Tesis sobre el tema "Salvation Army in Australia"

This study explores how one highly institutionalised organisation, namely The Salvation Army engages with policy discourses, how it responds and how it is shaped by its engagement with government. The move from a unified public service to the use of third sector organisations such as The Salvation Army to deliver public services represents a major shift in institutional relationships. This study focuses on the introduction of market discourse throughout the contracting process, in particular how this discourse seeks to reconstruct service users as ‘customers’, and the Salvation Army’s response to this reconstruction. By exploring the ways in which this religiously and socially motivated non-profit organisation sought to mediate neo-liberal discourses of competition and consumerism, this study seeks to reveal the processes and pressures affecting faith-based and other non-profit organisations which increasingly find themselves acting as agents of government policy under the principles of New Public Management (NPM). The altered relationships brought about by the shift in institutional relationships depend upon new institutional forms to deliver government services, and these new relationships are manifestly displayed in the Job Network. This study focuses on the ways in which The Salvation Army mediates social policy within this new institutional relationship. The changing relationship between government and The Salvation Army, as manifested in the development and implementation of employment policy in Australia between 1998 to 2007 is explored in this study. Neo-institutional theory provides the theoretical framework of this study. Neoinstitutional theory addresses the impact of shifts in the relationships between government and third sector organisations such as The Salvation Army via contracting out of government employment services. This changing relationship between government and The Salvation Army, as played out in the specific institutional field of the employment service through the creation of the Job Network is explored in this study. Within a constructionist approach, Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is deployed as the analytical technology. This study uses textual material as its main source of primary data, including extracts from job network contracts, internal and public Salvation Army documents, and utterances by government. The study explores the ways in which The Salvation Army has attempted to mediate social policy and the organisational tensions that arise as the Army seeks to maintain organizational independence. This study reveals that though government as the creator of the new quasi-market and purchaser of services in that market is perhaps the most powerful actor, the new institutional relationships are not completely a master/servant relationship; third sector organisations such as The Salvation Army do have the capacity to influence government. Additionally, this study calls into question the notions that the third sector and the government sector are differentiated realms and suggests that new paradigms should be developed to explore the institutional relationships that are now developing in the provision of welfare services in Australia.

This research arose out of the author's concern that the Salvation Army and its social services in Australia were being influenced by government and society at the expense of its own Christian beliefs and internal rhetoric. The Army's rhetoric is explored through an analysis of Salvation Army's texts. The study findings verify the proposition of Kress (1985) and others, that institutions transform and are transformed through their use of discourse. It is confirmed that William and Catherine Booth (the Army's founders) were not independent from the state and from external influence as required by Booth. It was found that just as William and Catherine Booth reworked the discourses of their time, they were influenced in turn by these discourses and the organization they created , namely, The Salvation Army was transformed through the use of discourse. The research found that modern texts produced in the Army in Australia, are influenced by the dominant discourses of the modern Australian welfare state, and that as a consequence the Army, in transforming these discourses for their own purposes, is also being transformed and in the process becoming increasingly colonised by governments in Australia.
Master of Arts (Hons)

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Western Sydney, 2008.
A thesis presented to the University of Western Sydney, College of Arts, Social Justice Social Change Research Centre, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Includes bibliographies.

This research arose out of the author's concern that the Salvation Army and its social services in Australia were being influenced by government and society at the expense of its own Christian beliefs and internal rhetoric. The Army's rhetoric is explored through an analysis of Salvation Army's texts. The study findings verify the proposition of Kress (1985) and others, that institutions transform and are transformed through their use of discourse. It is confirmed that William and Catherine Booth (the Army's founders) were not independent from the state and from external influence as required by Booth. It was found that just as William and Catherine Booth reworked the discourses of their time, they were influenced in turn by these discourses and the organization they created , namely, The Salvation Army was transformed through the use of discourse. The research found that modern texts produced in the Army in Australia, are influenced by the dominant discourses of the modern Australian welfare state, and that as a consequence the Army, in transforming these discourses for their own purposes, is also being transformed and in the process becoming increasingly colonised by governments in Australia.

Thesis (M. Arch.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Architecture, 2010.
This electronic version was submitted by the student author. The certified thesis is available in the Institute Archives and Special Collections.
Cataloged from student submitted PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 95-96).
The Salvation Army thrift stores are retail entities in the center of neighborhoods which collect and resell used objects. Although historically dear to many, it seems that the physical condition, market visibility, and social perception of these stores do not always match the importance of the service they provide. The potential of that recycling network, already in place internationally, seems enormous in a context of economic crisis and rising environmental concerns. I would like to create a new Salvation Army thrift store for the years to come, and propose to redesign the closest one at hand as a case study. Among my ideas for this undertaking: - make the thrift store a pleasant and rich experiential space - add to the function of salvaging, the functions of cleaning and repairing - turn what used to be a store into a store ++, with small crafts attached (tailors, shoe repair, laundromats and dry cleaners, wood and metal workers) which would provide next door services and be a tool for social reinsertion (professional training for the unemployed) - open the market segment to all social categories - have the buildings themselves be an example of a new type of reuse/recycling.
by Salomé Francpourmoi.
M.Arch.

This study examines the Salvation Army's emerging ecclesiological conviction and practice in an ecumenical context, and principally assesses the theological credibility of its dominant metaphor, the church as an army. The metaphor emerged in London, at the heart of the British Empire, amidst the popular jingoism of nineteenth century Victorian culture. It was directly inspired by a trans-Atlantic movement of holiness revivalism - a synthesis of Wesleyan perfectionism and American New Divinity revivalism - and was the logical outcome of the movement's emphasis upon aggressive Christianity. It was primarily chosen, not to theologically express the nature of the church, but to pragmatically organise the aggressive task of efficiently and effectively 'saving souls'. This decision stemmed from a subjective and individualistic understanding of salvation, illustrated by the abandonment of baptism and the Lord's Supper. The development of a secular model of military ranks and hierarchical governance, without theological rationale, established the movement as a disciplined and highly regulated army of 'crack troops', an autonomous denomination and yet a quasi-missionary religious order with in the church. Under pressure from a growing ecumenical consensus, it has re-articulated its identity from 'permanent mission to the unconverted' to a church, in effect the church as an army, a transition limited in ecumenical ecciesiological engagement and adequate theological reflection. In view of this, Karl Barth is chosen as a dialogue partner, for his ecumenical theology and coherent ecclesiology, which stem from a theological anthropology that rejects both individualism and subjectivism. In particular his Christological ecclesiology assists the Army in untangling confusing ecclesial strands of mission, army and church. As a result he enables the Army to reflect upon and potentially reform troubling aspects of its identity; in particular hierarchy, bureaucracy, uniformity, legalism and the replacement of the sacraments by its own sacralised practices.

Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited
In the aftermath of a disaster, relief agencies rush to assist the affected population. However, lack of coordination between these agencies often results in poor resource management, which undermines efficacy and efficiency. This report facilitates inter-agency collaboration, particularly between military and non-military entities, by conducting a case study of one non-government organization involved in disaster relief. With the second-highest revenue among major non-government organizations in the United States, the Salvation Army in America—and, by extension, its international arm, the Salvation Army World Service Office (SAWSO)—is an ideal candidate for evaluation. This report evaluates SAWSO's disaster response capabilities by analyzing its organizational history, operational competencies, and financial resources. The results of this report offer a foundation for military and other humanitarian relief agencies to pursue collaborative efforts and increase the overall efficiency and efficacy of future disaster response operations. This report's findings indicate that SAWSO is a highly efficient organization from a financial standpoint, and that it offers a variety of relief capabilities that vary by region, with the provision of shelter, settlement, and non-food items among its strongest and most consistent competencies.
Outstanding Thesis
Captain, United States Marine Corps

This research is rooted in my professional practice at the newly established international Centre for Spiritual Life Development (CSLD) of The Salvation Army. It is designed to develop a foundation which can shape and enhance the policy and provision of the CSLD. It seeks to answer two questions: How do Salvation Army officers sustain and develop their personal spiritual life in the context of an activist, missional organisation? In what ways can the Centre for Spiritual life Development facilitate and support this process? The research methodology is qualitative, bringing responses to a written questionnaire and semi-structured interviews into mutual critical dialogue with the conceptual framework, which is drawn from the theology and history of evangelicalism and evangelical spirituality, and the theory of theological and vocational education. This has generated a rich description of spiritual life development in Salvation Army officers in the 21st century, leading to new understanding. The empirical research focused upon a particular constituency, delegates to the International College for Officers, thus facilitating understanding of the difference encountered in an organisation that has both global and local influences. It confirmed an expected diversity of understanding and practice in three major areas; definitions of, and practices leading to, spiritual life development; the means used by officers develop their spiritual lives; and the relationship between practice and the spiritual life. The work contributes to academic knowledge about The Salvation Army by locating the organisation, and Salvationist spirituality, within the framework of evangelicalism. A proposal to encourage a holistic understanding of spiritual life development using a process of reflection based upon the integration of, and interrelationships between, ‘knowing, being and doing’, offers a way forward that is applicable in a range of contexts. The evolution of my professional practice during the period of the research demonstrates that the foundations of new policy and practices are taking shape. It therefore contributes to the field of practical theology, as the integration and mutual critique of practice, spirituality and educational theory have led to new understanding and new practice.

This research is rooted in my professional practice at the newly established international Centre for Spiritual Life Development (CSLD) of The Salvation Army. It is designed to develop a foundation which can shape and enhance the policy and provision of the CSLD. It seeks to answer two questions: How do Salvation Army officers sustain and develop their personal spiritual life in the context of an activist, missional organisation? In what ways can the Centre for Spiritual life Development facilitate and support this process? The research methodology is qualitative, bringing responses to a written questionnaire and semi-structured interviews into mutual critical dialogue with the conceptual framework, which is drawn from the theology and history of evangelicalism and evangelical spirituality, and the theory of theological and vocational education. This has generated a rich description of spiritual life development in Salvation Army officers in the 21st century, leading to new understanding. The empirical research focused upon a particular constituency, delegates to the International College for Officers, thus facilitating understanding of the difference encountered in an organisation that has both global and local influences. It confirmed an expected diversity of understanding and practice in three major areas; definitions of, and practices leading to, spiritual life development; the means used by officers develop their spiritual lives; and the relationship between practice and the spiritual life. The work contributes to academic knowledge about The Salvation Army by locating the organisation, and Salvationist spirituality, within the framework of evangelicalism. A proposal to encourage a holistic understanding of spiritual life development using a process of reflection based upon the integration of, and interrelationships between, ‘knowing, being and doing’, offers a way forward that is applicable in a range of contexts. The evolution of my professional practice during the period of the research demonstrates that the foundations of new policy and practices are taking shape. It therefore contributes to the field of practical theology, as the integration and mutual critique of practice, spirituality and educational theory have led to new understanding and new practice.

This case study of the Salvation Army Visby (SAV) describes the theoretical concepts of a Christian narrative and sustainable action within a local organizational context. As a result, one of the main contributions of this research is the consideration of narratives within a Christian organization from the angle of current ecotheological debates. While there can hardly be a single definition of what a Christian narrative of sustainability would be, we have summarized two conflicting views — an anthropocentric and a biocentric one. Our use of narrative theory has helped us understand in what ways such an overarching narrative can have influence into a local organizational context. We found that the SAV is deeply influenced by a Christian narrative putting more emphasis on social work rather than on ecotheological notions. We argue that the SAV’s actions are therefore more in line with social sustainability. We conclude by exploring how sustainability, and notably from an environmental perspective, can further be put in place within Christian organizations such as the SAV.

The Church Growth movement, originating with Donald McGavran in 1955 and popularised principally by C Peter Wagner since 1971, has influenced evangelical mission internationally. Though originating in the context of cross-cultural `missionary' work, it is perhaps now identified as a typically American approach, apparently relying on method and technique to accomplish its objective, which as the name implies, is the growth of the church, both locally and world-wide, since this is understood as the requirement of the `Great Commission' (Matthew 28: 18-20). The Salvation Army (founded 1865) has been in decline in Britain certainly since the Second World War, and probably since the 1930s. In 1986 the Army formally Espoused the Church Growth approach to mission. There has been little published research into the effectiveness of Church Growth methods, especially in the UK, despite voluminous outpourings of inspirational and motivational literature. Virtually the only test of the principles (Turning the Tide) was produced in 1981 by Paul Beasley-Murray and Alan Wilkinson, investigating the reliability of Wagner's` Vital Signs' in larger Baptist churches in England. This thesis follows Beasley-Murray and Wilkinson by testing the principles in the specific context of The Salvation Army in the UK. The approach adopted, a questionnaire survey with reference to statistical trends, follows the pragmatism of Church Growth itself, asking whether the approach works, rather than whether it is theologically sound, though such issues are considered where relevant. The opportunity has also been taken to consider specific Salvation Anny issues (uniform, music etc. ) and their effect on growth and decline. The work falls into four sections: - The Salvation Army; - The Church Growth Movement; - The Questionnaire Survey; - Conclusions and Recommendations.

In this dissertation, I seek to examine the effects of purposeful journaling and guided storytelling on past traumas, perception of current lives, and the development of new coping skills among men at The Salvation Army’s residential adult rehabilitation center (ARC). All residents of the ARC must attend Christian-based devotional services, go to Alcoholics Anonymous (A.A.) meetings, follow the A.A. 12-step program, and sign up for several weekly counseling and educational groups, one of which is the “Guided Journaling and Storytelling” group I lead. The men who attended this group are (1) addicted to drugs and/or alcohol, (2) face homelessness, (3) cope with some form of mental or physical health issue, (4) may have criminal records, and (5) have alienated most of their social support. Through a twelve-week curriculum I developed, I introduced coping skills—building resilience, expressive writing, and deep breathing—while incorporating art, music, and poetry in the groups. I elicited participants’ stories through prompts, using my own experiences to model vulnerability and demonstrate concepts, such as: narrative reframing; how memories can be uncertain, partial, and elusive; how storytelling can prompt forgotten stories; and the efficacy of including emotion and rich details in the stories we tell. Knowing the value of writing and storytelling, I set out to see if the communicative practices I had learned in the past that had improved my life situation might assist others to write themselves out of destructive patterns, desperation, and trauma, and into sober and more fulfilling lives.

In 1976, the publication of A History of Australian Defence and Foreign Policy, 1901-1923: Volume 1 — The Search for Security in the Pacific, 1901—1914 by Dr Meaney focussed attention on the advice given by professional naval and military staffs to Australian Prime Ministers and defence ministers in the formulation of an Australian defence and foreign policy from 1901 to 1914.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Sydney, 2001.
"... The letters, postcards and photographs that Jessie, Fred and Will sent home to their mother and family, as well as Fred's fourteen diaries, form the foundation of this thesis..." -- p. 2. Title from title screen (viewed Apr. 23, 2008). Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the Dept. of Clinical Nursing, Faculty of Nursing. Includes bibliography. Also available in print form.

This dissertation is presented to provide an accurate presentation of the current rate of attrition of Salvation Army officers in the U.S.A. Eastern Territory and to examine and explore the influence and importance of a healthy and holy community upon retention. An increased attentiveness and an intentional emphasis upon calling and covenant within the context of a consecrated community, shaping that community at the College For Officer Training, and sustaining it throughout active ministry, may ameliorate the rate of attrition and assist in retention of officers.

Chapter one provides the context of the study and a description of the problem, the purpose, the research model, and the theological framework.

The literature review in chapter two examines clergy attrition, business attrition, and the attrition of Salvation Army officers. Special emphasis is given a review of the literature concerning community and its possible influence upon retention.

Chapter three presents the quantitative and qualitative data collected from an historical database, an active officer survey, a cadet survey, a former officer survey, and interviews with particular leaders. Population, data collection, and the limitations of the measures are provided per research question and the validity and reliability of the instruments are discussed.

The findings in chapter four support the hypothesis that healthy community encourages retention; a sense of a lack of community contributes to attrition. The interpretation of the data includes the identification of the rate, causes, trends, and implications of officer attrition. The presented perceptions of community among officers all contribute to a sense of urgency to focus more effort on healthy, holy community.

The recommendations in chapter five suggest concrete ways to strengthen the covenant community through education, spiritual formation, pastoral care, and networks of personal relationship.

An appendix (F) provides a comprehensive outline of an Integrative Curriculum for Spiritual Formation for the College for Officer Training.

Thesis (M. S.)--Building Construction, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2005.
Philip Needham, Committee Member ; Felix Uhlik, Committee Member ; Kathy O. Roper, Committee Chair. Includes bibliographical references.

In 1890 William Booth, the founder and “General” of the Salvation Army, a working class evangelical missionary organization, published In Darkest England and the Way Out. Booth’s book proposed an elaborate tripartite scheme to address the desperate situation of unemployment and poverty in East London and other urban centres in Britain in the late nineteenth-century. The publication outlined three successive stages in this project for social reform. A “City Colony” and a “Farm Colony” would provide food, shelter, training and work for the destitute and unemployed. Ultimately emigration to a “Colony Across the Sea” would offer new futures and new lives for those rehabilitated by the Salvation Army scheme. Two components of the book played key roles in the marketing of this project. One was a fold-out colour lithograph that featured a compelling image of the book’s reformative scheme and its slogan of ‘Work for All.’ The second was the book’s opening chapter that constructed an extended analogy between England’s urban centres and the recently published best-seller, Henry Morton Stanley’s In Darkest Africa (1890). Both this chapter and the book’s fold-out chromolithograph frontispiece drew on imperial and Christian tropes to attract the reader and to sell the Salvation Army’s project of social rehabilitation and colonial settlement. This thesis examines the imperial and Christian rhetoric at work in Darkest England, and in particular explores the persuasive role of the visual in the book’s frontispiece in articulating Booth’s complex and problematic scheme. To this end I explore the tensions inherent in Booth’s proposal in light of other philanthropic and social reform projects in late nineteenth-century Britain that targeted urban poverty, unemployment and emigration to the colonies. Set within this context, I argue that the representational strategies at work in the frontispiece image encouraged a powerful and performative enactment of the spiritual and social salvation that was a central goal of In Darkest England and the Way Out. I also argue that the visual modes employed in the colour illustration work to both mediate and contain the contradictory agendas that are revealed in Booth’s text.

This Research Based Thesis is a theological critique of The Salvation Army doctrine of Hell. Although it is evident that rescuing sinners from a tortuous Hell was a powerful motivation for the remarkable activism of the first generations of Salvationists, research for this thesis shows that this has been a diminishing motivational force for some decades. This thesis provides evidence of increasing discontinuity between the doctrine of endless punishment and other normative, formal, espoused and operant theological voices within The Salvation Army. There is also clear evidence of significant doctrinal development with regard to Salvationist understanding of the nature of Hell and other related issues such as the immortality of the soul. Church tradition upheld the dogma of Hell as endless punishment for many centuries whilst the streams of Scripture which postulate different futures for unrepentant humankind, such as universal reconciliation, which this thesis has found to be particularly convincing, have largely been marginalised. It now seems appropriate to attempt to find ways to recognize the veracity of the overlooked biblical alternatives, in order to allow Salvationists who are no longer persuaded with regard to the doctrine of the endless punishment of the wicked, the integrity of a faithful continuity between what we say we believe and what we actually believe. The conclusion of this thesis is that Salvationists should be allowed to live and work beyond the dark shadow of the weakly grounded doctrine of the endless punishment of the wicked and find alternative motivations which will help fund our continued mission to speak out and live out the good news of the gospel with neighbour and nation.

Sammanfattning och slutsatser Syftet med undersökningen har varit att studera växelverkan hos Erik Wickbergs predikantskap, mellan den identitetsskapande funktionen och mellan hans försök att höja predikans status internationellt. På detta sätt har jag också velat lyfta fram predikans roll som pastoral företeelse inom FA och för att kunna göra detta har jag ställt följande frågor: 1.    Vad kännetecknar Wickbergs predikantskap? 2.    Vilken syn på FA:s identitet kommer till uttryck i Wickbergs predikningar? Det är svårt att särskilja de två frågorna för de hör intimt samman. Därför är också svaren sammanflätade med varandra. När det gäller Wickbergs predikantskap så står han i en succession där han är den nionde generalen. Predikantskapet vilar i FA:s tidiga uppdrag att vara en röst både för och till de människor inga andra når. Booths teologi formades i tre steg. Det första steget ledde fram till att FA kom att förkunna både frälsning och helgelse. Det andra steget handlar om att FA är skapad av Gud och helgad för det speciella uppdraget att vara en röst både för och till de människor inga andra når. Det tredje steget gjorde FA till pionjärer på det sociala området som gör att man också har ett sådant arv att förvalta. Wickberg omfattar tanken att FA är en del i Guds universella kyrka. Han betonar att FA är sammanlänkad med Guds folk från Bibelns tid och med kristna genom årtusenden. Allt detta bekräftas i hans predikningar. I hans böcker och predikningar sägs det ingenting om att han ser FA som en kyrkoinstitution.   FA:s identitet som armé kommer tydligast fram i orden då han säger att FA ska vara en protesterande armé mot andlig slöhet, mot rasbarriärer och annan ondska. Wickbergs predikantskap utgår från denna självbild. Wickbergs predikantskap har också med personen Wickberg att göra. Hans barn- och ungdomstid präglades av FA, de många flyttningarna, nya språk och nya kulturer. Barn- och ungdomstiden gjorde honom både självkritisk, trygg, flexibel och öppen för allt nytt. Utbildningen, en aldrig sinande läslust och de olika uppdragen under 1924–1961 gjorde honom kompetent för ett ledarskap på högsta nivå. Under hela hans liv studerade han Bibeln och brottades med olika teologiska uppfattningar. Detta gjorde honom trygg i förkunnargärningen. Denna uppgift är också den som han satte främst i sin gärning som frälsningsofficer. Wickbergs predikantskap vilar också i FA:s homiletik. Bernard Watson konstaterar om Wickberg att ”By Salvationist average he had a high degree of Biblical scholarship though he always sought to express it in terms that ordinary people could understand”. Wickberg har alltså förmågan att sammanlänka en god teologi med möjligheten för alla att förstå. Homiletikens innehåll handlar om människans frälsning och ett fördjupande av det andliga livet genom helgelsen. Detta har också präglat Wickbergs förkunnelse. Slous har visat på att homiletiken har förändrats sedan den viktorianska tiden. Förkunnelsen då var av angripande natur men Slous talar om att denna bör vara av inbjudande karaktär. Wickberg är mån om att hans predikantskap ska vara både resultatinriktat och samtidigt ska det vara varmt och inbjudande. När jag sammanfattar Wickbergs predikantskap så upplever jag hans stora tilltro till Guds ord. Hans fokus är så starkt på innehållet i evangeliet att han undviker att ta upp samtidens stora händelser. Han snuddar vid dem genom att tala om ”materialismens och världens stormar” liksom han i samma predikan tar upp ”underströmmar” som kan förkväva vår kristna tro. Jag upplever hans predikningar som en ”väckarklocka”. Jag tänker då på hans syn på FA som han vill se som en proteströrelse, hans oro för dåliga predikningar, bristande tro och försummelsen att inte tillräckligt predika om helgelse.     Wickberg förkunnar också en helhetssyn på människan i sina predikningar. Jag tänker på de tre begreppen ”ny vitalitet”, ”intellektuell validitet” och ”social relevans”. Jag konstaterar slutligen att Wickberg genom sitt sätt att predika bekräftat att predikantskapet är identitetsskapande och att han på ett medvetet och strategiskt sätt har arbetat för att höja status och standard på predikan från sin internationella plattform.

The reclamation and analysis of women's experiences within three Nonconformist denominations is the focus of this thesis. The first chapter places each denomination in its social and theological context, and describes its governing structures. The bulk of the thesis is devoted to situating women within this context and examining the ways in which women sought representation within male-dominated governing structures. Chapter two examines the conflict between Friends' egalitarian theology and women's lack of governing power. Although women Friends gained access to the governing body of the Society, the issue of equality remained problematic. The chapter finishes with a discussion of the Society's split over women's suffrage. The Baptist Zenana Mission is the focus of the third chapter. Zenana missionaries claimed spiritual and imperial authority over "native" women and used the languages of separate spheres to carve out a vocation for single women in keeping with denominational norms. In so doing, they marginalised the work done by missionary wives. The fourth chapter begins with an examination of the life and theology of Catherine Booth, whose contribution to the Salvation Army is often neglected. Catherine advocated women's ministry in terms that validated both "women's work for women" and public preaching. This chapter looks at the appeal of officership for women, especially the empowering experiences of salvation and holiness, and charts the growth of the Women's Social Work. Despite the Army's egalitarian theology, conflict was felt by women officers who struggled to combine corps and family duties. The final chapter briefly examines idealised representations of women to conclude that their defining power, while significant, was by no means hegemonic.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Indiana University, Dept. Religious Studies, 2008.
Title from dissertation home page (viewed Sept. 26, 2008). Source: Dissertation Abstracts International, Volume: 69-02, Section: A, page: 0639. Adviser: Robert F. Campany.

Imperial Japanese soldiers were notorious for following their superiors to certain death. Their enemies in the Pacific War perceived their obedience as blind, and derided them as “cattle”. Yet the Japanese Army was arguably one of the most disobedient armies in the world. Officers repeatedly staged coups d’états, violent insurrections and political assassinations, while their associates defied orders given by both the government and high command, launched independent military operations against other countries, and in two notorious cases conspired to assassinate foreign leaders. The purpose of this dissertation is to explain the culture of disobedience in the Japanese armed forces. It was a culture created by a series of seemingly innocent decisions, each reasonable in its own right, which led to a gradual weakening of the Japanese government’s control over its army and navy. The consequences were dire, as the armed forces dragged the government into more and more of China in the 1930s, and finally into the Pacific War. This dissertation sheds light on the underground culture of disobedience that became increasingly dominant in the Japanese armed forces, until it made the Pacific War possible. Using primary sources in five languages, it follows the Army’s culture of disobedience from its inception. By analyzing more than ten important incidents from 1860 to 1931, it shows how some basic “bugs” programmed into the Japanese system in the 1870s, born out of genuine attempts to cope with a chaotic and shifting reality, contributed to the development of military disobedience. The culture of disobedience became increasingly entrenched, making it difficult for the Japanese civilian and military leadership to cope with disobedient officers without paying a significant political price. However, every time the government failed to address the problem, it became more acute. Finally, disobedient military officers were able to significantly influence foreign policy, pushing Japan further towards international aggression, limitless expansion, and conflict with China, Britain and the United States.
History

Through a theoretical framework of myth in genesis, operation and review, this thesis evaluates the relationship between Australian society and the myth of the digger, a tradition of Australian military manhood which originated in the First World War. The digger in genesis was a product of early twentieth century Australia???s need to establish for itself a distinct national identity. Deriving strongly from existing mythology of the bushman/pioneer and foster by the work of CEW Bean, it was quickly adopted by both governments and citizens anxious to promote the contributions of the Australian soldiers and to understand the relationships that these had with the emerging Australian society. The digger in operation from the First World War to the end of the Second World War to the early 1960s demonstrates the way in which Australian (enamoured of its simple and seemingly enduring qualities) Embedded the myth at the core of orthodox thinking about national Identity, despite its exclusivity and prescriptive, authoritarian control by conservative institutions. The era of the Vietnam War acted as a key review phase for the myth as its relevance was questioned significantly. Despite temporary rejection from many and fragmentation into a variety of icons, Australia???s brief flirtation with radical thinking did not last beyond the mid-1970s. A return to conservative values in the 1980s-1990s coincided with political reconciliation over the Vietnam War ??? by the mid-1990s, the digger myth had retained its position of relevance and importance within Australian culture, demonstrating its capacity to become adapted and appropriated to reflect an increasingly democratic and pluralistic society. The current prevailing version of the digger, the "new professional", demonstrates the parallel transition of Australian military culture. It co-exist with other representations, providing a scaffold through which individuals interact with it to develop their own understanding of the application of the digger myth to both their own lives and Australian society.

The aim of this thesis is to provide a general history of the army cadet movement in Australia from 1866 to 2004 by tracing the interactions between four fundamental forces that have stood as its foundation for almost 140 years. In various guises military, educational, social, and financial factors are the pillars on which the cadet movement has always rested. Over time the balance and relative dominance of each has determined the shape and state of the cadet organisation and will continue to do so in the future. When these four forces have been aligned the movement has thrived but when they have pulled in disparate directions it has faltered. Throughout the thesis, contextualising these four key concepts, are two more general themes concerning the influence of conservative politics and a recurring state school/private school divide. The history of army cadets, and therefore this thesis, is an investigation into the interplay of these dynamics. With such a purpose and methodology the thesis begins by tracing the development of the movement from its nineteenth century origins by identifying issues and circumstances that led some colonies to maintain thousands of cadets while others struggled to field any. It goes on to examine the formation, five years after Federation, of a Commonwealth cadet scheme birthed only to be swamped by the era of compulsory military training in Australia from 1911-29 which saw, at its peak, almost 100,000 schoolboys in khaki. The thesis analyses the re-organised voluntary cadet system in place from 1930-38 which, matching the circumstances of the adult army, faltered in numbers and support as it was restructured into dual 'Regimental' and 'School' branches. It goes on to assess the impact of the Second World War and the renewed impetus it provided to the cadet organisation before investigating the prosperity of the movement throughout the 1950s and 1960s in spite of the complexities raised by National Service and Australian involvement in conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, Malaya and Borneo. Particular attention is paid to the early 1970s and the machinations surrounding the unexpected decision to disband the cadet organisation announced by the Labor government on 26 August 1975. The cadet story does not conclude at this point, however, with Vice Regal controversy and a subsequent Liberal-National election victory resurrecting the movement. The re-styled cadet scheme of 1976-83 is investigated followed by twelve years of division and distress under consecutive Labor federal governments between 1984-95. The thesis concludes by examining the reversal of fortunes for the movement from 1996-2004 which saw the cadet system develop, by the end of the period, into a well led, resourced and motivated organisation of almost 17,000 members. The research informing this thesis is based on documents held in National Archives of Australia offices in all state capitals, as well as those held in the Australian War Memorial. In addition, all state public record offices have yielded significant material, as have a wide range of private and school-based archives. More recent primary source information has been gathered from sources within the Department of Defence Archives, Queanbeyan, NSW, while select active and closed files from Headquarters Australian Army Cadets and the Directorate of Defence Force Cadets were graciously provided to the author. The study has also been informed by a wide selection of official, privately published and unpublished secondary sources spanning more than a century.

This thesis explores the ways in which Christian faith ‘adds value’ to the ‘carescape’ and ‘caringscapes’ of statutory hostels for people experiencing homelessness in the United Kingdom. The ways that a distinctively Christian organisational ethos is created and experienced through the material, regulatory and performative dimensions of space, place and subjectivity, are explored through a case study of the Salvation Army’s contemporary statutory accommodation services for single homeless people. Drawing upon Cloke’s notions of ‘theo-ethics’ and Conradson’s concept of ‘therapeutic landscape experience’, the links between spirituality, care and ‘value added’ are examined from the perspective of staff, volunteers and service users. This analysis extends the debate on the potential for faith-based organisations to make a distinctive and valuable contribution to care for people experiencing homelessness, by foregrounding the spiritual and emotional dimensions that texture these organisational landscapes of care. A feminist epistemological approach is taken to illuminate the nuances of care-giving and care-receiving, with particular attention paid to the emotional and spiritual sensitivities underpinning social interactions, and how these dimensions are perceived, narrated and experienced from a variety of perspectives. Using an ethnographic methodology, this study involved the undertaking of 91 semi-structured interviews, a six-week period of participant observation in a specific Salvation Army Lifehouse, and attendance at four professional social service and chaplaincy conferences run by the Salvation Army UK. The research findings suggest that Christianity adds value to these institutional spaces of care in a highly nuanced way, dependent on one’s subjectivity. A second observation is that the potential for faith to add value within statutory arenas of care for the homeless is being compromised due to the pressures associated with the incumbent neoliberal contract culture within which Lifehouses are embedded. A third contribution concerns the potential for a faith-based organisation to act as a crucible for the emergence of postsecular rapprochement: it is suggested that an intersectional approach to analysing this socio-spatial process is necessary, due to the strategic role that gender, age, sexuality and race were revealed to play in fostering, or dissipating, the affective relationships that underpinned fragile moments of rapprochement.

Officerskapet i Frälsningsarmén (FA) med utgångspunkt från general Erik Wickbergs tal, predikningar och artiklar. Erik Wickberg (1904–1996) är den ende svensk som har varit ledare för Frälsningsarmén (FA) i hela världen. Mellan åren 1961–1969 var han rörelsens stabschef och mellan åren 1969–1974 var han general. På riksarkivet i Stockholm finns hans tal– och predikomanuskript. Dessa har i många år väckt mitt intresse. I min uppsats från 2016 (Predikantskap i Frälsningsarmén, Erik Wickberg stabschef och general 1961–1974, Uppsala universitet) analyserades ett antal predikningar och denna forskning inspirerade mig att med utgångspunkt från Erik Wickbergs tal, predikningar och artiklar undersöka vad han hade att säga om officerskapet i FA.          Syftet har alltså varit att söka beskriva, förklara och förstå hans sätt att identifiera och beskriva officerskapet. Dessutom ville jag veta hur hans idealbild av officerskapet såg ut och hur han teologiskt motiverar detta. Vidare har det varit angeläget att se närmare på debatten när det gäller officerskapet under hans tid och vilken form av ecklesiologi som framträder i Erik Wickbergs framställningar. Åtskilliga forskare har ägnat sig åt att analysera officerskapets ecklesiologi och teologi men ingen annan har gjort detta med utgångspunkt från Erik Wickbergs tal, predikningar och artiklar.             Jag fann tidigt att det var nödvändigt att ge både en historisk och en teologisk bakgrund till begreppet officerskap, samtidigt säga något om hans tids frågor gällande officerskapet men också beröra något om senare tiders utveckling. Allt detta för att Erik Wickbergs framställningar inte skulle ”hänga i luften”. Materialet har alltså bestått av ett sjuttiotal tal och predikningar, hans artiklar i den engelskspråkiga officerstidskriften The Officer och iSalvation Army’s Year Book. Dessutom har andras forskning och andra källor skapat en historisk och teologisk förståelse för begreppet officerskap. På detta sätt har även Erik Wickbergs texter tillsammans med övrigt material kommit att belysa varandra.           I teoribildningen analyserades officerskapet och det är ingen tvekan om att detta skapat en form av en världsvid subkultur där en personlig inre kallelse är inkörsporten och där ordersystem, reglementen och uppdrag bidragit till att skapa en enhetlighet och en internationell samhörighet. Inspiration har hämtats från boken Models of the Church av Avery Dulles. I denna bok ser han på kyrkan utifrån olika modeller. Några av dessa har använts och officerskapet har studerats från ett institutionellt perspektiv, från ett sakramentalt perspektiv,från ett evangelisatoriskt perspektiv, från ett diakonalt perspektiv och från ett omslutande ecklesiologiskt perspektiv.         Dessa perspektiv har fått bilda kapitelrubrikerna i uppsatsen. Jag tänker mig att officerskapet vilar i det institutionella och i det sakramentala perspektivet. Det institutionella handlar om FA:s speciella struktur, det som gör FA till en armé. Det sakramentala handlar om den andliga dimensionen. Det evangelisatoriska och det diakonala perspektivet om vad FA vill åstadkomma, FA:s båda ”vingar” eller de båda operativa perspektiven. Alla dessa perspektiv är i sin tur sedda i ett ecklesiologiskt perspektiv. Utgångspunkten är alltså vad Erik Wickberg talar och skriver i växelverkan med bakgrund, hans samtid och något om senare utveckling. I uppsatsens avslutningskapitel har jag analyserat resultaten med hjälp av frågeställningar som Avery Dulles ställer sig i boken Models of the Church.        I min forskning framkommer det tydligt att Erik Wickberg ser officeren främst som en evangelist med syfte att leda människor fram till en omvändelse till Kristus. Av detta följer att uppgiften blir av uppsökande karaktär och Erik Wickberg återkommer gång på gång till begreppet angripande kristendom.  Officerens uppgift är också att vårda sig om flocken. Dessa två uppgifter sätter sin prägel på hans sätt att se på officerskapet. Idealbilden handlar om att vara helt överlåten till Gud och uppdraget. Officerskapet ska präglas av ödmjukhet, självinsikt, självdisciplin och entusiasm där förnuft och känsla samarbetar. Den teologiska motivationen för officerskapet hämtar han från Guds kärlek genom Jesus Kristus. Erik Wickbergs budskap är att det är Kristi kärlek som tvingar människorna till engagemang. Att vandra i Kristi efterföljelse är ett måste. När det gäller debatten under hans ämbetstid om officerskapets teologiska innebörd tycks inte Erik Wickberg ta ställning för de två huvudlinjerna huruvida officerskapet ska ses som ett ämbete med en speciell andlig status eller om det endast har med funktion att göra. Han talar ofta om officerskapets dignitet och om officerskapet som något heligt och om att man står i en succession av uppdragsbärare som börjar redan i Gamla testamentet. Under Erik Wickbergs tid som general görs ett försök till att teologiskt beskriva officerskapet i ett sammanhang där även han deltar. I denna beskrivning utgår officerskapet från det allmänna prästadömet som ett specifikt uppdrag att utrusta lemmarna i Kristi kropp.          Enligt Erik Wickberg är officerskapets ecklesiologiska hemvist i en av Gud utvald rörelse som har antagit karaktären av en armé i syfte att uppsöka och förkunna och gestalta evangeliet till människor som inga andra bryr sig om. Skulle man ge upp armétanken har man, enligt honom, inget berättigande längre.  Kyrkobegreppet är för statiskt för honom. Allra sist frågar jag mig vad händer när man ser på officerskapet med hjälp av de olika perspektiven.          När det institutionella perspektivet får dominera tar samtalen om befordringar, bestämmelser, disciplin och lydnad för stor plats. Detta kan även hindra framväxandet av en kreativ och fruktbar teologi. Erik Wickberg inser dessa risker. Det finns även exempel i forskningsmaterialet på hur man utifrån ett institutionellt synsätt försöker hitta försvar för FA:s ordersystem i Guds ord som det i själva verket är svårt att hitta en grund för.          I det sakramentala perspektivetsom handlar om officerskapet som ett synligt tecken på Guds nåd är det lätt att urskilja predikningar om betydelsen av att vara föredömen och där han varnar för status och karriärism. Erik Wickbergs helgelseförkunnelse är inte narcissistisk utan har hela tiden ett fokus på medmänniskan.         Det evangelisatoriska perspektivet handlar om officerskapets betydelse för förkunnelsen om frälsning. Erik Wickberg utmanar, uppmanar och inspirerar till en ständigt pågående evangelisation. Man finner att han menar att officerskapet har sin andliga grund i det sakramentala perspektivet för att fungera som förkunnelse om frälsning.         Erik Wickberg har svårt att se det diakonala perspektivet utan att samtidigt betona betydelsen av omvändelsen. Han är orolig för att FA ska uppfattas som en filantropisk organisation som upphör att predika Guds Ord. Samtidigt har han haft att förvalta ett mycket stort socialt arbete med tusentals sociala institutioner. Det är ingen tvekan om att ett av hans syften var att hålla samman FA i hela världen. Detta gjorde honom tyst ibland inför orättvisor av olika slag.         Vad kan då Erik Wickberg ha betytt för officerskapet? Han betonade ofta officerens andliga dignitet. Han ville se officeren som ett föredöme i ödmjukhet. Hans förkunnelse hade plats både för intellekt och känsla. Han satte förkunnelsen om individens frälsning i fokus. Det var inte alltid som han lika klart lyckades förena denna förkunnelse med ord om rättvisa och fred trots att han själv vid ett tillfälle definierade FA som ”a prophetic cry of protest against asleepy, lazy, selfish kind of religion, against closed clique worship and against barriers of raceand nationality and class”.
Officership in the Salvation Army (FA) based on General Erik Wickberg’s speeches, sermons and articles.   Erik Wickberg (1904–1996) is the only Swede who has been the leader of the Salvation Army (SA) Worldwide. Between 1961 and 1969 he was the movement’s Chief of the Staff and between the years from 1969 to 1974 he was General. His speeches and sermon scripts are kept at the National Archives in Stockholm (RA). These have for many years raised my interest. I analyzed a number of his sermons in my thesis from 2016 (Preaching in The Salvation Army, Erik Wickberg Chief of the Staff and General 1961–1974, Uppsala University) and from this research and based on Erik Wickberg’s other speeches, sermons and articles I have investigated what he had to say about the officers of the SA. The purpose has been to seek, describe, explain and understand his way of identifying and describing the officership in the SA. In addition I have asked myself how his ideal image of officers looks and how he theologically justifies this. It has also been important to look more closely at the debate about the officership during his era and discover what kind of ecclesiology that appears in Erik Wickberg’s presentations. Several researchers have devoted themselves to describe and analyze the ecclesiology and theology of the officership. However, I am sure that no one else has done this based on Erik Wickberg’s speeches, sermons and articles.   I discovered early on that it was necessary to give both a historical and theological background to the concept of officership, at the same time to say something about the issues surrounding officership in his time as well as touch on recent developments. All of this to ensure that Erik Wickbergs presentations would not be out of reach. The material has thus consisted of some seventy speeches and sermons, as well as his articles in the officer magazine The Officer and in the Salvation Army’s Year Book, both written in English. In addition, the research of others and a variety of sources, have created an historical and theological understanding of the concept of officership. As a result Erik Wickberg’s texts, in combination with other material, have come to illuminate each other.   In theory I have analyzed officership and claim that it created a form of a world-wide subculture where a personal inner calling is the gateway and where the order system, the regulations and the assignment, contribute to creating a uniformity and an international affinity. Furthermore, I have been inspired by the book Models of the Churchby Avery Cardinal Dulles. In this book he looks at the church being based on different models. I have used some of these myself and thus seen officership from an institutional perspective, from a sacramental perspective, from an evangelistic perspective, from a diaconal perspectiveand finally from an ecclesiological perspective. These perspectives have formed the chapter headings in the essay. I am of the opinion that officership rests in the institutional and sacramental perspective. The institutional is concerned with the SA’s special structure, that which makes SA an army. The sacramental is concerned with the spiritual dimension. The evangelistic and the diaconal perspective is concerned with what the SA wants to accomplish, both being “wings” or two operational perspectives. All of these perspectives are in turn viewed from one ecclesiological perspective. The starting point is what Erik Wickberg speaks and writes about as an interaction with background, his era and something about later development. In the essay’s closing chapter I have analyzed the results with help from the issues Avery Dulles raises in his book Models of the Church.   In my research it is clear that Erik Wickberg sees the officer primarily as an evangelist with the purpose of leading people to a conversion to Christ. This leads to the task being one of outreach in which Erik Wickberg will return again and again to the concept of attacking Christianity. The officer’s task is also to care for the flock. These two tasks characterize his way of looking at officership. The ideal image is about being totally entrusted to God and the mission. The officership must be characterized by humility, self-insight, self-discipline and enthusiasm where common sense and emotion work together. The theological motivation for officership is drawn from God’s love through Jesus Christ. Erik Wickberg’s message is that it is Christ’s love that forces people to engage. To walk in Christ’s path is a necessity. As for the debate during his term of office about the theological meaning of officership Erik Wickberg does not seem to take a stand regarding the two main lines of whether the officership should be seen as an office with a particular spiritual status or if it only is functional. He often speaks of the dignity of the officers and about officership as something sacred and about being in a succession of mission bearers that begins already in the Old Testament. During Erik Wickberg’s time as a General, an attempt is made to theologically describe officership in a context in which Erik Wickberg also participates. This description is based on the general priesthood officership as being a specific single mission to equip the members of the body of Christ.   According to Erik Wickberg, the ecclesiological residence of officership is in a movement chosen by God that has adopted the character of an army in order to seek out and proclaim and portray the gospel to the marginalised. If one gives up on the“army”way of thinking, one has, according to him, no justification anymore. The church concept is too static for him. Most recently, I ask myself what happens when you look at the concept of the officer with the help of the different perspectives.   We have seen that when the institutional perspective dominates, the conversations are about promotions and regulations in which discipline and obedience take a prominent place. This can also prevent the emergence of a creative and fruitful theology. I can see that Erik Wickberg realizes these risks. There are also examples in the research material on how someone from an institutional stance attempts to defend the SA’s order system in the word of God which in fact is difficult to find a basis for.   The sacramental perspective is about officership as a visible sign for God’s grace. There are easily discernable sermons about the importance of being exemplary where he warns of status and careerism. Erik Wickberg’s sanctification is not narcissistic but always has a focus on fellow human beings.   The evangelistic perspective is about the importance of the officership as the proclamator of salvation. Erik Wickberg challenges, encourages and inspires a constant ongoing evangelisation. One finds that he believes that officership has its spiritual foundation in the sacramental perspective serving as a proclamation of salvation. Erik Wickberg has difficulty seeing the diaconal perspective without at the same time emphasizing the meaning of conversion. He is worried that the SA can be perceived as a philanthropic organization that ceased to preach the Word of God. At the same time, he had to manage a very large social work with thousands of social institutions. There is no doubt that one of his purposes was to hold SA together throughout the world. This made him quiet at times in the face of different kinds of injustice.   What did Erik Wickberg mean with officership? He often emphasized the officer’s spiritual dignity. He wanted to see the officer as an example of humility. His preaching had room for both intellect and emotion. He proclaimed salvation with an individual focus. It was not always possible to unite this proclamation with words of justice and peace even though he himself defined the SA at one time as “a prophetic cry of protest against a sleepy, lazy, selfish child or religion, against closed clique worship and against barriers of race and nationality and class”.

In this essay I present the ecclesiology of the Salvation Army as it appears in Sweden today. One thesis that I examined is that the Salvation Army has changed its self-understanding from seeing itself as an Army from the beginning of the movement, to gradually understanding itself as a Church. The essay confirms this assumption and concludes that it is largely due to the challenges of ecumenical theology that developed with the publication of the BEM document in 1982, adopted by the World Council of Churches' Faith and Order Commission. Further, statistics show that 3 out of 4 new members of the Salvation Army in Sweden are what are Adherents, defined as a type of civilian membership, and not uniformed soldiers. The purpose of the essay has therefore been to explore what the change of membership, from soldiers to adherents, has meant for the ecclesiology of the movement. I have captured both of these assumptions, that the Army understands itself more and more as a church and that most new members are Adherents, when I have formulated the overarching research question: How does a growing proportion of Adherents play into the Salvation Army's gradually changing self-understanding from army to church? In the essay, I have used a qualitative research method which includes a hermeneutic approach where I interpret the changes and observe to understand its consequences for the ecclesiology that appears in the Salvation Army. The essay discusses the "army concept" which implies a “mission-oriented” ecclesiology and the "church concept" which implies a "community-oriented" ecclesiology. My source material consists of both written dogmatic material, observations of enrolling of both soldiers and adherents in Corps and interviews with new members. I note that the ecclesiological themes that appear in my materials are somewhat different. The written material has some army rhetoric, which means that in addition to a community-oriented ecclesiology one can also see a mission-oriented ecclesiology, while the observations and especially the interviews give a clearer picture of a communion-oriented ecclesiology where the congregation also appears as a sacramental communion. The likeness of ecclesiology between the Salvation Army to other free-churches in Sweden is so profound that I propose the idea of “free-church salvationists” in the army in Sweden. In the essay, I state that a probable further ecclesiological development may be that the more Adherents who become members, the more communion-oriented ecclesiology will implicitly appear in the Salvation Army in Sweden and at the same time the army rhetoric will gradually disappear. This means that the Salvation Army in Sweden may in the near future be described as "an army without soldiers".

This research examines how reality television can be used to highlight the social issue of homelessness while fulfilling the needs of stakeholders. The research illustrates the perspectives of homeless persons, advocates and television executives and offers a program format solution to satisfy the requirements for a television program that is entertaining and enlightening for the viewer. The research will assist television producers who seek to broaden the appeal of social issue programs in commercial environments.

Army in the 21st Century and Restructuring the Army: A Retrospective Appraisal of Australian Military Change Management in the 1990s Abstract: Army in the 21st Century (A21) and Restructuring the Army (RTA) were two related force structure initiatives undertaken by the Australian Army in the 1990s. A21 radically proposed to abolish traditional divisional/corps structures, fielding instead independent task forces with embedded combat arms. The RTA trials tested A21 concepts over several years; yet A21/RTA was abandoned in 1999. What happened, why, and what lessons does A21/RTA offer? This retrospective appraisal of A21/RTA is a case study of attempted transformational change in the Australian Army. The sub-thesis’ methodology features interviews with over thirty senior military, public service, academic and political leaders of this era; and applies organisational theory to interpret internal/external dynamics. A21/RTA faced formidable strategy, resourcing and cultural challenges. However A21/RTA failed to achieve critical elements of successful change management, including: a clear, shared, credible vision; achieving early successes; providing enablers (e.g. time and resources) and supporting efforts for change; senior leadership buy-in; and political sponsorship. A21/RTA failed in technical feasibility and cultural sensitivity terms. However, A21/RTA successfully developed an evidence-based approach, an enduring legacy supporting Army’s capability resourcing in Defence’s contested budget environment. Lessons for future restructures focus leadership attention to elements critical for successful organisational change, emphasising culture.

This thesis is a case study of educational process in the leadership development program of the Australian Defence Force Academy. The intention is to determine the relative emphasis in educational process on the conventional command and managerial compliance (Type A) style and the emergent contingent and creative (Type B) style of leadership. The Type A style is theorised as emphasizing hierarchy and control, whereas the emphasis in a Type B style is on adaptive and entrepreneurial behaviour. This study looks at the learning process in a cultural and structural context rather than focus on curriculum and instructional design. Research in this wider context is intended to enable development processes to successfully bridge a gap between theory and practice, implicit in studies that identify theories 'in-operation' as different from the theories 'espoused' (Argyris 1992, Savage 1996). In terms of espoused and in-use theory, the study seeks to produce a valid and reliable result to the question: what is the relative emphasis on the two leadership styles in the operation of the three educational mechanisms of curriculum, pedagogy (teaching practice) and assessment? The quantitative analysis of results (n = 114) draws attention to both leadership styles in terms of two and three-way relationships of style, cadet or work group and service type. The data shows that both Type A and Type B leadership styles are evident in the general conversation of the organisation. This trend is present as espoused theory in the curriculum of the Defence Academy. However, the data also confirm a clear and strong emphasis towards command and managerial compliance as theory-in-use, particularly by cadets. This emphasis is noticeably evident in the teaching and assessment practice of the Defence Academy. Other research outcomes include the observation that: Contextually, while studies show it is difficult to isolate skills from their cultural and biographical context (Watkins, 1991:15), this study suggests that it is equally difficult to isolate skills development from this context. There is a strong task or instrumental link identified by cadet responses in terms of content and development process at the Defence Academy, in contrast to the wider developmental emphasis in general literature and senior officer interviews. There is a lack of awareness of teaching strategies and development activity consistent with espoused Type B leadership theory and curriculum content. This gap is compounded by the use in the Defence Academy of personnel without teaching expertise or suitable developmental experience. The socialisation of cadets into the military workplace is the primary purpose of training. This purpose appears taken for granted by all concerned - staff, cadets and senior officers. Defence Academy development processes appear to be faced with a dilemma. Arguably, training and learning from experience are limited approaches to development. Training, which involves learning by replication, and learning from experience, which is largely imitative, are both of little use when people are faced with novel and ambiguous situations. This study suggests that in order to support the development of capabilities that go beyond training based competence a learning and development approach is needed. This more expansive approach requires educational planners to consider the cultural and social context that can inadvertently promote the status quo in practice over espoused outcomes.