses efluentes na produção de alimentos e diminuição do impacto ambiental causado pelo descarte incorreto deste rejeito. O sistema avaliado se localiza no Campo Experimental da Caatinga, na Embrapa Semiárido (Petrolina-PE). Os resultados encontrados quanto à ciclagem dos nutrientes indicaram a ocorrência de uma contínua adição dos cátions Ca+2, Mg+2 , K+ e Na+ no solo durante o experimento, de 199 kg ha-1, 88 kg ha-1, 51 kg ha-1 e 142 kg ha-1, respectivamente. A eficiência de retirada do Ca+2, Mg+2 e Na+ pela Atriplex nummularia foi de 12,1, 4,3 e 23,9%, respectivamente; Ocorreu uma elevada perda de nitrogênio no sistema causado pelo processo de denitrificação, que diminuiu a concentração de nitrogênio em 72% do inicio ao final do sistema, levando este nutriente em quantidades insuficientes para a área agrícola. Estes resultados serão utilizados para indicar caminhos de melhorias no sistema. Ainda, quanto aos resultados isotópicos, foi possível concluir que: a água sofre um fracionamento durante o processo de osmose reversa na ordem de 1,87 para o 18O e 10,3 para o 2H; A água do poço é formada por uma mistura de águas recentes e paleoáguas; A relação 18O vs 2H; possui um coeficiente angular de 4,1, indicando elevada evaporação neste elemento; O solo avaliado possui uma média isotópica de -24 de 13C no solo de caatinga e -20 de 13C na área experimental, indicando uma troca da matéria orgânica desta área por material proveniente da Atriplex, que teve uma razão isotópica média de -13,7 .de 13C.
Isotopic, physical and chemical analysis were performed in water, soil and plants of the \" Integrated Production System Using Wastewater Desalination \", created Embrapa Semiarid, as an alternative to reuse of wastewater for food production and reducing the environmental impact caused by the incorrect disposal of the reject. The evaluated system is located in the Experimental Área Caatinga at Embrapa Semi-Arid (Petrolina-PE). The findings about the cycling of nutrients indicated the occurrence of a continuous addition of Ca+2, Mg+2, K+ and Na+ in the soil during the experiment of, 199 kg ha-1, 88 kg ha-1, 51 kg ha-1 and 142 kg ha-1, respectively. The efficiency of removal of Ca+2, Mg+2 and Na+ by Atriplex nummularia was 12,1, 4,3 and 23,9% respectively; Was observed high loss of nitrogen in the system caused by denitrification process, which decreased the concentration of nitrogen by 72% from beginning to end system, taking this nutrient in insufficient quantities to agricultural area. These results will be used for indicate ways to improve the system. Also, with the isotopic results was concluded that: water undergoes fractionation during the process of reverse osmosis the order of 1,87 to 18O and 10,3 for 2H; The well water is formed by a mixture of recent water and paleoáguas; The relationship 18O vs 2H; has a slope of 4,1, indicating high evaporation of this element; The soil has an average rated -24 in isotopic 13C in savanna soi and -20 of 13C in the experimental area, indicating an exchange of matter of this area of organic material from Atriplex, which had an average isotopic ratio of -13,7 . of 13C.

Irrigation water of poor quality can have deleterious effects on soils. However, the effect of drip irrigation on seasonal and long term (e.g. over 50 years) changes in soil chemical properties is poorly understood, complicated by the two-dimensional water flow patterns beneath drippers. Field and laboratory experiments were conducted, along with computer modelling, to evaluate morphological and physio-chemical changes in a typical Barossa Valley Red Brown Earth (Palexeralf, Chromosol or Lixisol) when drip irrigated under various changing management practices. This work focused on the following two management changes : (i) switching from long-term irrigation with a saline source to less saline water and (ii) gypsum (CaSO₄) application. A literature review (Chapter 1) focuses on the distribution, features, properties and management of Red Brown Earths in the premium viticultural regions of the Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale, South Australia. The effects of irrigation method and water quality on the rate and extent of soil deterioration are emphasised. The review also discusses the irrigation of grapes (Vitis vinifera) and summarises previous research into the effect of sodicity and salinity on grape and wine characteristics. This chapter shows the importance of Red Brown Earths to Australian viticulture, but highlights their susceptibility to chemical and physical degradation. Degradation may be prevented or remediated by increasing organic matter levels, applying gypsum, modifying cropping and through tillage practices such as deep ripping. Chapter 2 provides general information on the two study sites investigated, one in the Barossa Valley and the other at McLaren Vale. Local climate, geology, geomorphology and soils are described. Chapter 3 details laboratory, field and sampling methods used to elucidate changes in soil chemical and physical properties following irrigation. The genesis of the non-irrigated Red Brown Earth in the Barossa Valley is described in Chapter 4, and is inferred from geochemical, soil chemical, layer silicate and carbonate mineralogical data. Elemental gain and loss calculations showed 42% of original parent material mass was lost during the formation of A and A2 horizons, while the Bt1 and Bt2 horizons gained 50% of original parent material mass. This is consistent with substrate weathering and illuviation of clay from surface to lower horizons. The depth distributions of all major elements were similar ; the A horizon contained lower amounts of major elements than the remainder of the profile, indicating this region was intensely weathered. This chapter also compares the non-irrigated site to the adjacent irrigated site (separated by 10 m) to determine if the sites are pedogenically identical and geochemical changes from irrigation. Many of the differences between the non-irrigated and irrigated sites appear to be correlated with variations in quartz, clay, Fe oxide and carbonate contents, with little geological variation between the sample sites. In Chapter 5 morphological, chemical and physical properties of a non-irrigated and irrigated Red Brown Earth in the Barossa Valley are compared. Alternating applications of saline irrigation water (in summer) and non-saline rain water (in winter) have caused an increase in electrical conductivity (EC [subscript se]), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), bulk density (ρ b) and pH. This has resulted in enhanced clay dispersion and migration. Impacts on SAR and ρ b are more pronounced at points away from the dripper due to the presence of an argillic horizon, which has greatly influenced the variations in these soil properties with depth and distance from the dripper. Dispersion and migration of clay were promoted by alternating levels of EC, while SAR remained relatively constant, resulting in the formation of a less permeable layer in the Bt1 horizon. Clay dispersion (breakdown of micro-aggregate structure) was inferred from reduced numbers of pores and voids, alterations in colouring (an indication that iron has changed oxidation state) and increased bulk density (up to 30 %). Eleven years of irrigation changed the soil from a Calcic Palexeralf (non-irrigated) to an Aquic Natrixeralf (irrigated) (Soil Survey Staff, 1999). These results, combined with data from Chapter 4, were used to develop a mechanistic model of soil changes with irrigation. Chapters 6, 7 and 8 describe field experiments conducted in the Barossa Valley and McLaren Vale regions. This data shows seasonal and spatial variations in soil saturation extract properties ( EC [subscript se], SAR [subscript se], Na [subscipt se] and Ca [subscript se] ). At the Barossa Valley site (Chapter 6) non-irrigated soils had low EC [subscript se], SAR [subscript se], Na [subscript se] and Ca [subscript se] values throughout the sampling period. The irrigated treatments included eleven years of drip irrigation with saline water (2.5 dS / m) and also gypsum application at 0, 4 or 8 tonnes/hectare in 2001 and 2002. Salts in the profile increased with gypsum application rate, with high levels occurring midwinter 2002 prior to rainfall leaching salts. SAR has declined with gypsum application, particularly in the A horizon and at 100 cm from the dripper in the Bt1 horizon ; this has the potential to reflocculate clay particles and improve soil hydraulic conductivity. Chapter 7 presents further results from the Barossa Valley site, this treatment had been irrigated for 9 years with saline water (2.5 dS / m) prior to switching to a less saline water source (0.5 dS / m). The soil also received gypsum at 0, 4 or 8 tonnes / hectare in 2001 and 2002. It was found that the first few years are critical when switching to a less saline water source. EC declines rapidly, but SAR requires a number of years, depending on conditions, to decline, resulting in a period during which the Bt1 horizon may become dispersed. Gypsum application increased the EC [subscipt se] but not to the EC [subscript se] levels of soil irrigated with saline water. Chapter 8 examines soil chemical properties of a McLaren Vale vineyard, irrigated with moderately saline water (1.2 dS / m) since 1987 and treated with gypsum every second year since establishment. This practice prevented the SAR (< 8) rising and a large zone of the soil profile (20 to 100 cm from dripper) has a high calcium level (> 5 mmol / L). However, irrigation caused the leaching of calcium beneath the dripper in both the A and B horizons (0 to 20 cm from dripper) (< 4 mmol / L). Chapters 9 and 10 interpret and discuss results from continuous monitoring of redox potential (Eh) and soil solution composition in the Barossa Valley vineyard, irrigated with saline or non-saline water, and gypsum-treated at 0 and 4 tonnes / hectare. Soil pore water solution (Chapter 9) collected by suction cups is compared to results obtained in chapters 6 and 7. The soil has extended zones and times of high SAR and low EC. This was particularly evident in the upper B horizon, where the SAR of the soil remained stable throughout the year while the EC was more seasonally variable with EC declining during the winter months. The A horizon does not appear to be as susceptible to clay dispersion (compared to the B horizon) because during periods of low EC the SAR also declines, which may be due to the low CEC (low clay and organic matter content) of this horizon. Chapter 10 presents redox potentials (Eh) measured using platinum redox electrodes installed in the A, A2 and Bt1 horizons to examine whether Eh of the profile varies with irrigation water quality and gypsum application. Saline irrigation water caused the B horizon to become waterlogged in winter months, while less saline irrigation water caused a perched watertable to develop, due to a dispersed Bt1 horizon. Application of gypsum reduced the soil Eh particularly in the A2 horizon (+ 500 to + 50 mV) during winter. Thus redox potential can be influenced by irrigation water quality and gypsum applications. Chapter 11 incorporated site data from the Barossa Valley non-irrigated site into a predictive mathematical model, TRANSMIT, a 2D version of LEACHM. This model was used to predict zones of gypsum accumulation during long-term irrigation (67 years). When applied over the entire soil surface, gypsum accumulated at 60 to 90 cm from the dripper in the B horizon; higher application rates caused increased accumulation. When applied immediately beneath the irrigation dripper, gypsum accumulated in a 'column' under the dripper (at 0 to 35 cm radius from the dripper), with very little movement away from the dripper. Also, the zone of accumulation of salts from high and low salinity irrigation water was investigated. These regions were found to be similar, although concentrations were significantly lower with low salinity water. In low rainfall years salts accumulated throughout the B horizon (35 - 150 cm), while in periods of high rainfall (and leaching) the A, A2 and Bt1 horizons (0 - 60 cm) were leached, although at greater depths (80 - 150 cm) salt concentrations remained high. Chapter 12 summarises results and provides an understanding of soil processes in drip irrigated soils to underpin improved management options for viticulture. This study combines results from redox and soil solution monitoring, mineralogy, elemental gains and losses, and seasonal soil sampling to develop a mechanistic model of soil processes, which was combined with computer modelling to predict future properties of the soil. Major conclusions and recommendations of this study include : - Application of saline irrigation water to soil then ameliorated with gypsum - The first application of gypsum was leached by the subsequent irrigation from extended regions of the soil. As Na continues to enter the system via irrigation water, gypsum needs to be regularly applied. Otherwise calcium will be leached through the soil and SAR increases. - Application of non-saline irrigation water to soil then ameliorated with gypsum - The soil was found to only require one application at 8 tons / ha as this reduced SAR sufficiently. As less salt is entering the soil, subsequent gypsum applications can be at a lower rate or less frequently than required for saline irrigation water. - Gypsum applied directly beneath the dripper systems distributes calcium to a narrow region of the soil, while large regions of the soil require amelioration (high SAR) and are not receiving calcium. Therefore, gypsum application through the drip system or only beneath the dripper should be combined with broad acre application. - A range of methods to sample vineyards is recommended for duplex soils, including the use of saturation extracts, sampling time, sampling location (distance from dripper) and depth of sampling. This work is critical for vineyard management and may be applicable to other Australian viticulture regions with Red Brown Earths.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2004.

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The present study had as objective to evaluate the effectiveness of applying different levels of gypsum on saline-sodic soil reclamation and its influence on physical-chemical newly corrected soil characteristics by the gypsum application. The laboratory experiment used PVC columns. The treatments were done in a randomized factorial arrangement block of 2x5 (two soil x five level gypsum of requirement), with five replicates. The levels used were equivalent to 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 % of gypsum requirement, determined by the modified method Schoonover (Schoonover M-1), incorporated at the first 12,5 cm column of soil. The leachate electrical conductivity (EC), soluble cations and pH were evaluated. In soils were determinate the exchangeabled sodium and the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP); The EC, soluble cations and sodium adsorption relation (SAR) in the saturation extract; the hydraulic conductivity, infiltration rate, the dispersed clay water and aggregate stability. The application level 100% of the need of plaster, obtained by the method of Schoonover M-1, followed by a water depth correspondent to three pore volumes afforded the correction of soil sodicity (SAR < 13 mmol L-1 and ESP < 15 %). The water depth correspondent to three times the pore volumes corrected salinity of soil was used when the levels of 50 and 100 % of gypsum requirement (EC < 4,0 dS m-1). The use of increasing levels of gypsum for the correction of saline-sodic soils provided greater water infiltration rate of the soil. The level of 100 % of the gypsum requirement in lower degree of dispersion and more stability of aggregates of soils.
O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a eficiência da aplicação de diferentes níveis de gesso, na recuperação de solos salino-sódicos e sua influência nas características físico-químicas de solos recém corrigidos pela aplicação de gesso. O experimento foi realizado em laboratório, utilizando colunas de PVC. Os tratamentos foram dispostos em delineamento em blocos casualizados com arranjo fatorial de 2 x 5 (dois solos x cinco níveis da necessidade de gesso), com cinco repetições. Os níveis utilizados foram equivalentes a 50, 100, 150, 200 e 250% da necessidade de gesso, determinada pelo método de Schoonover modificado (Schoonover M-1), incorporados aos primeiros 12,5 cm da coluna de solo. Foram avaliados nos lixiviados a condutividade elétrica (CE); os cátions solúveis e o pH. Nos solos foram determinados o sódio trocável e a percentagem de sódio trocável (PST); a CE; os cátions solúveis e a relação de adsorção de sódio (RAS) no extrato da pasta saturada; a condutividade hidráulica; a taxa de infiltração; grua de dispersão e a estabilidade de agregados. A aplicação do nível de 100% da necessidade de gesso, obtido pelo método de Schoonover M-1, seguida de uma lâmina de lixiviação correspondente a três vezes o volume de poros, proporcionou a correção da sodicidade dos solos (RAS < 13 mmolc L-1 e PST < 15%). A lâmina de lixiviação correspondente a três vezes o volume de poros corrigiu a salinidade dos solos quando foram utilizados os níveis de 50 e 100% da necessidade de gesso (CE < 4,0 dS m-1). A utilização de níveis crescentes de gesso para a correção de solos salino-sódicos proporcionaram maior taxa de infiltração de água dos solos. O nível de 100% da necessidade de gesso promoveu menor grau de dispersão e maior estabilidade de agregados dos solos estudados.

O uso de efluente de estação de tratamento de esgoto (EETE) na agricultura irrigada pode ser uma estratégia alternativa de fornecimento de água e nutrientes para culturas agrícolas. Entretanto se realizado por longos períodos pode adicionar grandes quantidades de sódio ao solo o que poderia levar a degradação de suas propriedades e impacto em aspectos agronômicos de capim Tifton 85. Esse trabalho consistiu de dois objetivos: i) avaliar os efeitos da irrigação com efluente rico em sódio durante mais de oito anos em propriedades químicas e físico-hídricas de um Argissolo Vermelho. Para isso foram estabelecidos três tratamentos avaliados nas profundidades de 0,05-0,15 (P1), 0,25-0,35 (P2) e 0,70-0,80 m (P3): SI - cultivo de capim sem adubação e sem irrigação; A100 - cultivo irrigado com água de abastecimento sódica e adubado com 520,0 kg ha-1 ano-1 de nitrogênio; E66 - cultivo irrigado com EETE e adubado com 343,2 kg ha-1 ano-1 de nitrogênio. Foram determinados: pH do solo (em água e CaCl2), condutividade elétrica do extrato aquoso do solo (CE1:1), concentração de sódio (Na+), potássio (K+), cálcio (Ca2+), magnésio (Mg2+), alumínio (Al3+), carbono (C) e nitrogênio (N) do solo, com posterior cálculo de soma de bases (SB), capacidade de troca catiônica (CTC), saturação por bases (V) e percentagem de sódio trocável (PST); densidade do solo (?), argila dispersa em água (ADA), condutividade hidráulica do solo saturado (Ksat), curva de retenção da água no solo (CR), porosidade do solo (?) e distribuição do tamanho dos poros; ii) avaliar os efeitos da irrigação com efluente rico em sódio durante mais de oito anos em aspectos agronômicos de capim Tifton 85. Para alcançar o segundo objetivo foi estabelecido além do SI, A100 e E66, mais quatro tratamentos: A0 - cultivo de capim sem adubação e irrigado com água de abastecimento sódica; E0, E33 e E100 - cultivo de capim irrigado com EETE e adubado com 0, 171,6 e 520,0 kg ha-1 ano-1 de nitrogênio, respectivamente. Foram determinados: produtividade de massa seca estacional (MS-Estacional), anual (MS-Anual) e acumulação estacional e anual de nitrogênio (N-MS), potássio (K-MS) e sódio (Na-MS) no tecido vegetal de capim Tifton 85. Houve alterações nas propriedades químicas e físico-hídricas do solo em função dos tratamentos e profundidades. Na P1 o E66 aumentou a CE1:1, a densidade do solo, o conteúdo de água residual e diminuiu a concentração de Mg2+ e conteúdo de água de saturação. Já o A100 reduziu a concentração de K+ e Mg2+, o conteúdo de água de saturação e aumentou a densidade do solo e o conteúdo de água residual. Na P2 o E66 aumentou o pH-H2O e a CE1:1, o conteúdo de água de saturação e o conteúdo residual. O A100 aumentou o pH-H2O, o Na+, o PST, a argila dispersa em água, o conteúdo de água de saturação e o conteúdo residual e diminuiu o C e N. Na P3 o E66 aumentou apenas o pH-H2O e o conteúdo de água residual e reduziu o conteúdo de água de saturação. O A100 aumentou o conteúdo de água de saturação, o conteúdo de água residual e a mesoporosidade. As propriedades do solo da P2 parecem ser as mais afetadas pelos efeitos do sódio decorrentes, principalmente, do uso de irrigação com água sódica. As produtividades de MS e acumulação de N-MS e K-MS foram superiores nos tratamentos E66, E100 e A100 e não foram reduzidas ao longo destes anos. A acumulação de Na-MS foi proporcional à produtividade, mas o capim passou a acumular um pouco menos sódio. Na estação chuvosa a MS de capim representou cerca de 72% da MS-Anual, sendo influenciada fortemente pelo período de estacionalidade.
The use of treated sewage effluent (TSE) in irrigated agriculture can be an alternative strategy to supply water and nutrients to crops. However if applied for long periods of time, it can add large amounts of sodium to the soil, resulting in soil properties degradation and impacts on agronomic aspects Tifton 85 Bermudagrass. The objectives of this work were: i) evaluate the effect of irrigation with sodium rich effluent for more than eight years on chemical, physical and hydraulic properties of an Ultisol. For this were established three treatments (WI - growing grass without fertilization or irrigation ; FW100 - irrigation with sodic fresh water supply and fertilized with 520.0 kg ha-1 year-1 nitrogen; E66 - irrigation with TSE and fertilized with 343.2 kg ha-1 year-1 nitrogen) The effects were evaluated at different depths (D1: 0.5-0.15, D2: 0.25-0.35 and D3: 0.70-0.80 m), determining: soil pH (in water and CaCl2), soil electrical conductivity of the aqueous extract (EC1:1) sodium concentration (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), aluminum (Al3+), soil carbon (C) and soil nitrogen (N), with subsequent calculation of sum of bases (SB), cation exchange capacity (CEC), base saturation (V) and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP); bulk density (?), water dispersible clay (WDC), saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), soil water retention curve (SWRC), soil porosity (?) and pore size distribution. Another objective was to evaluate the effect of irrigation with sodium rich effluent for more than eight years on agronomic aspects of Tifton 85 Bermudagrass. In addition to WI, FW100 and E66 treatments were established another four treatments (FW0 - growing grass without fertilizer and irrigated with sodic water supply; E0, E33 and E100 - growing grass irrigated with TSE and fertilized with 0, 171.6 and 520.0 kg ha-1 year-1 nitrogen, respectively) and determined the productivity of seasonal dry matter (Seasonal-DM), annual (Annual-DM) and nitrogen (N-DM), potassium (K-DM) and sodium (Na-DM) seasonal accumulation and annual in the plant tissue of Tifton 85 Bermudagrass. There were changes in chemical, physical and hydraulic soil properties as a function of treatments and depths. In the D1 the E66 treatment increased CE1:1, the bulk density, the residual water content and decreased the concentration of Mg2+, water content at saturation. FW100 reduced the concentration of K+ and Mg2+, the water content at saturation and increased soil bulk density and residual water content. In the D2, the E66 treatment increased pH-H2O and CE1:1, the water content at saturation and residual water content. The FW100 increased pH-H2O, Na+, ESP, water dispersible clay , the content of water saturation and residual contents and decreased C and N. In the D3 the E66 only increased the pH-H2O and residual water content and reduced water content saturation. The FW100 increased the water content at saturation point, residual water content and mesoporosity. The soil properties of D2 aparently are more affected than other depths by the effects of sodium, mainly from the use of irrigation water with sodium. The DM, N-DM and, K-DM were higher in the treatments E66, E100 and FW100 and there were not observed reductions over the years. The accumulation Na-DM was proportional to productivity, but the grass began to accumulate less sodium. In the rainy season the grass DM accounted for approximately 72% of Annual-DM, being strongly influenced by seasonality period.

Coal Seam Gas (CSG) is a form of natural gas (mainly methane) sorbed in underground coal deposits. Mining this gas involves drilling a well directly into an underground coal seam, and pumping out the water (CSG water) flowing through it. Presently, CSG is under exploration in New Zealand (NZ); however, there is concern about CSG water disposal in NZ mainly because of the controversy that this activity has generated in some basins in the United States (US). The first part of this thesis studies CSG water from a well in Maramarua (NZ) and compares it to water from US basins. The NZ CSG water from this well had high pH (7.8), alkalinity in the order of 360 mg/l as CaCO₃, high sodium (334 mg/l), bicarbonate (435 mg/l), and chloride (146 mg/l). These ions also occur in US CSG waters, and their concentrations follow the same trend - high sodium, bicarbonate, and chloride with low calcium, magnesium, and sulphate concentrations. Prior to this work, little detailed analyses of CSG water quality variability from a well had been carried out. A Factor Analysis of 33 Maramarua samples was conducted and revealed that about one third of the variations were due to sample degassing, which induced calcium carbonate precipitation - this was supported by experimental work (sample sparging) and geochemical modelling (MINTEQA2). This finding is important for CSG water management because, as calcium concentrations decrease, higher SAR values are generated, and this can cause problems if CSG waters are disposed on land. In the second part, this thesis assesses the potential environmental effects of disposing CSG waters in NZ by formulating management options and a simple wastewater treatment system. This was carried out by studying the ecological response (soils, plant, and aquatic life) resulting from CSG water disposal operations in the US, and by applying relevant salinity and sodicity guidelines to the interaction between soils and CSG waters from Maramarua. This work showed that similar problems are likely to occur in NZ if CSG water disposal takes place without proper controls. Such a study has never been carried out in a region before actual CSG development has taken place, so this work shows how to quantify the effects arising from CSG water disposal prior to full scale production. This can be particularly useful for CSG stakeholders wanting to develop this resource in other regions around the world. A simple treatment system using Ngakuru zeolites has proven effective in reducing the SAR of Maramarua CSG water. Laboratory results indicate that these zeolites work by exchanging sodium cations in the water by other cations contained within the zeolite structure but with slow ion exchange kinetics. The calculated sodium absorption capacity for these natural zeolites ranged from 11.3 meq/100g to 16.7 meq/100g (flow-through conditions without previous regeneration). In addition, these experiments showed that the ion exchange process is accompanied by some dissolution (sulphate, boron, TOC, sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium and reactive silica), but mainly at the beginning of the treatment process. Nevertheless, using this system, 180 grams of zeolite material were used to treat an initial 1.83 litres of Maramarua CSG water thus reducing potential soil infiltration problems to nil. As more CSG water was treated, the zeolites kept reducing SAR values but at a lesser rate until 4.53 litres of CSG water had been treated. A step-by-step methodology to assess treatment design options for these materials has been developed and will aid future researchers and engineers. This thesis presents the first comprehensive study of CSG water management in NZ. It also presents an ion exchange treatment system using natural zeolites already available in NZ. In conclusion, the research finds that, whether through adequate management or active treatment, CSG waters can be safely disposed without creating major environmental problems, and can even be used in beneficial applications.

Plugged and abandoned well pads throughout the Uintah Basin face reclamation challenges due to factors including a harsh climate, invasive species, and high salt loads. Finding ways to alleviate soil sodicity could improve soil reclamation success. Gypsum, sulfur, activated carbon, and Biochar are being applied to improve soil parameters negatively impacted by sodicity, but the direct impact of these amendments on Uintah Basin soils is still largely unknown. The aim of this study was two-fold. (1) Evaluate the effectiveness of gypsum, sulfuric acid, Biochar, activated carbon, and combinations of these amendments in reducing the impact of soil sodicity of the Desilt and Conglomerate soils by measuring amendment impact on percent dispersion, saturated hydraulic conductivity, crust bulk density, infiltration, and crust formation. (2) Compare a crust bulk density method using ImageJ to the clod wax density method and a modified linear extensibility percent equation to the linear extensibility percent equation to assess whether the novel methods can be used to accurately measure and calculate soil crust bulk density and shrink swell potential while reducing human error and analysis time.

An integrated approach is developed to assess a priori the effects of irrigation management interventions on soil salinity, sodicity and transpiration. The approach is tested for a 75,000 ha irrigation system in Pakistan, where canal and groundwater are used conjunctively. The main hypothesis is that by reallocating good quality canal water, the use of poor quality groundwater can be restricted, thus combating salinity and sodicity and mitigating their effects on crops. The study has three components. Firstly, interventions in canal water deliveries to tertiary units are analyzed using an unsteady state hydraulic model, based on the St. Venant equations, and linked with a regulation module, which captures the operational decisions of the irrigation agency. By changing the operational rules at the main canal, and by redimensioning the outlets in secondary canals, the water can be distributed equitably to tertiary units or delivered to those units that require it for salinity control. Secondly, the impact of irrigation on salinity, sodicity and transpiration is assessed for farmers' fields, using a combined soil water flow and solute transport model, based on Richard's equation and the convection-dispersion equation, and a regression equation, based on the irrigation quality and soil texture. A curvilinear relationship with a decreasing tangent was found between the irrigation quantity and soil salinity. Increases in the EC of the irrigation water result in a parallel curve with higher salinity levels. Adapting the irrigation quantity and quality to the existing soil types and depth to groundwater table can, therefore, reduce salinity and sodicity, thus avoiding soil degradation, which already occurs at an ESP of 4%. Thirdly, both components are combined with a parallel, socio-economic study, where farmers' decisions related to the crop portfolio and acquisition/application of water, were captured in Linear Programming models. The individual models of both studies are interfaced to develop a tool, capable of quantifying the effect of irrigation management interventions. For a secondary canal serving 14,000 ha, it is shown that the area threatened by sodicity is reduced by 40% by reallocating canal water, without affecting the agricultural production. The results of the developed tool should not be taken as accurate predictions, as there are likely to be unforeseen events due to the complexity of irrigation systems. Instead, the approach should be evaluated for its effectiveness in supporting actors' decisions in irrigation system management, by enhancing their understanding of the effects of interventions on salinity, sodicity and agricultural production. The application of the approach, in two case studies, shows that it allows the investigation of a wide range of policy and management interventions, and captures adequately the complexity of an irrigation system, thus providing indications about its transferability. However, the tools should be applied as part of an integrated concept, which includes phases of diagnosis, identification of relevant processes and parameters, and discussions with actors.

Understanding the mechanisms of non-point source carbon and nutrients in urban watersheds will help to develop policies to maintain surface water quality and prevention of eutrophication. The purpose of this dissertation is to investigate the impact of sodium on carbon and nutrient leaching from the two main contributors; soil and leaf litter, and calculate the sodium exports in a humid subtropical urban river basin. The first chapter reviews the current literature on urbanization in watersheds. Chapter II quantifies the carbon and nutrient in intact soil core leachates and in water extractable solution from urban soils collected from 33 towns and cities across the state of Texas. Chapter III investigates the impact of sodicity and salinity on water extractable organic carbon and nitrogen from vegetation. Chapter IV investigates the export of sodium and chloride from the upper Trinity River basin. The results derived from this study indicate that sodium exports are elevated in urban watersheds and further that sodium in irrigation water elevates the loss of carbon and nutrients from both watershed soil and senesced vegetation and that this may contribute to high concentrations in urban freshwaters.

Mestrado em Gestão e Conservação de Recursos Naturais - Instituto Superior de Agronomia / Universidade de Évora
This work aims to predict the salinization and sodification in two soils when irrigated with saline waters combined with different fertigation levels. In a three years period, two experimental fields were set up with maize irrigated with a Triple emitter source (TES) irrigation system. The impact in the two soils (Hortic Antrosol and Eutric Fluvisol) was assessed through soil solution and soil samples collected at the end of each irrigation cycle and after the fall/winter rainfall washout of the soil. Electrical conductivity (EC) was used as a salinity indicator, and the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) and sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) were used to characterize soil sodicity. In order to predict soil quality, the relationship between such indicators were studied with a stepwise multiple regression analysis scheme in a total of 1500 observations. An exchangeable Na+ mass balance was established for each treatment to 60 cm depth, as the difference between the final and initial total masses. The results confirm that t the Fluvisol shows a tendency towards salinization, since insufficient Na+ lixiviation occurred throughout the soil profile even after the fall/winter rainy season. The Antrosol however showed favourable to salts lixiviation after the irrigation cycles and more so after the rainfall season.

abstract: Coal bed natural gas (CBNG) production has become a significant contribution to the nation's energy supply. Large volumes of water are generated as a byproduct of CBNG extraction, of which this "product water" is relatively high in sodium. High sodicity reduces water quality and limits environmentally compliant disposal options for producers. Crop irrigation with CBNG product water complies with state and federal laws and is a disposal method that also provides a beneficial use to private landowners. However, this disposal method typically requires gypsum and sulfur soil amendments due to the high levels of sodium in the water, which can reduce soil infiltration and hydraulic conductivity. In this study, I tested a new product called Salt Extractor that was marketed to CBNG producers to ameliorate the negative effects of high sodicity. The experiment was conducted in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming. I used a random block design to compare the soil and vegetation properties of plots following application with CBNG product water and treatments of either Salt Extractor, gypsum and sulfur (conventional), or no treatment (control). Data was analyzed by comparing the amount of change between treatments after watering. Results demonstrated the known ability of gypsum and sulfur to lower the relative sodicity of the soil. Plots treated with Salt Extractor, however, did not improve relative levels of sodicity and exhibited no favorable benefits to vegetation.
Dissertation/Thesis
M.S. Biology 2011

...¶ This thesis describes a range of laboratory and field investigations on the effects of salinity and sodicity on SOC dynamics.¶ In this research, the effects of a range of salinity and sodicity levels on C dynamics were determined by subjecting a vegetated soil from Bevendale, New South Wales (NSW) to one of six treatments. A low, mid or high salinity solution (EC 0.5, 10 or 30 dS/m) combined with a low or high sodicity solution (SAR 1 or 30) in a factorial design was leached through a non-degraded soil in a controlled environment. Soil respiration and the SMB were measured over a 12-week experimental period. The greatest increases in SMB occurred in treatments of high-salinity high-sodicity, and high-salinity low-sodicity. This was attributed to solubilisation of SOM which provided additional substrate for decomposition for the microbial population. Thus, as salinity and sodicity increase in the field, soil C is likely to be rapidly lost as a result of increased mineralisation.¶...

The effects of irrigation-induced salinity and/or sodicity on sugarcane yield, and two growth parameters, namely stalk height and number of nodes per stalk , were investigated on a sugarcane estate in the Zimbabwean lowveld. The effects of soil salinity and/or sodicity on the size, activity and metabolic efficiency of the soil microbial community was also studied. Furrow-irrigated fields which had a gradient in soil salinity and/or sodicity which increased from the upper to lower ends of the fields were selected for this study. This gradient was recognized by decreasing sugarcane growth down from the upper to the lower ends and the appearance of salt on the soil surface at the lower ends of fields. Sugarcane growth was classified as either dead, poor, satisfactory or good; and soil samples (0-0 .15 m, 0.15-0 .3 m, 0.3-0 .6 m and 0.6-0.9 m) were taken from each of these areas. Soils from under adjacent areas of undisturbed veld were also sampled. Sugarcane growth and yields in micro-plots of the various areas of the fields were measured. Foliar samples of sugarcane were taken at 22 weeks of age and analysed for nutrient content. Soil salinity and sodicity were quantified by measuring pH(water), electrical conductivity (ECe) and cation content of saturation paste extracts and the exchangeable cation content. From this information, the sodium adsorption ratio (SARe)and exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) were also calculated. The calcareous, vertic soils in the study area under undisturbed veld were found to have high pH values (8 to 9.5), very high exchangeable Ca and Mg concentrations and there was evidence of accumulation of soluble salts in the surface 0.15 m. Under sugarcane production, irrigation induced salinity and sodicity had developed. Under poor and dead sugarcane, high values for ECe, SARe, and ESP were generally encountered in the surface 0-0 .3 m of the profile. In addition, the pH values under sugarcane were often between 9 and 10 particularly in profiles where sugarcane grew poorly or had died. As expected, pH was positively related to ESP and SARe, but negatively related to ECe. Measurements of aggregate stability by wet sieving, the Emerson dispersion test and the Loveday dispersion score all showed that soils from the study sited tended to disperse and that dispersion was most apparent where high ESP and SARe values occurred in association with elevated pH values and relatively low ECe values. These measurements confirmed observations at the sites of low infiltration rates and restricted drainage particularly on the lower ends of fields where sugarcane had died. In addition to the above measurements it was also observed that there was a rise in the watertable under furrow irrigation and that the watertable was nearest to the surface at the lower ends of the fields. In some cases the watertable was observed to be only 0.2 to 0.3 m from the surface. Thus, death of roots due to anaerobic conditions could be occurring to a greater extent at the lower ends of the fields. Another consequence of the high watertable was that these vertic soils were observed to remain in a permanently swollen state. This limits air and water movement in the soil profile as such soils need to be allowed to dry out and crack regularly so that macroporosity can be restored. Sugarcane yield, stalk height and number of nodes per stalk were not significantly related to ECe. Sugarcane yields were, however, significantly correlated with ESP and pH while stalk height and number of nodes were negatively correlated with ESP, SARe and pH. These results suggested that sodicity was a more limiting factor for sugarcane growth than salinity. Foliar analysis of leaf tissue did not reveal substantial differences in macro- or micro-nutrient content between good and poorly-growing sugarcane. It was concluded that the gradient of decreasing sugarcane growth down the furrow-irrigated fields, with crop death at the lower ends, was the result of a combination of factors. That is, the watertable had risen due to over-irrigation and it was nearer the surface at the lower ends of the fields. Due to capillary rise of salts, this resulted in sodic and sometimes saline-sodic conditions in the surface soil. These conditions could limit plant growth through ion toxicities, plant water stress and inhibition of root growth and function and physiological processes. These would be induced by the high pH and high salt, Na and HC03- concentrations in soil solution. Poor physical conditions associated with sodicity and the continually swollen state of the soils presumably limited infiltration and aeration in the surface soil, and probably restricted root growth. In addition, it is likely that the high watertable limited effective crop rooting depth to about 0.2 m at the lower ends of the fields. The net result was that sugarcane died at the lower ends. A negative effect of soil salinity and/or sodicity was also observed on the soil microbial population. Significant negative correlations were obtained with ECe SARe and ESP with microbial biomass C and microbial activity (as measured by FDA hydrolytic activity or arginine ammonification rate). The activity of enzymes involved in C (P-glucosidase), P (phosphatase) and S (arylsulfatase) mineralization and potential nitrogen mineralization (as determined by aerobic incubation) were also negatively correlated with these factors, with the exception of arylsulfatase activity and ESP. All the above mentioned microbial population measures were also positively correlated with soil organic C content, besides potential nitrogen mineralization. The metabolic quotient, which provides an indication of stress and efficiency of the microbial community, increased considerably with increasing salinity and sodicity and decreased with soil organic C. Thus, increasing salinity and/or sodicity resulted in a smaller, more stressed, less efficient microbial community, while the turnover rate and cycling of C, N, P and S also decreased. It was concluded that salt affected soil not only causes a decline in sugarcane yield through raising the concentration of soluble salts in soil solution, but also has a detrimental effect on microbial activity and on mineralization of soil organic C, N, Sand P.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Salt-affected soils (comprising saline and sodic soils) contain excessive amounts of salts and cover over 10 % of the world’s arable land. They are a serious land-degradation problem because a) salinity causes poor plant growth and low microbial activity due to osmotic stress, ion toxicity and imbalanced nutrient uptake and b) plant growth in sodic soils is limited by poor soil structure and aeration. As a consequence of the poor plant growth, salt-affected soils have low organic matter content. Therefore, to minimise soil degradation, it is important to understand the processes in salt-affected soils particularly those involved in nutrient cycling. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) is the most labile portion of soil organic matter pools and affects many biogeochemical processes such as nutrient cycling, translocation and leaching, microbial activity and mineral weathering. Even though it only comprises a small portion of the total organic matter (< 1 %), it can be used to determine changes in soil C dynamics prior to detection in the total SOM pool. Salinity and sodicity influence organic matter turnover by affecting the amount of plant material entering the soil as well as the rate of decomposition. While the effects of salinity and sodicity on soil microorganisms and soil organic matter turnover have been studied separately, little is known about their interaction. Therefore the objective of this thesis was to determine the interactive effect of salinity and sodicity on soil microbial activity and dissolved organic matter dynamics in soils of different texture. Four non-saline and non-sodic soils differing in texture (4, 13, 24 and 40 % clay, termed S-4, S-13, S-24 and S-40) were collected from Monarto near South Australia. The water content resulting in maximum respiration in the soils was assessed by adjusting the soils to different water content and measuring the respiration for two weeks at 25 ºC. The soils were leached with a combination of NaCl and CaCl₂ stock solutions to induce different levels of salinity (EC₁:5) ranging from 0 to 10 dS m⁻¹ and sodium absorption ratio [SAR< 3 (non-sodic) and ≥20 (sodic)] in various experiments. Wheat residue and in one experiment glucose were added as a nutrient source for soil microbes. Respiration was measured continuously throughout the experiments and dissolved organic C, dissolved organic N, total dissolved N (TDN), specific ultra-violet absorbance (SUVA), microbial biomass, electrical conductivity, pH and SAR were analysed at different times during the experiments. The concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and nitrogen (DON) is influenced by the type of extractant used. To determine which extractant is the most useful for the experiments described in this thesis, different textured soils were incubated with wheat residue for two weeks and DOC and DON were extracted with water, 0.5M K₂SO₄ or 2M KCl at a 1:5 ratio. Irrespective of soil texture, the concentrations of DOC and DON extracted with 0.5M K₂SO₄ or 2M KCl were more than twice than those extracted with water. Therefore, for the experiments described in this thesis dissolved organic C and N were extracted with a 1:5 soil: water ratio. In the first experiment, a sand and a sandy clay loam were adjusted to similar EC levels (EC₁:₅ 0.5, 1.3, 2.5 and 4.0 dS m⁻¹ in the sand and EC₁:₅ 0.7, 1.4, 2.5 and 4.0 dS m⁻¹ in the sandy clay loam) and combined with two sodium absorption ratios: SAR < 3 and 20. The soils were incubated at the water content optimal for microbial activity (6.4 g 100 g soil⁻¹ for the sand and 15.6 g 100 g soil⁻¹ for the sandy clay loam). This experiment showed that at a similar EC, cumulative respiration was more strongly affected by EC in the sand than sandy clay loam which may have been due to their different water content and therefore, differential osmotic potential. Further, the concentration of DOC, DON and SUVA were significantly higher at EC 0.5 or 0.7 at SAR 20 than at higher EC levels indicating that high SAR in combination with low EC is likely to increase the risk of DOC and DON movement downwards within the soil profile in the salt-affected soils which may cause further soil degradation. To assess the impact of multiple drying and wetting on microbial biomass and DOC concentration in salt-affected soils, the loamy sand was adjusted to two levels of EC₁:₅ (1.0 and 2.5 dS m⁻¹) and SAR (< 3 and 20) and then exposed to 1-3 drying and rewetting cycles each consisting of 1 week drying and 1 week moist incubation. The flush in respiration after rewetting was lower in saline and saline-sodic soils than in soil without added salt. At the low EC, the solubility of organic matter was higher at SAR 20 compared to SAR < 3 suggesting that loss of C via DOC leaching may be increased in sodic soils, irrespective of the drying and wetting cycles. For the study on the effect of sodicity (SAR < 3 and >20) and salinity (EC₁:₅ 1.0 and 5.0 dS m⁻¹) on DOM sorption, four soils of different texture (4, 13, 24 and 40 % clay) were shaken overnight at 4C with solutions containing 0, 23, 43, 58, 86 and 128 mg C L⁻¹ extracted from wheat residue. Sorption was calculated from the difference between initial DOM concentration and that after shaking. The experiment showed that high SAR (>20) only decreased DOC sorption at low EC (1.0 dS m⁻¹) which can be explained by the high electrolyte concentration causing flocculation of DOC at high EC (5.0 dS m⁻¹). DOC sorption was greatest in the soil with 24 % clay across all concentrations of DOC added whereas DOC sorption did not differ greatly between the soils with 4, 13 and 40 % clay which suggested that sorption of DOC was not directly related to clay concentration, but instead was a function of CEC (highest in the soil with 24 % clay) and concentration of Fe and Al (highest in the soils with 4 and 13 % clay). The study to examine how different forms of C (wheat straw and glucose, added at 2.5 mg C g⁻¹) with and without added inorganic N affect the response of microbial activity and biomass to increasing EC₁:₅ (0.1 to 10 dS m⁻¹) showed that respiration and microbial biomass C decreased with increasing EC, but the decrease was smaller with glucose than with wheat straw. Addition of N to glucose and wheat straw to bring the C/N ratio to 20 significantly decreased cumulative respiration and microbial biomass C at a given EC. Thus, addition of easily available C can enhance microbial tolerance to salinity whereas high N addition rates may have an adverse impact on microbial activity. In the last experiment, salt was added to the four soils to achieve EC values between 0.4 and 5.0 dS m⁻¹ with two levels of SAR : < 3 and >20 together with the optimal water content for microbial activity, which resulted in three osmotic potential ranges in all four soils (> -0.55, -0.62 to -1.62 and -2.72 to -3.0 MPa). This experiment confirmed that salt stress has similar effects on soil microbes in soils of different texture and water content when expressed as osmotic potential whereas the soil microbes appear to be more sensitive to salts in lighter textured soils when EC is used as measure of salinity. Therefore, osmotic potential needs to be considered when comparing saline soils with different water holding capacity. The results of the study showed increasing salinity adversely affects microbial activity and therefore increases DOC and DON concentration, whereas an increased DOC and DON concentration in response to sodicity was observed only at low EC. Thus, both salinity and sodicity can result in increased loss of C and N through high concentration of DOM in leachates which may lead to further soil degradation and reduce C sequestration. The study also confirmed that soil texture and water content play an important role in determining the response of microbes to salt stress due to their effect on the salt concentration in the soil solution. Therefore, osmotic potential is a better measure for evaluating stress to microbes in the salt-affected soils than EC. Further, the study also highlighted that addition of a readily available and easily decomposable source of energy improves the ability of microbes to tolerate salinity whereas N addition has no or a negative impact on microbial activity and growth.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, 2012

The phenomenon called soil aggregate coalescence occurs at contact-points between aggregates and causes soil strength to increase to values that can inhibit plant root exploration and thus potential yield. During natural wetting and drying, soil aggregates appear to ‘weld’ together with little or no increase in dry bulk density. The precise reasons for this phenomenon are not understood, but it has been found to occur even in soils comprised entirely of water stable aggregates. Soil aggregate coalescence has not been widely observed and reported in soil science and yet may pose a significant risk for crops preventing them from achieving their genetic and environmental yield potentials. This project used soil penetrometer resistance and an indirect tensile-strength test to measure the early stages of aggregate coalescence and to evaluate their effects on the early growth of tomato plants. The early stages of aggregate coalescence were thought to be affected by a number of factors including: the matric suction of water during application and subsequent drainage, the overburden pressure on moist soil in the root zone, the initial size of soil aggregates prior to wetting, and the degree of sodicity of the soil aggregates. Seven mainexperiments were conducted to evaluate these factors. The matric suction during wetting of a seedbed affects the degree of aggregate slaking that occurs, and the strength of the wetted aggregates. The matric suction during draining affects the magnitude of ‘effective stresses’ that operate to retain soil structural integrity as the soil drains and dries out. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of matric suction (within a range of suctions experienced in the field) on aggregate coalescence using soils of two different textures. Sieved aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm diameter) from a coarse-textured and two fine-textured (swelling) soils were packed into cylindrical rings (4.77 cm i.d., 5 cm high) and subjected to different suctions on wetting (near-saturation, and 1 kPa), and on draining (10 kPa on sintered-glass funnels, and 100 kPa on ceramic pressure plates). After one-week of drainage, penetrometer resistance was measured as a function of depth to approximately 45 mm (penetrometer had a recessedshaft, cone diameter = 2 mm, advanced at a rate of 0.3 mm/min). Tensile strength of other core-samples was measured after air-drying using an indirect “Brazilian” crushing test. For the coarse-textured soil, penetrometer resistance was significantly greater for samples wet to near-saturation, despite there being no significant increase in dry bulk density; this was not the case for the finer-textured soils, and it was difficult to distinguish the effects of variable bulk density upon drying from those of the imposed wetting treatments. In both coarse- and fine-textured soils, the tensile strength was significantly greater for samples wet to near-saturation. Thus wetting- and draining-suctions were both found to influence the degree of soil aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. Aggregate coalescence in irrigated crops is known to develop as the growing season progresses. It was therefore thought to be linked to the repeated occurrence of matric suctions that enhance the phenomenon during cycles of wetting and draining. An experiment was conducted to determine the extent of aggregate coalescence in a coarsetextured and two fine-textured (swelling clay) soils during 8 successive cycles of wetting and draining. Sieved aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm diameter) from each soil were packed into cylindrical rings (4.77 cm i.d., 5 cm high) and wetted to near saturation for 24 h. They were then drained on ceramic pressure plates to a suction of 100 kPa for one week, after which penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured as described above. The degree of expression of aggregate coalescence depended on soil type. For the coarse-textured soil, repeated wetting and draining significantly increased bulk density, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. For the fine-textured soil, penetrometer resistance and bulk density did not vary significantly with repeated wetting and draining; on the contrary, there was evidence in these swelling clay soils to suggest bulk density and penetrometer resistance decreased. However, there was a progressive increase in tensile strength as cycles of wetting and draining progressed. The expansive nature of the fine-textured soil appears to have masked the development of aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance, but its expression was very clear in measurements of tensile strength despite the reduction in bulk density with successive wetting and draining. Field observations have indicated that aggregate coalescence is first expressed at the bottom of the seedbed and that it develops progressively upward to the soil surface during the growing season. This suggests that overburden pressures may enhance the onset of the phenomenon by increasing the degree of inter-aggregate contact. Soils containing large quantities of particulate organic matter were known to resist the onset of aggregate coalescence to some extent. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of soil organic matter and overburden pressures, by placing brass cylinders of various weights (equivalent to static load pressures of 0, 0.49, 1.47 and 2.47 kPa) on the top of dry soil aggregates (0.5 – 2 mm diameter) having widely different soil organic carbon contents placed in steel rings 5 cm high and 5 cm i.d. With the weights in place, the aggregates were wetted to near-saturation for 24 h and then drained on ceramic pressure plates to a suction of 100 kPa for one week. Bulk density, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured when the samples were removed from the pressure plates and they all increased significantly with increasing overburden pressure in the soil with low organic matter content, but not in the soil with high organic matter content. The amount of tillage used to prepare seedbeds influences the size distribution of soil aggregates produced – that is, more tillage produces finer seedbeds. The size distribution of soil aggregates affects the number of inter-aggregate contact points and this was thought to influence the degree of aggregate coalescence that develops in a seedbed. Previous work has shown that soil organic matter reduces aggregate coalescence and so an experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of aggregate size and organic matter on the phenomenon. For soils with high and low organic matter contents, aggregate size fractions of < 0.5, 0.5 – 2, 2 – 4, and < 4 mm were packed into soil cores (as above) and wetted to near-saturation then drained to 100 kPa suction as described above. Penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured and found to increase directly with the amount of fine material present in the soil cores – being greater in the < 0.5 mm and < 4 mm fractions, and being less in the 0.5 – 2 mm and 2 – 4 mm fractions. In all cases, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were lower in the samples containing more organic matter. The rate at which soil aggregates are wetted in a seedbed affects the degree of slaking and densification that occurs, and the extent to which aggregates are wetted influences the overall strength of a seedbed. Both wetting rate and the extent of wetting were believed to influence the onset of aggregate coalescence and were thought to be affected by soil organic matter and irrigation technique. An experiment was therefore designed to separate these effects so that improvements to management could be evaluated for their greatest efficacy – that is, to determine whether management should focus on improving irrigation technique or increasing soil organic matter content, or both. The rate of wetting was controlled by spraying (or not spraying) soil aggregates (0.5 – 2 mm diameter) with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Samples of coarse- and fine-textured soils were packed into steel rings (as above) and subjected to different application rates of water (1, 10 and 100 mm/h) using a dripper system controlled by a peristaltic pump. Samples were brought to either a near-saturated state or to a suction of 10 kPa for 24 h, and then drained on a pressure plate at a suction of 100 kPa for one week. Measurements of penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were then made as described above. As expected, penetrometer resistance was lower in samples treated with PVA before wetting (slower wetting rates) and in samples held at a greater suction (10 kPa) after initial wetting (greater inter-aggregate strength). The effects were more pronounced in the coarse-textured soil. In both coarse- and fine-textured soils, tensile strengths increased with increasing wetting rate (greatest for 100 mm/h) and extent of wetting (greater when held at near-saturated conditions). The rate of wetting was found to be somewhat more important for promoting aggregate coalescence than the extent of wetting. Because aggregate coalescence often occurs with little or no increase in bulk density, an explanation for the increase in penetrometer resistance and tensile strength is unlikely to be explained by a large increase in the number of inter-aggregate contacts. An increase in the strength of existing points of inter-aggregate contact was therefore considered in this work. For inter-aggregate bond strengths to increase, it was hypothesized that small increases in the amount of mechanically (or spontaneously) dispersed clay particles, and subsequent deposition at inter-aggregate contact points could increase aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. An experiment was devised to manipulate the amount of spontaneously dispersed clay in coarse- and fine-textured soils of high and low organic matter content. The degree of sodicity of each soil was manipulated by varying the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil aggregates (0.5 – 2mm) above and below a nominal threshold value of 6. Dry aggregates were then packed into steel rings (as above) and subjected to wetting near saturation, then draining to a suction of 100 kPa for one week as described above. Measurements were then taken of penetrometer resistance and tensile strength, both of which were affected by ESP in different ways. In the coarse-textured soil, sodicity enhanced aggregate slaking and dispersion, which increased bulk density. While penetrometer resistance also increased, its effect on aggregate coalescence could not be separated from a simple effect of increased bulk density. Similarly, the effect of sodicity on aggregate coalescence in the fine-textured soil was confounded by the higher water contents produced by greater swelling, which produced lower-than-expected penetrometer resistance. Measurements of tensile strength were conducted on air-dry samples, and so the confounding effects of bulk density and water content were eliminated and it was found that tensile strength increased with sodicity in both coarse- and fine-textured soils. The presence of dispersed clay was therefore implicated in the development of aggregate coalescence in this work. Finally, a preliminary evaluation of how the early stages of aggregate coalescence might affect plant growth was attempted using tomatoes (Gross lisse) as a test plant. Seeds were planted in aggregates (0.5 – 4 mm) of a coarse- or fine-textured soil packed in steel rings. These were wetted at a rate of 1 mm/h to either near-saturation (for maximum coalescence) or to a suction of 10 kPa (for minimum coalescence) and held under these conditions for 24 h. All samples were then transferred to a ceramic pressure plate for drainage to 100 kPa suction for one week. Samples were then placed in a growth-cabinet held at 20C with controlled exposure to 14 h light/day. Germination of the seeds, plant height, and number and length of roots were observed. Germination of the seeds held at near-saturation in both coarse- and fine-textured soils was delayed by 24 h compared with seeds held at 10 kPa suction. Neither the number nor the length of tomato roots differed significantly between the different treatments and soils. In the coarse-textured soil, however, the total root length over a period of 14 days was somewhat greater in the uncoalesced samples than in the coalesced samples, but this difference was not statistically significant. These results suggest that aside from delaying germination, aggregate coalescence may not have a large effect on early growth of tomato plants. However, this is not to say that detrimental effects may not be manifest at later stages of plant growth, and this certainly needs to be evaluated, particularly because aggregate coalescence increase with repeated cycles of wetting and draining. In conclusion, the primary findings of the work undertaken in this thesis were: • Rapid wetting of soil aggregates to near-saturation enhanced the onset of soil aggregate coalescence as measured by (in some cases) penetrometer resistance at a soil water suction of 100 kPa, and (in most cases) tensile strength of soil cores in the air-dry state. The rate of wetting appeared to be more important in bringing on aggregate coalescence than how wet the soil eventually became during wetting. This means reducing the rate at which irrigation water is applied to soils may reduce the onset of aggregate coalescence more effectively than controlling the total amount of water applied – though both are important. The literature reports that aggregate coalescence occurs in the field over periods of up to several months, involving multiple wetting and draining cycles, but the work here demonstrated that this can occur over much shorter time periods depending on conditions imposed. • Aggregate coalescence occurred in coarse-textured soils regardless of whether the bulk density increased during wetting and draining. In finer-textured soils, the response to wetting conditions varied and was complicated by changes in bulk density and water content due to swelling. • Small overburden pressures enhanced the onset of aggregate coalescence, but these effects were diminished in the presence of high soil organic matter contents. • Finer aggregate size distributions (which are often produced in the field by excessive tillage during seedbed preparation) invariably led to greater aggregate coalescence than coarser aggregate size distributions. The effects of aggregate size were mitigated to some extent by higher contents of soil organic matter. • Sodicity enhanced aggregate coalescence as measured by tensile strength, but when penetrometer resistance was measured in the moist state, the effects were masked to some extent by higher water contents generated by swelling and dispersion. This work suggests that tensile strength (in the air dry state) may be a more effective measure of aggregate coalescence than penetrometer resistance. • Early plant response to aggregate coalescence was not large, but the response may become magnified during later stages of growth.
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Thesis (Ph.D.) -- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2007

The phenomenon called soil aggregate coalescence occurs at contact-points between aggregates and causes soil strength to increase to values that can inhibit plant root exploration and thus potential yield. During natural wetting and drying, soil aggregates appear to ‘weld’ together with little or no increase in dry bulk density. The precise reasons for this phenomenon are not understood, but it has been found to occur even in soils comprised entirely of water stable aggregates. Soil aggregate coalescence has not been widely observed and reported in soil science and yet may pose a significant risk for crops preventing them from achieving their genetic and environmental yield potentials. This project used soil penetrometer resistance and an indirect tensile-strength test to measure the early stages of aggregate coalescence and to evaluate their effects on the early growth of tomato plants. The early stages of aggregate coalescence were thought to be affected by a number of factors including: the matric suction of water during application and subsequent drainage, the overburden pressure on moist soil in the root zone, the initial size of soil aggregates prior to wetting, and the degree of sodicity of the soil aggregates. Seven mainexperiments were conducted to evaluate these factors. The matric suction during wetting of a seedbed affects the degree of aggregate slaking that occurs, and the strength of the wetted aggregates. The matric suction during draining affects the magnitude of ‘effective stresses’ that operate to retain soil structural integrity as the soil drains and dries out. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of matric suction (within a range of suctions experienced in the field) on aggregate coalescence using soils of two different textures. Sieved aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm diameter) from a coarse-textured and two fine-textured (swelling) soils were packed into cylindrical rings (4.77 cm i.d., 5 cm high) and subjected to different suctions on wetting (near-saturation, and 1 kPa), and on draining (10 kPa on sintered-glass funnels, and 100 kPa on ceramic pressure plates). After one-week of drainage, penetrometer resistance was measured as a function of depth to approximately 45 mm (penetrometer had a recessedshaft, cone diameter = 2 mm, advanced at a rate of 0.3 mm/min). Tensile strength of other core-samples was measured after air-drying using an indirect “Brazilian” crushing test. For the coarse-textured soil, penetrometer resistance was significantly greater for samples wet to near-saturation, despite there being no significant increase in dry bulk density; this was not the case for the finer-textured soils, and it was difficult to distinguish the effects of variable bulk density upon drying from those of the imposed wetting treatments. In both coarse- and fine-textured soils, the tensile strength was significantly greater for samples wet to near-saturation. Thus wetting- and draining-suctions were both found to influence the degree of soil aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. Aggregate coalescence in irrigated crops is known to develop as the growing season progresses. It was therefore thought to be linked to the repeated occurrence of matric suctions that enhance the phenomenon during cycles of wetting and draining. An experiment was conducted to determine the extent of aggregate coalescence in a coarsetextured and two fine-textured (swelling clay) soils during 8 successive cycles of wetting and draining. Sieved aggregates (0.5 to 2 mm diameter) from each soil were packed into cylindrical rings (4.77 cm i.d., 5 cm high) and wetted to near saturation for 24 h. They were then drained on ceramic pressure plates to a suction of 100 kPa for one week, after which penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured as described above. The degree of expression of aggregate coalescence depended on soil type. For the coarse-textured soil, repeated wetting and draining significantly increased bulk density, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. For the fine-textured soil, penetrometer resistance and bulk density did not vary significantly with repeated wetting and draining; on the contrary, there was evidence in these swelling clay soils to suggest bulk density and penetrometer resistance decreased. However, there was a progressive increase in tensile strength as cycles of wetting and draining progressed. The expansive nature of the fine-textured soil appears to have masked the development of aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance, but its expression was very clear in measurements of tensile strength despite the reduction in bulk density with successive wetting and draining. Field observations have indicated that aggregate coalescence is first expressed at the bottom of the seedbed and that it develops progressively upward to the soil surface during the growing season. This suggests that overburden pressures may enhance the onset of the phenomenon by increasing the degree of inter-aggregate contact. Soils containing large quantities of particulate organic matter were known to resist the onset of aggregate coalescence to some extent. An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of soil organic matter and overburden pressures, by placing brass cylinders of various weights (equivalent to static load pressures of 0, 0.49, 1.47 and 2.47 kPa) on the top of dry soil aggregates (0.5 – 2 mm diameter) having widely different soil organic carbon contents placed in steel rings 5 cm high and 5 cm i.d. With the weights in place, the aggregates were wetted to near-saturation for 24 h and then drained on ceramic pressure plates to a suction of 100 kPa for one week. Bulk density, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured when the samples were removed from the pressure plates and they all increased significantly with increasing overburden pressure in the soil with low organic matter content, but not in the soil with high organic matter content. The amount of tillage used to prepare seedbeds influences the size distribution of soil aggregates produced – that is, more tillage produces finer seedbeds. The size distribution of soil aggregates affects the number of inter-aggregate contact points and this was thought to influence the degree of aggregate coalescence that develops in a seedbed. Previous work has shown that soil organic matter reduces aggregate coalescence and so an experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of aggregate size and organic matter on the phenomenon. For soils with high and low organic matter contents, aggregate size fractions of < 0.5, 0.5 – 2, 2 – 4, and < 4 mm were packed into soil cores (as above) and wetted to near-saturation then drained to 100 kPa suction as described above. Penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were measured and found to increase directly with the amount of fine material present in the soil cores – being greater in the < 0.5 mm and < 4 mm fractions, and being less in the 0.5 – 2 mm and 2 – 4 mm fractions. In all cases, penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were lower in the samples containing more organic matter. The rate at which soil aggregates are wetted in a seedbed affects the degree of slaking and densification that occurs, and the extent to which aggregates are wetted influences the overall strength of a seedbed. Both wetting rate and the extent of wetting were believed to influence the onset of aggregate coalescence and were thought to be affected by soil organic matter and irrigation technique. An experiment was therefore designed to separate these effects so that improvements to management could be evaluated for their greatest efficacy – that is, to determine whether management should focus on improving irrigation technique or increasing soil organic matter content, or both. The rate of wetting was controlled by spraying (or not spraying) soil aggregates (0.5 – 2 mm diameter) with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). Samples of coarse- and fine-textured soils were packed into steel rings (as above) and subjected to different application rates of water (1, 10 and 100 mm/h) using a dripper system controlled by a peristaltic pump. Samples were brought to either a near-saturated state or to a suction of 10 kPa for 24 h, and then drained on a pressure plate at a suction of 100 kPa for one week. Measurements of penetrometer resistance and tensile strength were then made as described above. As expected, penetrometer resistance was lower in samples treated with PVA before wetting (slower wetting rates) and in samples held at a greater suction (10 kPa) after initial wetting (greater inter-aggregate strength). The effects were more pronounced in the coarse-textured soil. In both coarse- and fine-textured soils, tensile strengths increased with increasing wetting rate (greatest for 100 mm/h) and extent of wetting (greater when held at near-saturated conditions). The rate of wetting was found to be somewhat more important for promoting aggregate coalescence than the extent of wetting. Because aggregate coalescence often occurs with little or no increase in bulk density, an explanation for the increase in penetrometer resistance and tensile strength is unlikely to be explained by a large increase in the number of inter-aggregate contacts. An increase in the strength of existing points of inter-aggregate contact was therefore considered in this work. For inter-aggregate bond strengths to increase, it was hypothesized that small increases in the amount of mechanically (or spontaneously) dispersed clay particles, and subsequent deposition at inter-aggregate contact points could increase aggregate coalescence as measured by penetrometer resistance and tensile strength. An experiment was devised to manipulate the amount of spontaneously dispersed clay in coarse- and fine-textured soils of high and low organic matter content. The degree of sodicity of each soil was manipulated by varying the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil aggregates (0.5 – 2mm) above and below a nominal threshold value of 6. Dry aggregates were then packed into steel rings (as above) and subjected to wetting near saturation, then draining to a suction of 100 kPa for one week as described above. Measurements were then taken of penetrometer resistance and tensile strength, both of which were affected by ESP in different ways. In the coarse-textured soil, sodicity enhanced aggregate slaking and dispersion, which increased bulk density. While penetrometer resistance also increased, its effect on aggregate coalescence could not be separated from a simple effect of increased bulk density. Similarly, the effect of sodicity on aggregate coalescence in the fine-textured soil was confounded by the higher water contents produced by greater swelling, which produced lower-than-expected penetrometer resistance. Measurements of tensile strength were conducted on air-dry samples, and so the confounding effects of bulk density and water content were eliminated and it was found that tensile strength increased with sodicity in both coarse- and fine-textured soils. The presence of dispersed clay was therefore implicated in the development of aggregate coalescence in this work. Finally, a preliminary evaluation of how the early stages of aggregate coalescence might affect plant growth was attempted using tomatoes (Gross lisse) as a test plant. Seeds were planted in aggregates (0.5 – 4 mm) of a coarse- or fine-textured soil packed in steel rings. These were wetted at a rate of 1 mm/h to either near-saturation (for maximum coalescence) or to a suction of 10 kPa (for minimum coalescence) and held under these conditions for 24 h. All samples were then transferred to a ceramic pressure plate for drainage to 100 kPa suction for one week. Samples were then placed in a growth-cabinet held at 20C with controlled exposure to 14 h light/day. Germination of the seeds, plant height, and number and length of roots were observed. Germination of the seeds held at near-saturation in both coarse- and fine-textured soils was delayed by 24 h compared with seeds held at 10 kPa suction. Neither the number nor the length of tomato roots differed significantly between the different treatments and soils. In the coarse-textured soil, however, the total root length over a period of 14 days was somewhat greater in the uncoalesced samples than in the coalesced samples, but this difference was not statistically significant. These results suggest that aside from delaying germination, aggregate coalescence may not have a large effect on early growth of tomato plants. However, this is not to say that detrimental effects may not be manifest at later stages of plant growth, and this certainly needs to be evaluated, particularly because aggregate coalescence increase with repeated cycles of wetting and draining. In conclusion, the primary findings of the work undertaken in this thesis were: • Rapid wetting of soil aggregates to near-saturation enhanced the onset of soil aggregate coalescence as measured by (in some cases) penetrometer resistance at a soil water suction of 100 kPa, and (in most cases) tensile strength of soil cores in the air-dry state. The rate of wetting appeared to be more important in bringing on aggregate coalescence than how wet the soil eventually became during wetting. This means reducing the rate at which irrigation water is applied to soils may reduce the onset of aggregate coalescence more effectively than controlling the total amount of water applied – though both are important. The literature reports that aggregate coalescence occurs in the field over periods of up to several months, involving multiple wetting and draining cycles, but the work here demonstrated that this can occur over much shorter time periods depending on conditions imposed. • Aggregate coalescence occurred in coarse-textured soils regardless of whether the bulk density increased during wetting and draining. In finer-textured soils, the response to wetting conditions varied and was complicated by changes in bulk density and water content due to swelling. • Small overburden pressures enhanced the onset of aggregate coalescence, but these effects were diminished in the presence of high soil organic matter contents. • Finer aggregate size distributions (which are often produced in the field by excessive tillage during seedbed preparation) invariably led to greater aggregate coalescence than coarser aggregate size distributions. The effects of aggregate size were mitigated to some extent by higher contents of soil organic matter. • Sodicity enhanced aggregate coalescence as measured by tensile strength, but when penetrometer resistance was measured in the moist state, the effects were masked to some extent by higher water contents generated by swelling and dispersion. This work suggests that tensile strength (in the air dry state) may be a more effective measure of aggregate coalescence than penetrometer resistance. • Early plant response to aggregate coalescence was not large, but the response may become magnified during later stages of growth.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, 2003

"The Central Queensland University developed an on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology. Septic tanks were used for primary treatment and the discharged effluent was then pumped though a series of contained channels. The channels were designed to be a modified evapotranspiration trench; they were comprised of an aggregate layer and a soil layer in which were planted a variety of plants. The aggregate and the soil provided physical filtration, the microorganisms within the effluent, aggregate and soil provided nutrient reuse and transformation and the plants also used the nutrients and reused the treated effluent through evapotranspiration. Any effluent that was not transpired was returned to a holding tank and pumped through the evapotranspiration again. The treatment technology was assessed in relation to its ability to treat effluent in a sustainable manner. The water and soil was examined for concentrations of nutrients, heavy metals, salts, sodium, and organic carbon %. The pH, temperature and number of colony forming units of certain microorganism potential pathogens were also inspected in the soil and the water. The plants grown within the evapotranspiration channels were assessed in regards to their health, water usage, and in some cases potential pathogens on fruit. The infrastructure that was used to construct the wastewater treatment and reuse system was also evaluated in regards to reliability and maintenance. Certain limiting factors, in particular sodicity and salinity were identified, but the trial was successful and a sustainable form of on-site wastewater treatment and reuse technology was developed." --abstract

Among ornamental plants, roses (Rosa L.) are considered the most economically important, being among the most popular garden shrubs, as well as the favorite cut flowers sold by florists. In the past roses have been classified as fairly salt-sensitive, however, recent nutrition studies suggest that they may actually tolerate moderate to relatively high salinities. The general objective of this research was to reassess the limits of tolerance to salinity of roses and the influence of the rootstock used, to determine the ameliorative properties of supplemental Ca2+ on the response to salt stress, and to establish the influence of Na+- and Cl--counter ions on the detrimental effects caused by these salinizing elements. The NaCl or NaCl-CaCl2-salinity tolerance limit for greenhouse roses, although greatly influenced by the rootstock, was between 12 and 15 mmol.L-1. Plants grafted on ?Manetti? sustained their productivity/quality characteristics for longer time periods, tolerated greater salinity concentrations, and accumulated less Cl- and Na+ in leaves of flowering shoots than those grafted on ?Natal Briar?, confirming the greater ability of the former rootstock to tolerate salt stress. Supplementing the saline solution with 0-10 mmol.L-1 Ca2+ (as CaSO4) did not alleviate the harmful effects caused by NaCl-salt stress (12 mmol.L-1) on the productivity and quality responses of roses. The detrimental effects caused by Na- and Cl-based salinity were greatly influenced by the composition of the salt mixtures (i.e. their counter ions). Sodium sulfate and CaCl2 were the least harmful salts; NaCl had intermediate effects, while NaNO3 and KCl were the most deleterious. Among the most distinguishable effects caused by the more toxic Na+ and Cl- counter ions were lower osmotic potential (piSS) and greater electrical conductivity (ECSS) of the salinized solutions, markedly increased uptake and/or transport of either Na+ or Cl- to the flowering shoot leaves, and altered uptake and/or transport of other mineral nutrients. Computations of the saline solutions? chemical speciation revealed that salts containing divalent ions had lower ionization and exhibited greater ion associations compared to monovalent ion salts, rendering a lower number in free ions/molecules in solution which caused greater SS and lower ECSS in those solutions.