Artículos de revistas: "Ruptures de surface (sismologie)"

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Biasi, Glenn P. y Steven G. Wesnousky. "Bends and Ends of Surface Ruptures". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 107, n.º 6 (10 de octubre de 2017): 2543–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120160292.

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Chen, Xiaolin, Guang Hu y Xiaoli Liu. "Recognition of Earthquake Surface Ruptures Using Deep Learning". Applied Sciences 12, n.º 22 (16 de noviembre de 2022): 11638. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app122211638.

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Investigating post-earthquake surface ruptures is important for understanding the tectonics of seismogenic faults. The use of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) images to identify post-earthquake surface ruptures has the advantages of low cost, fast data acquisition, and high data processing efficiency. With the rapid development of deep learning in recent years, researchers have begun using it for image crack detection. However, due to the complex background and diverse characteristics of the surface ruptures, it remains challenging to quickly train an effective automatic earthquake surface rupture recognition model on a limited number of samples. This study proposes a workflow that applies an image segmentation algorithm based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to extract cracks from post-earthquake UAV images. We selected the 16-layer visual geometry group (VGG16) network as the primary network architecture. Then, we improved the VGG16 network and deleted several convolutional layers to reduce computation and memory consumption. Moreover, we added dilated convolution and atrous spatial pyramid pooling (ASPP) to make the network perform well in the surface crack identification of post-earthquake UAV images. We trained the proposed method using the data of the MS 7.4 Maduo earthquake and obtained a model that could automatically identify and draw small and irregular surface ruptures from high-resolution UAV images.

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3

Boncio, Paolo, Francesca Liberi, Martina Caldarella y Fiia-Charlotta Nurminen. "Width of surface rupture zone for thrust earthquakes: implications for earthquake fault zoning". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 18, n.º 1 (19 de enero de 2018): 241–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-18-241-2018.

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Abstract. The criteria for zoning the surface fault rupture hazard (SFRH) along thrust faults are defined by analysing the characteristics of the areas of coseismic surface faulting in thrust earthquakes. Normal and strike–slip faults have been deeply studied by other authors concerning the SFRH, while thrust faults have not been studied with comparable attention. Surface faulting data were compiled for 11 well-studied historic thrust earthquakes occurred globally (5.4 ≤ M ≤ 7.9). Several different types of coseismic fault scarps characterize the analysed earthquakes, depending on the topography, fault geometry and near-surface materials (simple and hanging wall collapse scarps, pressure ridges, fold scarps and thrust or pressure ridges with bending-moment or flexural-slip fault ruptures due to large-scale folding). For all the earthquakes, the distance of distributed ruptures from the principal fault rupture (r) and the width of the rupture zone (WRZ) were compiled directly from the literature or measured systematically in GIS-georeferenced published maps. Overall, surface ruptures can occur up to large distances from the main fault ( ∼ 2150 m on the footwall and ∼ 3100 m on the hanging wall). Most of the ruptures occur on the hanging wall, preferentially in the vicinity of the principal fault trace ( > ∼ 50 % at distances < ∼ 250 m). The widest WRZ are recorded where sympathetic slip (Sy) on distant faults occurs, and/or where bending-moment (B-M) or flexural-slip (F-S) fault ruptures, associated with large-scale folds (hundreds of metres to kilometres in wavelength), are present. A positive relation between the earthquake magnitude and the total WRZ is evident, while a clear correlation between the vertical displacement on the principal fault and the total WRZ is not found. The distribution of surface ruptures is fitted with probability density functions, in order to define a criterion to remove outliers (e.g. 90 % probability of the cumulative distribution function) and define the zone where the likelihood of having surface ruptures is the highest. This might help in sizing the zones of SFRH during seismic microzonation (SM) mapping. In order to shape zones of SFRH, a very detailed earthquake geologic study of the fault is necessary (the highest level of SM, i.e. Level 3 SM according to Italian guidelines). In the absence of such a very detailed study (basic SM, i.e. Level 1 SM of Italian guidelines) a width of ∼ 840 m (90 % probability from "simple thrust" database of distributed ruptures, excluding B-M, F-S and Sy fault ruptures) is suggested to be sufficiently precautionary. For more detailed SM, where the fault is carefully mapped, one must consider that the highest SFRH is concentrated in a narrow zone, ∼ 60 m in width, that should be considered as a fault avoidance zone (more than one-third of the distributed ruptures are expected to occur within this zone). The fault rupture hazard zones should be asymmetric compared to the trace of the principal fault. The average footwall to hanging wall ratio (FW : HW) is close to 1 : 2 in all analysed cases. These criteria are applicable to "simple thrust" faults, without considering possible B-M or F-S fault ruptures due to large-scale folding, and without considering sympathetic slip on distant faults. Areas potentially susceptible to B-M or F-S fault ruptures should have their own zones of fault rupture hazard that can be defined by detailed knowledge of the structural setting of the area (shape, wavelength, tightness and lithology of the thrust-related large-scale folds) and by geomorphic evidence of past secondary faulting. Distant active faults, potentially susceptible to sympathetic triggering, should be zoned as separate principal faults. The entire database of distributed ruptures (including B-M, F-S and Sy fault ruptures) can be useful in poorly known areas, in order to assess the extent of the area within which potential sources of fault displacement hazard can be present. The results from this study and the database made available in the Supplement can be used for improving the attenuation relationships for distributed faulting, with possible applications in probabilistic studies of fault displacement hazard.

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Papanikolaou, I. D., M. Foumelis, I. Parcharidis, E. L. Lekkas y I. G. Fountoulis. "Deformation pattern of the 6 and 7 April 2009, MW=6.3 and MW=5.6 earthquakes in L'Aquila (Central Italy) revealed by ground and space based observations". Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 10, n.º 1 (14 de enero de 2010): 73–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-73-2010.

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Abstract. The deformation pattern of the 6 and 7 April 2009 MW=6.3 and MW=5.6 earthquakes in L'Aquila is revealed by DInSAR analysis and compared with earthquake environmental effects. The DInSAR predicted fault surface ruptures coincide with localities where surface ruptures have been observed in the field, confirming that the ruptures observed near Paganica village are indeed primary. These ruptures are almost one order of magnitude lower than the ruptures that have been produced by other major surrounding faults in the past. These faults have not been activated during the 2009 event, but have the capacity to generate significantly stronger events. DInSAR analysis shows that 66% (or 305 km2) of the area deformed has been subsided whereas the remaining 34% (or 155 km2) has been uplifted. A footwall uplift versus hangingwall subsidence ratio of about 1/3 is extracted from the mainshock. The maximum subsidence (25 cm) was recorded about 4.5 km away from the primary surface ruptures and about 9 km away from the epicentre. In the immediate hangingwall, subsidence did not exceeded 15 cm, showing that the maximum subsidence is not recorded near the ruptured fault trace, but closer to the hangingwall centre. The deformation pattern is asymmetrical expanding significantly towards the southeast. A part of this asymmetry can be attributed to the contribution of the 7 April event in the deformation field.

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5

Pierce, Ian, Alana Williams, Richard D. Koehler y Colin Chupik. "High-Resolution Structure-From-Motion Models and Orthophotos of the Southern Sections of the 2019 Mw 7.1 and 6.4 Ridgecrest Earthquakes Surface Ruptures". Seismological Research Letters 91, n.º 4 (3 de junio de 2020): 2124–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0220190289.

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Abstract Aerial photographs were collected in the days immediately following the 4–5 July 2019 Ridgecrest earthquake sequence (e.g., Barnhart et al., 2019) along the publically accessible sections of the surface ruptures south of California 178. These photos were then used to produce structure-from-motion point cloud models and orthophotos with resolutions varying from ∼1 to 20 cm/pixel. Here, the models are released and initial observations of the nature of the surface ruptures are presented.

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6

Yang, Haibin, Mark Quigley y Tamarah King. "Surface slip distributions and geometric complexity of intraplate reverse-faulting earthquakes". GSA Bulletin 133, n.º 9-10 (13 de enero de 2021): 1909–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/b35809.1.

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Abstract Earthquake ground surface ruptures provide insights into faulting mechanics and inform seismic hazard analyses. We analyze surface ruptures for 11 historical (1968–2018) moment magnitude (Mw) 4.7–6.6 reverse earthquakes in Australia using statistical techniques and compare their characteristics with magnetic, gravity, and stress trajectory data sets. Of the total combined (summative) length of all surface ruptures (∼148 km), 133 km (90%) to 145 km (98%) align with the geophysical structure in the host basement rocks. Surface rupture length (SRL), maximum displacement (MD), and probability of surface rupture at a specified Mw are high compared with equivalent Mw earthquakes globally. This is attributed to (1) a steep cratonic crustal strength gradient at shallow depths, promoting shallow hypocenters (∼1–6 km) and limiting downdip rupture widths (∼1–8.5 km), and (2) favorably aligned crustal anisotropies (e.g., bedrock foliations, faults, fault intersections) that enhanced lateral rupture propagation and/or surface displacements. Combined (modeled and observed) MDs are in the middle third of the SRL with 68% probability and either the ≤33rd or ≥66th percentiles of SRL with 16% probability. MD occurs proximate to or directly within zones of enhanced fault geometric complexity (as evidenced from surface ruptures) in 8 of 11 earthquakes (73%). MD is approximated by 3.3 ± 1.6 (1σ) × AD (average displacement). S-transform analyses indicates that high-frequency slip maxima also coincide with fault geometric complexities, consistent with stress amplifications and enhanced slip variability due to geometric and kinematic interactions with neighboring faults. Rupture slip taper angles exhibit large variations (−90% to +380% with respect to the mean value) toward rupture termini and are steepest where ruptures terminate at obliquely oriented magnetic lineaments and/or lithology changes. Incremental slip approximates AD between the 10th and 90th percentiles of the SRL. The average static stress drop of the studied earthquakes is 4.8 ± 2.8 MPa. A surface rupture classification scheme for cratonic stable regions is presented to describe the prevailing characteristics of intraplate earthquakes across diverse crustal structural-geophysical settings. New scaling relationships and suggestions for logic tree weights are provided to enhance probabilistic fault displacement hazard analyses for bedrock-dominated intraplate continental regions.

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7

Catchings, Rufus D., Michael J. Rymer y Mark R. Goldman. "San Andreas Fault Exploration Using Refraction Tomography and S-Wave-Type and Fϕ-Mode Guided Waves". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 110, n.º 6 (21 de julio de 2020): 3088–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120200136.

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ABSTRACT Surface ruptures from the 18 April 1906 M∼7.9 San Francisco earthquake were distributed over an ∼35-meter-wide zone at San Andreas Lake on the San Francisco Peninsula in California (Schussler, 1906). Since ∼1906, the surface ruptures have been largely covered by water, but with water levels at near-historic low levels in 2008–2011, we observed that the 1906 surface ruptures were no longer visible. As a fault imaging test, we acquired refraction tomography and guided-wave data across the 1906 surface ruptures in 2011. We found that individual fault traces, as mapped by Schussler (1906), can be identified on the basis of discrete low-velocity zones (VS and VP, reduced ∼40% and ∼34%, respectively) and high-amplitude guided waves. Guided waves have traditionally been observed as large-amplitude waveforms over wide (hundreds of meters to kilometers) zones of faulting, but we demonstrate that by evaluating guided waves (including Rayleigh/Love- and P/SV-types) in terms of peak ground velocity (PGV), individual near-surface fault traces within a fault zone can be precisely located, even more than 100 yr after the surface ruptures. Such precise exploration can be used to focus paleoseismic trenching efforts and to identify or exclude faulting at specific sites. We evaluated PGV of both S-wave-type and Fϕ-mode-type guided waves and found that both wave types can be used to identify subsurface fault traces. At San Andreas Lake (main fault), S-wave-type guided waves travel up to 18% slower than S body waves, and Fϕ-mode guided waves travel ∼60% slower than P body waves but ∼15% faster than S body waves. We found that guided-wave amplitudes vary with frequency but are up to five times higher than those of body waves, including the S wave. Our data are consistent with the concept that guided waves can be a strong-shaking hazard during large-magnitude earthquakes.

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8

Komura, Keitaro y Jun Sugimoto. "Shortcut Faults and Lateral Spreading Activated in a Pull-Apart Basin by the 2018 Palu Earthquake, Central Sulawesi, Indonesia". Remote Sensing 13, n.º 15 (27 de julio de 2021): 2939. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs13152939.

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Our understanding of pull-apart basins and their fault systems has been enhanced by analog experiments and simulations. However, there has been scarce interest to compare the faults that bound pull-apart basins with surface ruptures during earthquakes. In this study, we investigated the effects of a 2018 earthquake (Mw 7.5) on a pull-apart basin in the Palu–Koro fault system, Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, using geomorphic observations on digital elevation models and optical correlation with pre- and post-earthquake satellite images. A comparison of active fault traces determined by geomorphology with the locations of surface ruptures from the 2018 earthquake shows that some of the boundary faults of the basin are inactive and that active faulting has shifted to basin-shortcut faults and relay ramps. We also report evidence of lateral spreading, in which alluvial fan materials moved around the end of the alluvial fan. These phenomena may provide insights for anticipating the location of future surface ruptures in pull-apart basins.

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9

Vysotsky, E. M., I. S. Novikov, O. V. Lunina, A. R. Agatova y R. K. Nepop. "Coseismic Surface Ruptures of the 2003 Chuya Earthquake (Gorny Altai): Slip Geometry and Spatial Patterns". Russian Geology and Geophysics 62, n.º 03 (1 de marzo de 2021): 278–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/rgg20194133.

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A 48 km long zone of surface deformation produced by the Ms = 7.3 intracontinental earthquake of 2003 in Gorny Altai is studied in its five segments between the Aktru and Irbistu rivers, where ruptures show the greatest offsets and distinct structural patterns. A total of 554 coseismic ruptures of five slip geometry types are analyzed in terms of length, orientation, and relative percentage. The rupture patterns are discussed with reference to previously published evidence and compared with other strike-slip zones worldwide.

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10

KOIDE, Hitoshi y Takashi SAKURAI. "Technical Terms Related to Surface Ruptures and Active Faults." Journal of the Japan Society of Engineering Geology 37, n.º 4 (1996): 359–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.5110/jjseg.37.359.

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11

Han, Longfei, Jing Liu-Zeng, Wenqian Yao, Wenxin Wang, Yanxiu Shao, Xiaoli Liu, Xianyang Zeng, Yunpeng Gao y Hongwei Tu. "Discontinuous Surface Ruptures and Slip Distributions in the Epicentral Region of the 2021 Mw7.4 Maduo Earthquake, China". Remote Sensing 16, n.º 7 (1 de abril de 2024): 1250. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs16071250.

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Geometric complexities play an important role in the nucleation, propagation, and termination of strike-slip earthquake ruptures. The 2021 Mw7.4 Maduo earthquake rupture initiated at a large releasing stepover with a complex fault intersection. In the epicentral region, we conducted detailed mapping and classification of the surface ruptures and slip measurements associated with the earthquake, combining high-resolution uncrewed aerial vehicle (UAV) images and optical image correlation with field investigations. Our findings indicate that the coseismic ruptures present discontinuous patterns mixed with numerous lateral spreadings due to strong ground shaking. The discontinuous surface ruptures are uncharacteristic in slip to account for the large and clear displacements of offset landforms in the epicentral region. Within the releasing stepovers, the deformation zone revealed from the optical image correlation map indicates that a fault may cut diagonally across the pull-apart basin at depth. The left-lateral horizontal coseismic displacements from field measurements are typically ≤0.6 m, significantly lower than the 1–2.7 m measured from the optical image correlation map. Such a discrepancy indicates a significant proportion of off-fault deformation or the possibility that the rupture stopped at a shallow depth during its initiation phase instead of extending to the surface. The fault network and multi-fault junctions west and south of the epicenter suggest a possible complex path, which retarded the westward propagation at the initial phase of rupture growth. A hampered initiation might enhance the seismic ground motion and the complex ground deformation features at the surface, including widespread shaking-related fissures.

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12

Caskey, S. J. y S. G. Wesnousky. "Static stress changes and earthquake triggering during the 1954 Fairview Peak and Dixie Valley earthquakes, central Nevada". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 87, n.º 3 (1 de junio de 1997): 521–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0870030521.

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Abstract The 16 December 1954 Dixie Valley (MS 6.8) earthquake followed the Fairview Peak (MS 7.2) earthquake by only 4 min and 20 sec. A three-dimensional model of the two dip-slip fault systems based on recent detailed field studies shows the ruptures were separated by a 6-km step in surface trace. A boundary-element approach shows that the static stress changes imposed by rupture of the Fairview Peak earthquake are in the correct sense to explain the northward propagation of faulting along four distinct faults that comprise the Fairview Peak earthquake and the subsequent triggering of the Dixie Valley earthquake. The location of rupture end points at sites where static stresses change sign is also used to suggest that static stress changes may play a role in controlling the extent of fault ruptures. We also observe that the largest coseismic surface displacements tend to correlate with those sections of the faults showing the largest positive stress change from preceding ruptures.

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13

Thoroddsen, S. T., M. J. Thoraval, K. Takehara y T. G. Etoh. "Micro-bubble morphologies following drop impacts onto a pool surface". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 708 (14 de agosto de 2012): 469–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2012.319.

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AbstractWhen a drop impacts at low velocity onto a pool surface, a hemispheric air layer cushions and can delay direct contact. Herein we use ultra-high-speed video to study the rupture of this layer, to explain the resulting variety of observed distribution of bubbles. The size and distribution of micro-bubbles is determined by the number and location of the primary punctures. Isolated holes lead to the formation of bubble necklaces when the edges of two growing holes meet, whereas bubble nets are produced by regular shedding of micro-bubbles from a sawtooth edge instability. For the most viscous liquids the air film contracts more rapidly than the capillary–viscous velocity through repeated spontaneous ruptures of the edge. From the speed of hole opening and the total volume of micro-bubbles we conclude that the air sheet ruptures when its thickness approaches ${\ensuremath{\sim} }100~\mathrm{nm} $.

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NAKATA, Takashi, Kiyoshi YOMOGIDA, Jun-Ichiro ODAKA, Teruaki SAKAMOTO, Katsuhiko ASAHI y Noboru CHIDA. "Surface Fault Ruptures Associated with the 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu Earthquake." Journal of Geography (Chigaku Zasshi) 104, n.º 1 (1995): 127–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5026/jgeography.104.127.

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15

NAGAO, KEIKO, KEIKO HATAE y ATSUKO SHIMADA. "OCCURRENCE OF RUPTURES ON THE SURFACE OF FOODS DURING FRYING". Journal of Texture Studies 28, n.º 1 (abril de 1997): 27–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1997.tb00100.x.

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16

Rahimi, Jamshid y Michael O. Ngadi. "Surface ruptures of fried batters as influenced by batter formulations". Journal of Food Engineering 152 (mayo de 2015): 50–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2014.12.002.

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17

Valentini, Alessandro, Christopher B. DuRoss, Edward H. Field, Ryan D. Gold, Richard W. Briggs, Francesco Visini y Bruno Pace. "Relaxing Segmentation on the Wasatch Fault Zone: Impact on Seismic Hazard". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 110, n.º 1 (19 de noviembre de 2019): 83–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120190088.

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ABSTRACT The multisegment Wasatch fault zone is a well-studied normal fault in the western United States that has paleoseismic evidence of recurrent Holocene surface-faulting earthquakes. Along the 270 km long central part of the fault, four primary structural complexities provide possible along-strike limits to these ruptures and form the basis for models of fault segmentation. Here, we assess the impact that the Wasatch fault segmentation model has on seismic hazard by evaluating the time-independent long-term rate of ruptures on the fault that satisfy fault-slip rates and paleoseismic event rates, adapting standard inverse theory used in the Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast, Version 3, and implementing a segmentation constraint in which ruptures across primary structural complexities are penalized. We define three models with varying degrees of rupture penalization: (1) segmented (ruptures confined to individual segments), (2) penalized (multisegment ruptures allowed, but penalized), and (3) unsegmented (all ruptures allowed). Seismic-hazard results show that, on average, hazard is highest for the segmented model, in which seismic moment is accommodated by frequent moderate (moment magnitude Mw 6.2–6.8) earthquakes. The unsegmented model yields the lowest average seismic hazard because part of the seismic moment is accommodated by large (Mw 6.9–7.9) but infrequent ruptures. We compare these results to model differences derived from other inputs such as slip rate and magnitude scaling relations and conclude that segmentation exerts a primary control on seismic hazard. This study demonstrates the need for additional geologic constraints on rupture extent and methods by which these observations can be included in hazard-modeling efforts.

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18

Hessami, Khaled, Hadi Tabassi, Koji Okumura, Mohammad R. Abbassi y Takashi Azuma. "Surface Deformation and the Fault Responsible for the 2003 Bam, Iran, Earthquake". Earthquake Spectra 21, n.º 1_suppl (diciembre de 2005): 113–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1193/1.2103167.

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The Bam fault zone is a major active fault zone in southeastern Iran. Geomorphic evidence indicates that it has been responsible for repeated faulting events since the late Pleistocene. The 26 December 2003 Bam earthquake was associated with a 14 km fresh surface rupture trending north-south along the preexisting Bam fault zone. However, an en echelon rupture pattern trending N 15° E developed in the surface of alluvial deposits 5 km west of the Bam fault, in an area where no fault trace is visible in the geomorphology. The slip along the surface ruptures ranged between 0.5 and 20 cm. Rather than being a direct manifestation of the earthquake fault that does not surface, the fresh surface ruptures associated with the Bam earthquake are secondary structures such as synthetic (Reidel) shears and mole tracks, which indicate right-lateral motion along the Bam fault zone. This is compatible with both the focal mechanism solutions of the earthquake and fault displacements during the late Pleistocene. Fresh surface structures indicate areas of dispersed strain not recognized on SAR interferometry.

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19

Wu, Cheng-Feng y Huey-Chu Huang. "Detection of a fracture zone using microtremor array measurement". GEOPHYSICS 84, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 2019): B33—B40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1190/geo2017-0393.1.

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We have conducted microtremor array measurements to estimate shallow S-wave velocity ([Formula: see text]) structures at two sites (the 921 Earthquake Museum of Taiwan and the Taiwan Provincial Consultative Council) located near surface ruptures of the Chelungpu Fault. Ten stations, consisting of three different-aperture triangles and a central station, are adopted for each array deployment. Using the array data, we calculate dispersion curves of Rayleigh waves using the frequency-wavenumber spectrum method and then estimate [Formula: see text] structures by the surface-wave inversion technique. The obtained 2D [Formula: see text] profiles could clearly show compressive and flexural deformation structures with the surface ruptures located at relatively weak (low [Formula: see text]) zones. This indicates compressive buckling as the most likely mechanism for surface rupturing along these low [Formula: see text] zones. Importantly, this study successfully depicts strata disturbances in a fault fracture zone using microtremor array measurements and forward numerical modeling of trishear fault-propagation folds.

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Lazarte, Carlos A., Jonathan D. Bray, Arvid M. Johnson y Robert E. Lemmer. "Surface breakage of the 1992 Landers earthquake and its effects on structures". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 84, n.º 3 (1 de junio de 1994): 547–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0840030547.

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Abstract The Landers, California, earthquake (Mw = 7.3) provides an exceptional opportunity to study surface rupture of an earthquake fault. Detailed maps of the lateral distribution of fracturing adjacent to main traces show that rupture patterns are much more complex than documented in past studies of surface ruptures. The rupture occurs in tabular zones, up to hundreds of meters wide. A main trace within each rupture zone accommodates much of the shear deformation, but considerable fracturing occurs throughout the tabular zone. The en-echelon pattern of fracturing in step-over zones between main traces is typically even more complex than those along major fault zones. Inspection of several on-grade concrete slabs indicates that unreinforced concrete foundations generally crack when subjected to distinct ground ruptures beneath them or when they are twisted because of differential ground movements across broad zones. Methods of mitigating the potential hazards associated with earthquake fault rupture are presented.

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Bloom, Colin K., Andrew Howell, Timothy Stahl, Chris Massey y Corinne Singeisen. "The influence of off-fault deformation zones on the near-fault distribution of coseismic landslides". Geology 50, n.º 3 (22 de noviembre de 2021): 272–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g49429.1.

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Abstract Coseismic landslides are observed in higher concentrations around surface-rupturing faults. This observation has been attributed to a combination of stronger ground motions and increased rock mass damage closer to faults. Past work has shown it is difficult to separate the influences of rock mass damage from strong ground motions on landslide occurrence. We measured coseismic off-fault deformation (OFD) zone widths (treating them as a proxy for areas of more intense rock mass damage) using high-resolution, three-dimensional surface displacements from the 2016 Mw 7.8 Kaikōura earthquake in New Zealand. OFD zones vary in width from ~50 m to 1500 m over the ~180 km length of ruptures analyzed. Using landslide densities from a database of 29,557 Kaikōura landslides, we demonstrate that our OFD zone captures a higher density of coseismic landslide incidence than generic “distance to fault rupture” within ~650 m of surface fault ruptures. This result suggests that the effects of rock mass damage within OFD zones (including ground motions from trapped and amplified seismic waves) may contribute to near-fault coseismic landslide occurrence in addition to the influence of regional ground motions, which attenuate with distance from the fault. The OFD zone represents a new path toward understanding, and planning for, the distribution of coseismic landslides around surface fault ruptures. Inclusion of estimates of fault zone width may improve landslide susceptibility models and decrease landslide risk.

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Stirling, Mark W., N. J. Litchfield, Pilar Villamor, Russ J. Van Dissen, Andy Nicol, Jarg Pettinga, Philip Barnes et al. "The Mw7.8 2016 Kaikōura earthquake". Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering 50, n.º 2 (30 de junio de 2017): 73–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.50.2.73-84.

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We provide a summary of the surface fault ruptures produced by the Mw7.8 14 November 2016 Kaikōura earthquake, including examples of damage to engineered structures, transportation networks and farming infrastructure produced by direct fault surface rupture displacement. We also provide an overview of the earthquake in the context of the earthquake source model and estimated ground motions from the current (2010) version of the National Seismic Hazard Model (NSHM) for New Zealand. A total of 21 faults ruptured along a c.180 km long zone during the earthquake, including some that were unknown prior to the event. The 2010 version of the NSHM had considered multi-fault ruptures in the Kaikōura area, but not to the degree observed in the earthquake. The number of faults involved a combination of known and unknown faults, a mix of complete and partial ruptures of the known faults, and the non-involvement of a major fault within the rupture zone (i.e. the Hope Fault) makes this rupture an unusually complex event by world standards. However, the strong ground motions of the earthquake are consistent with the high hazard of the Kaikōura area shown in maps produced from the NSHM.

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Fromageot, Audrey, Philippe Cecchi, Florence Parent y Yves Coppieters. "Ruptures économiques sans ruptures sociales : le maraîchage et la santé des paysanneries sénoufo entre résilience et vulnérabilité". Annales de Géographie 115, n.º 647 (2006): 49–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/geo.2006.21314.

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Fromageot, Audrey, Philippe Cecchi, Florence Parent y Yves Coppieters. "Ruptures économiques sans ruptures sociales: le maraîchage et la santé des paysanneries sénoufo entre résilience et vulnérabilité". Annales de géographie 647, n.º 1 (2006): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/ag.647.0049.

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25

Johnson, Jeffrey A. "Off-fault Deformation Associated with Strike-slip Faults". Environmental and Engineering Geoscience 24, n.º 4 (21 de diciembre de 2018): 375–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/eeg-2030.

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Abstract Habitable buildings can be protected from surface fault rupture by establishing structure “setback zones” similar in purpose to legally mandated zones in California and Utah. But post-earthquake surveys of offset and warped linear cultural features, believed to have been straight prior to the event, demonstrate that potentially damaging inelastic strains or off-fault deformation can extend tens of meters beyond the principal slip zone of strike-slip surface fault ruptures. Setback zones designed to also mitigate off-fault deformation are likely to be prohibitively wide, indicating the need for structural and geotechnical engineering solutions to accommodate the potentially damaging strains within adequate design buffers. This study analyzes nine strike-slip surface fault ruptures between 1906 and 2014 and develops a simplified procedure to quantify off-fault deformation based on earthquake magnitude and distance from the principal slip zone of strike-slip faults.

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26

Jung, Tae-Hwa y Sangyoung Son. "The Effect of Surface Ruptures on the Propagation of Tsunamis: An Analysis of 1993 Hokkaido Earthquake". Journal of the Korean Society of Hazard Mitigation 20, n.º 1 (29 de febrero de 2020): 365–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.9798/kosham.2020.20.1.365.

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An earthquake occurs when the energy condensed at certain points in the Earth's crust exceeds a certain threshold. Changes in depth of the seabed (induced by subsurface deformation) can cause irregular undulations and tsunamis. Surface ruptures usually start at one point and propagate in diverse directions (typically one or two). In this study, we used numerical analysis to examine the effects of surface ruptures on the generation and propagation of tsunamis. The 1993 Hokkaido earthquake was chosen for the test, and three subfaults were adopted to account for the history and process of the rupture. The results revealed the clear effects of surface rupture near the epicenter, showing either an increase or decrease in run-up heights (depending on spatial locations). Although the effects on run-up heights along the coast of the East Sea were unclear, the maximum effect (observed at specific points) generated twice the normal run-up heights.

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27

Nelson, Alan R., Harvey M. Kelsey y Robert C. Witter. "Great earthquakes of variable magnitude at the Cascadia subduction zone". Quaternary Research 65, n.º 3 (mayo de 2006): 354–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2006.02.009.

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AbstractComparison of histories of great earthquakes and accompanying tsunamis at eight coastal sites suggests plate-boundary ruptures of varying length, implying great earthquakes of variable magnitude at the Cascadia subduction zone. Inference of rupture length relies on degree of overlap on radiocarbon age ranges for earthquakes and tsunamis, and relative amounts of coseismic subsidence and heights of tsunamis. Written records of a tsunami in Japan provide the most conclusive evidence for rupture of much of the plate boundary during the earthquake of 26 January 1700. Cascadia stratigraphic evidence dating from about 1600 cal yr B.P., similar to that for the 1700 earthquake, implies a similarly long rupture with substantial subsidence and a high tsunami. Correlations are consistent with other long ruptures about 1350 cal yr B.P., 2500 cal yr B.P., 3400 cal yr B.P., 3800 cal yr B.P., 4400 cal yr B.P., and 4900 cal yr B.P. A rupture about 700–1100 cal yr B.P. was limited to the northern and central parts of the subduction zone, and a northern rupture about 2900 cal yr B.P. may have been similarly limited. Times of probable short ruptures in southern Cascadia include about 1100 cal yr B.P., 1700 cal yr B.P., 3200 cal yr B.P., 4200 cal yr B.P., 4600 cal yr B.P., and 4700 cal yr B.P. Rupture patterns suggest that the plate boundary in northern Cascadia usually breaks in long ruptures during the greatest earthquakes. Ruptures in southernmost Cascadia vary in length and recurrence intervals more than ruptures in northern Cascadia.

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28

McMellen, Christopher J., Bijal Desai, Margaret A. Sinkler y Shana Miskovsky. "Hybrid Percutaneous Management of Acute Midsubstance Achilles Tendon Ruptures". Video Journal of Sports Medicine 3, n.º 2 (marzo de 2023): 263502542311526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/26350254231152660.

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Background: Operative management techniques of Achilles tendon ruptures can be categorized into open repair, mini-open repair, or percutaneous repair. Indications: Surgical repair of acute ruptures of the Achilles tendon is indicated in athletic populations, with percutaneous repair being an effective technique with more favorable outcomes. Technique: With the patient prone, the Achilles rupture is identified and the Percutaneous Achilles Repair System (PARS) jig is inserted under the proximal paratenon. A series of Keith needles and flat braided SutureTape sutures are passed transversely across the proximal stump of the tendon. The sutures are then shuttled through the distal stump using a SutureLasso through medial and lateral percutaneous incisions on the distal medial and distal lateral borders of Achilles, respectively. Sutures are passed, tensioned, and secured to the posterior tuberosity of the calcaneus with two SwiveLock anchors. Results: Percutaneous repair, compared with open repair, results in lower wound complication rates, improved cosmetic appearance and fewer adhesions. Following surgery, patients follow a 5-stage rehabilitation protocol with return to sport when patients demonstrate dynamic neuromuscular control during multiplane activities without pain or swelling. Outcome studies have compared percutaneous repairs to open repairs, with percutaneous repairs demonstrating a quicker return to work or baseline activities (2.8 months versus 5.6 months) and a shorter return to play for athletes (average 18 weeks). Also, a greater number of PARS patients were able to return to baseline activities within 5 months (98%), compared with open repair patients (82%; P = .0001). In a prospective randomized controlled trial of 33 patients, Lim et al reported no postoperative wound infections in the percutaneous group and a 21% infection rate in the open repair group ( P = .01). Finally, in a recent systematic review of only percutaneous repairs, reported rates of sural nerve injury and rerupture were only 3.3% and 2.1%, respectively. Discussion/Conclusion: Compared to open repair, percutaneous Achilles repair allows for decreased risk of soft-tissue complications with comparable functional outcomes and earlier return to activity. Patient Consent Disclosure Statement: The author(s) attests that consent has been obtained from any patient(s) appearing in this publication. If the individual may be identifiable, the author(s) has included a statement of release or other written form of approval from the patient(s) with this submission for publication.

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29

Menichetti, Marco, Matteo Roccheggiani, Giorgio De Guidi, Francesco Carnemolla, Fabio Brighenti, Giovanni Barreca y Carmelo Monaco. "Sentinel-1 Interferometry and UAV Aerial Survey for Mapping Coseismic Ruptures: Mts. Sibillini vs. Mt. Etna Volcano". Remote Sensing 15, n.º 10 (10 de mayo de 2023): 2514. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15102514.

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The survey and structural analysis of surface coseismic ruptures are essential tools for characterizing seismogenic structures. In this work, a procedure to survey coseismic ruptures using satellite interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) data, directing the survey using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), is proposed together with a field validation of the results. The Sentinel-1 A/B Interferometric Wide (IW) Swath TOPSAR mode offers the possibility of acquiring images with a short revisit time. This huge amount of open data is extremely useful for geohazards monitoring, such as for earthquakes. Interferograms show the deformation field associated with earthquakes. Phase discontinuities appearing on wrapped interferograms or loss-of-coherence areas could represent small ground displacements associated with the fault’s ruptures. Low-altitude flight platforms such as UAV permit the acquisition of high resolution images and generate 3D spatial geolocalized clouds of data with centimeter-level accuracy. The generated topography maps and orthomosaic images are the direct products of this technology, allowing the possibility of analyzing geological structures from many viewpoints. We present two case studies. The first one is relative to the 2016 central Italian earthquakes, astride which the InSAR outcomes highlighted quite accurately the field displacement of extensional faults in the Mt. Vettore–M. Bove area. Here, the geological effect of the earthquake is represented by more than 35 km of ground ruptures with a complex pattern composed by subparallel and overlapping synthetic and antithetic fault splays. The second case is relative to the Mt. Etna earthquake of 26 December 2018, following which several ground ruptures were detected. The analysis of the unwrapped phase and the application of edge detector filtering and other discontinuity enhancers allowed the identification of a complex pattern of ground ruptures. In the Pennisi and Fiandaca areas different generation of ruptures can be distinguished, while previously unknown ruptures pertaining to the Acireale and Ragalna faults can be identify and analyzed.

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30

Lunina, O. V. y A. A. Gladkov. "The Rupturing Phenomena in the Deltaic Deposits of Cape Rytyi on the Northwestern Shore of Lake Baikal". Russian Geology and Geophysics 63, n.º 2 (1 de febrero de 2022): 125–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.2113/rgg20204270.

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Abstract —We present materials of aerial photography of Cape Rytyi, a unique and most mysterious place on the northwestern shore of Lake Baikal. Photogrammetric survey was carried out using a DJI Phantom 4 Pro V2.0 UAV and provided an orthophoto and a digital terrain model of an 11.074 km2 area. When deciphering the images obtained in the Rita River deltaic sediments composing the cape, surface ruptures trending north and northeast at 30–150 m from the shore of Lake Baikal were discovered. The ruptures are a clearly localized zone 2.9 km in total length. The performed analysis showed that the structural features of the zone obey the general laws of the development of faults resulted from prevailing extension. It has been established that the formation of the ruptures was predetermined by tectonics and is a secondary effect of resonant oscillations from the M = 5.2 earthquake of 08.13.1962, the epicenter of which was located ~35 km southeast of Cape Rytyi, in the Morskoi fault zone. The seismic event initiated the formation of surface ruptures, which led to a gravitational subsidence of coarse deposits of the fan in the shore zone. It is concluded that the development of modern geomorphologic forms in the peripheral part of the Rita River fan on land is similar to the formation of an underwater topography in the region of the Selenga River delta. It occurs under the influence of seismogenic rupturing and following gravitational movements, which intensify in a water-saturated environment and are subsequently complicated by erosion processes.

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31

Pantosti, D. "A Reappraisal of the 1894 Atalanti Earthquake Surface Ruptures, Central Greece". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 91, n.º 4 (1 de agosto de 2001): 760–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120000051.

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32

DuRoss, Christopher B., Ryan D. Gold, Timothy E. Dawson, Katherine M. Scharer, Katherine J. Kendrick, Sinan O. Akciz, Stephen J. Angster et al. "Surface Displacement Distributions for the July 2019 Ridgecrest, California, Earthquake Ruptures". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 110, n.º 4 (23 de junio de 2020): 1400–1418. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120200058.

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ABSTRACT Surface rupture in the 2019 Ridgecrest, California, earthquake sequence occurred along two orthogonal cross faults and includes dominantly left-lateral and northeast-striking rupture in the Mw 6.4 foreshock and dominantly right-lateral and northwest-striking rupture in the Mw 7.1 mainshock. We present >650 field-based, surface-displacement observations for these ruptures and synthesize our results into cumulative along-strike displacement distributions. Using these data, we calculate displacement gradients and compare our results with historical strike-slip ruptures in the eastern California shear zone. For the Mw 6.4 rupture, we report 96 displacements measured along 18 km of northeast-striking rupture. Cumulative displacement curves for the rupture yield a mean left-lateral displacement of 0.3–0.5 m and maximum of 0.7–1.6 m. Net mean vertical displacement based on the difference of down-to-the-west (DTW) and down-to-the-east (DTE) displacement curves is close to zero (0.02 m DTW). The Mw 6.4 displacement distribution shows that the majority of displacement occurred southwest of the intersection with the Mw 7.1 rupture. The Mw 7.1 rupture is northwest-striking and 50 km long based on 576 field measurements. Displacement curves indicate a mean right-lateral displacement of 1.2–1.7 m and a maximum of 4.3–7.0 m. Net vertical displacement in the rupture averages 0.3 m DTW. The Mw 7.1 displacement distributions demonstrate that maximum displacement occurred along a 12-km-long portion of the fault near the Mw 7.1 epicenter, releasing 66% of the geologically based seismic moment along 24% of the total rupture length. Using our displacement distributions, we calculate kilometer-scale displacement gradients for the Mw 7.1 rupture. The steepest gradients (∼1–3 m/km) flank the 12-km-long region of maximum displacement. In contrast, gradients for the 1992 Mw 7.3 Landers and 1999 Mw 7.1 Hector Mine earthquakes are <0.6 m/km. Our displacement distributions are important for understanding the influence of cross-fault rupture on Mw 6.4 and 7.1 rupture length and displacement and will facilitate comparisons with distributions generated remotely and at broader scales.

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33

Elhanati, D., T. Levi, S. Marco y R. Weinberger. "Zones of inelastic deformation around surface ruptures detected by magnetic fabrics". Tectonophysics 788 (agosto de 2020): 228502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2020.228502.

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34

Roberts, Gerald P. "Noncharacteristic normal faulting surface ruptures from the Gulf of Corinth, Greece". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 101, B11 (10 de noviembre de 1996): 25255–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96jb02119.

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35

WANG, Ping, Bi-Hong FU, Bin ZHANG, Ping KONG y Gang WANG. "Relationships Between Surface Ruptures and Lithologic Characteristics of the WenchuanMS8.0 Earthquake". Chinese Journal of Geophysics 52, n.º 1 (enero de 2009): 75–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cjg2.1328.

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36

Einarsson, Páll. "Mapping of Holocene surface ruptures in the South Iceland Seismic Zone". Jökull 60, n.º 1 (15 de diciembre de 2010): 117–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.33799/jokull2010.60.117.

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The South Iceland Seismic Zone is a transform zone marking the southern boundary of the Hreppar microplate. It is the source area of some of the most destructive earthquakes in Iceland’s history. The surface formations of the zone are ground moraines, alluvial plains and Postglacial lava flows, and show widespread evidence of Holocene faulting. The fractured area is 15 km wide and 70 km long. A project to map by GPS-instruments all recognizable Holocene fault structures in this zone is described here. A large majority of fractures strike NNE to NE and form left-stepping, en echelon arrays with a northerly trend. They are associated with right-lateral faulting at depth. Right-stepping arrays also exist, apparently associated with faulting onconjugate faults with ENE strike, but they are an order of magnitude less frequent and mostly of a secondary nature. Other fault trends also occur, but are rare. Push-up structures are prominent in association with the en echelon arrays, sometimes reaching heights of several meters. Fractures active during a few of the large, historical earthquakes in this region have been identified and traced, e.g. the 1630, 1784, 1896, and 1912 events. The fractures are found within narrow, N–S trending zones crossing the seismic zone. Thus the large-scale, left- lateral transform motion across the plate boundary is accommodated by right-lateral slip on a series of transverse faults arranged side by side within the zone and by slight rotation of the blocks between them, a process sometimes called "bookshelf tectonism". Fractures formed during the earthquakes of June 17 and 21 ($M_w$ = 6.5) in 2000 and May 29 in 2008 ($M_w$ = 6.3) follow this pattern and confirm this general model of faulting along the transform zone. The size of push-up structures gives a clear indication of relative sizes of the earthquakes. The push-ups formed in 1630 and 1912 are an order of magnitude larger than the ones formed in the 2000 and 2008 earthquakes.

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37

Chu, Tyan-Ming, Wen-Jeng Huang, Tsung-Yi Lin, Shih-Ting Lu, Yen-Chiu Liu, Cheng-Shing Chiang y Yi-Huei Chang. "Benefits of Defining Geological Sensitive Zones in the Mitigation of Disasters Along Earthquake Fault Zones in Taiwan – The Case of Milun Fault". Journal of Disaster Research 16, n.º 8 (1 de diciembre de 2021): 1257–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.20965/jdr.2021.p1257.

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In Taiwan, the main purpose of earthquake fault zone legislation is to prevent earthquake-related disasters around the surface traces of active faults, particularly in urban areas. Here, the Geologically Sensitive Area (GSA) of the Milun Fault (Milun Earthquake Fault Zone) is used as an example to reveal the importance of such legislation. Field data collected along the Milun Fault before and after the 2018 Hualien Earthquake were used to reveal the reappearance of damages within the GSA. The 2018 Hualien Earthquake represents one of the shortest recurrence intervals (67 years) among all major faults in Taiwan. Most of the surface ruptures and damaged buildings in Hualien City were within the Milun Fault GSA and concentrated on the hanging wall of the fault. Moreover, 61% (91/148) of the damaged buildings and 83% (692/835) of the surface ruptures occurred within 100 m of the fault line. The results of this study demonstrate the importance of defining GSAs of active faults for mitigating earthquake hazards.

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38

Wen, Yameng, Daoyang Yuan, Hong Xie, Ruihuan Su, Qi Su, Zhimin Li, Hao Sun et al. "Typical Fine Structure and Seismogenic Mechanism Analysis of the Surface Rupture of the 2022 Menyuan Mw 6.7 Earthquake". Remote Sensing 15, n.º 18 (6 de septiembre de 2023): 4375. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs15184375.

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On 8 January 2022, a seismic event of significant magnitude (Mw 6.7, Ms 6.9) occurred in the northeastern region of the Tibetan Plateau. This earthquake was characterized by left-lateral strike-slip motion, accompanied by a minor reverse movement. The Menyuan earthquake resulted in the formation of two main ruptures and one secondary rupture. These ruptures were marked by a left-lateral step zone that extended over a distance of 1 km between the main ruptures. The length of the rupture zones was approximately 37 km. The surface rupture zone exhibited various features, including left-lateral offset small gullies, riverbeds, wire fences, road subgrades, mole tracks, cracks, and scarps. Through a comprehensive field investigation and precise measurement using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery, 111 coseismic horizontal offsets were determined, with the maximum offset recorded at 2.6 ± 0.3 m. The analysis of aftershocks and the findings from the field investigation led to the conclusion that the earthquake was triggered by the Lenglongling fault and the Tuolaishan fault. These faults intersected at a release double-curved structure, commonly referred to as a stepover. During this particular process, the Lenglongling fault was responsible for initiating the coseismic rupture of the Sunan–Qilian fault. It is important to note that the stress applied to the Tuolaishan fault has not been fully relieved, indicating the presence of potential future hazards.

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39

Lunina, O. V., A. A. Gladkov y I. A. Denisenko. "Signatures of Creep in the Zunduk Fault Damage Zone on the Northwestern Coast of Lake Baikal". Bulletin of Irkutsk State University. Series Earth Sciences 35 (2021): 57–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.26516/2073-3402.2021.35.57.

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The results of a high-resolution aerial survey at selected areas in the Zunduk fault damage zone trending northeast along the coastline of the Maloe sea of Lake Baikal from Cape Yadyrtuj are presented. The research was carried out within the framework of the problem of studying the seismotectonics of the shores of Lake Baikal to map the youngest surface ruptures. Based on the images obtained using DJI «Phantom 4 Pro V 2.0» unmanned aerial systems (UAS), we generated orthomosaics and digital terrain models, interpretation of which allowed us to reveal recent ruptures in alluvial fans. The largest number of them is concentrated on the Oto-Khushun Cape, where the development of disturbances as feathering structures occurs at the intersection of the Zunduk fault trending NE–SW and a proposed fault trending NNW–SSE in the water area of Lake Baikal. It explains the block structure of the rupture network in the southwestern part of the cape. Ground penetrating radar profiling showed that the surface ruptures penetrate to a depth of at least several meters. Since the last rupturing earthquake in the Zunduk fault zone is supposed to have occurred 12000–14000 years ago, the ruptures mapped in recent sediments are the result of creep events. The mechanism of their formation is associated with the periodic effect of weak seismic loads on the granular medium, as a result of which micro-slip and subsequent growth of ruptures occur. Taking into account the high rates of erosion and sedimentation within the mountain alluvial fan, as well as the persistence of disturbances in recent sediments, it can be assumed that this process is relatively constant. Identification of such brittle deformations and monitoring of their development in river deltas and outflow cones of watercourses will make it possible to predict possible places of the collapse of the coastal areas of Lake Baikal during moderate and strong earthquakes, as well as to study the dynamics of coastal development – an important component of the abiotic part of the lake ecosystem

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40

Miguet, Jonas, Florence Rouyer y Emmanuelle Rio. "The Life of a Surface Bubble". Molecules 26, n.º 5 (1 de marzo de 2021): 1317. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26051317.

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Surface bubbles are present in many industrial processes and in nature, as well as in carbonated beverages. They have motivated many theoretical, numerical and experimental works. This paper presents the current knowledge on the physics of surface bubbles lifetime and shows the diversity of mechanisms at play that depend on the properties of the bath, the interfaces and the ambient air. In particular, we explore the role of drainage and evaporation on film thinning. We highlight the existence of two different scenarios depending on whether the cap film ruptures at large or small thickness compared to the thickness at which van der Waals interaction come in to play.

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41

Baize, Stéphane, Fiia Nurminen, Alexandra Sarmiento, Timothy Dawson, Makoto Takao, Oona Scotti, Takashi Azuma et al. "A Worldwide and Unified Database of Surface Ruptures (SURE) for Fault Displacement Hazard Analyses". Seismological Research Letters 91, n.º 1 (16 de octubre de 2019): 499–520. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0220190144.

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Abstract Fault displacement hazard assessment is based on empirical relationships that are established using historic earthquake fault ruptures. These relationships evaluate the likelihood of coseismic surface slip considering on‐fault and off‐fault ruptures, for given earthquake magnitude and distance to fault. Moreover, they allow predicting the amount of fault slip at and close to the active fault of concern. Applications of this approach include land use planning, structural design of infrastructure, and critical facilities located on or close to an active fault. To date, the current equations are based on sparsely populated datasets, including a limited number of pre‐2000 events. In 2015, an international effort started to constitute a worldwide and unified fault displacement database (SUrface Ruptures due to Earthquakes [SURE]) to improve further hazard estimations. After two workshops, it was decided to unify the existing datasets (field‐based slip measurements) to incorporate recent and future cases, and to include new parameters relevant to properly describe the rupture. This contribution presents the status of the SURE database and delineates some perspectives to improve the surface‐faulting assessment. Original data have been compiled and adapted to the structure. The database encompasses 45 earthquakes from magnitude 5–7.9, with more than 15,000 coseismic surface deformation observations (including slip measurements) and 56,000 of rupture segments. Twenty earthquake cases are from Japan, 15 from United States, two from Mexico, Italy, and New Zealand, one from Kyrgystan, Ecuador, Turkey, and Argentina. Twenty‐four earthquakes are strike‐slip faulting events, 11 are normal or normal oblique, and 10 are reverse faulting. To pursue the momentum, the initial and common implementation effort needs to be continued and coordinated, and the maintenance and longevity of the database must be guaranteed. This effort must remain based on a large and open community of earthquake geologists to create a free and open access database.

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42

Hemphill-Haley, Mark A. y Ray J. Weldon. "Estimating prehistoric earthquake magnitude from point measurements of surface rupture". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 89, n.º 5 (1 de octubre de 1999): 1264–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0890051264.

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Abstract We have developed a method for estimating the magnitude of prehistoric earthquakes using displacement data that usually can be collected from paleoseismic investigations. This method is necessary because essentially all current magnitude estimates for prehistoric events rely on determining the total length of coseismic surface rupture, which is rarely measurable, or rely on segmentation scenarios, for which uncertainties cannot be quantified. Although surface rupture length is a better predictor of magnitude than displacement for historic earthquakes, paleoseismic investigations are better at providing measurements of the amount of displacement at a site along a fault. The key to our method is to incorporate the variability in displacement observed in 14 modern events, which allows a formal uncertainty in magnitude to be assigned to prehistoric ruptures. We show how multiple measurements along a preserved fraction of a rupture can be combined to reduce the uncertainty in the estimate of magnitude. Our analysis shows that uncertainty asymptotically approaches the natural variability of ruptures, so 5 to 10 displacement measurements are sufficient to characterize paleomagnitude. We conclude that sampling of scarps with lengths of even 10% of the original rupture can provide magnitude values that reasonably estimate the earthquake. Tests of the method, using randomly sampled data from the 1992 Mw 7.3 Landers and 1954 Ms 6.8 Dixie Valley earthquakes, provide close approximations of the actual magnitudes.

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43

Grützner, Christoph, Richard Walker, Eleanor Ainscoe, Austin Elliott y Kanatbek Abdrakhmatov. "Earthquake Environmental Effects of the 1992 MS7.3 Suusamyr Earthquake, Kyrgyzstan, and Their Implications for Paleo-Earthquake Studies". Geosciences 9, n.º 6 (21 de junio de 2019): 271. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9060271.

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Large pre-historical earthquakes leave traces in the geological and geomorphological record, such as primary and secondary surface ruptures and mass movements, which are the only means to estimate their magnitudes. These environmental earthquake effects (EEEs) can be calibrated using recent seismic events and the Environmental Seismic Intensity Scale (ESI2007). We apply the ESI2007 scale to the 1992 MS7.3 Suusamyr Earthquake in the Kyrgyz Tien Shan, because similar studies are sparse in that area and geological setting, and because this earthquake was very peculiar in its primary surface rupture pattern. We analyze literature data on primary and secondary earthquake effects and add our own observations from fieldwork. We show that the ESI2007 distribution differs somewhat from traditional intensity assessments (MSK (Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik) and MM (Modified Mercalli)), because of the sparse population in the epicentral area and the spatial distribution of primary and secondary EEEs. However, the ESI2007 scale captures a similar overall pattern of the intensity distribution. We then explore how uncertainties in the identification of primary surface ruptures influence the results of the ESI2007 assignment. Our results highlight the applicability of the ESI2007 scale, even in earthquakes with complex and unusual primary surface rupture patterns.

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44

Zhao, Ying, Xiaoling Xing, Shengxiang Zhao y Xuehai Ju. "Decomposition mechanism of dihydroxylammonium 5,5'-bis(tetrazole)-1,1'-diolate on Al(111) surface by periodic DFT calculation". Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society 85, n.º 5 (2020): 651–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/jsc190828127z.

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The generalized gradient approximation (GGA) of density function theory (DFT) methods are employed to investigate the decomposition of TKX- -50 molecule on the Al(111) surface. The calculation employs an Al supercell slab model and periodic boundary conditions. Five kinds of adsorption configurations for TKX-50 on Al surface are studied. The TKX-50 is adsorbed on Al surface to form the N?Al, O?Al and OH?Al bonds. The adsorption energies are in the range from ?113.15 to ?1334.40 kJ/mol. The activation energies of all configurations are in the range of 100.34?354.10 kJ/mol. The N1-N2 ruptures in V1 and N2-N3 ruptures in V2 takes place easily. The activation energies of these two bonds rupture (100.34 and 108.06 kJ/mol, respectively) are less than that of pure TKX-50 (161.58 and 215.99 kJ/mol). Al atoms promote the breaking of the tetrazole ring of TKX-50. The quantities of electron transfer from Al atoms to TKX-50 are in range of 1.42?4.90 e.

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45

Ward, Steven N. "Dogtails versus rainbows: Synthetic earthquake rupture models as an aid in interpreting geological data". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 87, n.º 6 (1 de diciembre de 1997): 1422–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/bssa0870061422.

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Abstract Geologists have been collecting, for decades, information from historical and paleoearthquakes that could contribute to the formulation of a “big picture” of the earthquake engine. Observations of large earthquake ruptures, unfortunately, are always going to be spotty in space and time, so the extent to which geological information succeeds in contributing to a grander view of earthquakes is going to be borne not only by the quantity and quality of data collected but also by the means by which it is interpreted. This article tries to understand geological data more fully through carefully tailored computer simulations of fault ruptures. Dogtails and rainbows are two types of fault rupture terminations that can be recognized in the field and can be interpreted through these models. Rainbows are concave down ruptures that indicate complete stress drop and characteristic slip. Rainbow terminations usually coincide with fault ends or strong segment boundaries. Dogtails are concave up ruptures that indicate incomplete stress drop and noncharacteristic slip. Dogtail terminations can happen anywhere along a fault or fault segment. The surface slip pattern of the magnitude 6.6, 1979 Imperial Valley, California, earthquake shows both dogtail and rainbow terminations. The rainbow confirms the presence of a strong fault segment boundary 6 km north of the international border that had been suggested by Sieh (1996). The dogtail implies that the displacement observed in 1979 is not characteristic. By combining paleoseismic information with the surface slip patterns from this event and the magnitude 7.1, 1940 Imperial Valley earthquake, I develop a quantitative Imperial fault model with northern, central, and southern segments possessing 50, 110, and 50 bar strength, respectively. Both the 1940 and 1979 events caused 1-m amplitude dogtailed ruptures of the northern segment; however, characteristic slip of the segment is more likely to be about 3 m. To illustrate the full spectrum of potential rupture modes, models were run forward in time to generate a 2000 year rupture “encyclopedia.” Even with well-constrained segmentation and strengths, modest changes in two friction law parameters produce several plausible histories. Further discrimination awaits analysis of the extensive paleoseismic record that geologists believe exists in the shore deposits of the intermittent lakes of the Salton Trough.

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King, Quigley y Clark. "Surface-Rupturing Historical Earthquakes in Australia and Their Environmental Effects: New Insights from Re-Analyses of Observational Data". Geosciences 9, n.º 10 (20 de septiembre de 2019): 408. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9100408.

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We digitize surface rupture maps and compile observational data from 67 publications on ten of eleven historical, surface-rupturing earthquakes in Australia in order to analyze the prevailing characteristics of surface ruptures and other environmental effects in this crystalline basement-dominated intraplate environment. The studied earthquakes occurred between 1968 and 2018, and range in moment magnitude (Mw) from 4.7 to 6.6. All earthquakes involved co-seismic reverse faulting (with varying amounts of strike-slip) on single or multiple (1–6) discrete faults of ≥ 1 km length that are distinguished by orientation and kinematic criteria. Nine of ten earthquakes have surface-rupturing fault orientations that align with prevailing linear anomalies in geophysical (gravity and magnetic) data and bedrock structure (foliations and/or quartz veins and/or intrusive boundaries and/or pre-existing faults), indicating strong control of inherited crustal structure on contemporary faulting. Rupture kinematics are consistent with horizontal shortening driven by regional trajectories of horizontal compressive stress. The lack of precision in seismological data prohibits the assessment of whether surface ruptures project to hypocentral locations via contiguous, planar principal slip zones or whether rupture segmentation occurs between seismogenic depths and the surface. Rupture centroids of 1–4 km in depth indicate predominantly shallow seismic moment release. No studied earthquakes have unambiguous geological evidence for preceding surface-rupturing earthquakes on the same faults and five earthquakes contain evidence of absence of preceding ruptures since the late Pleistocene, collectively highlighting the challenge of using mapped active faults to predict future seismic hazards. Estimated maximum fault slip rates are 0.2–9.1 m Myr-1 with at least one order of uncertainty. New estimates for rupture length, fault dip, and coseismic net slip can be used to improve future iterations of earthquake magnitude—source size—displacement scaling equations. Observed environmental effects include primary surface rupture, secondary fracture/cracks, fissures, rock falls, ground-water anomalies, vegetation damage, sand-blows / liquefaction, displaced rock fragments, and holes from collapsible soil failure, at maximum estimated epicentral distances ranging from 0 to ~250 km. ESI-07 intensity-scale estimates range by ± 3 classes in each earthquake, depending on the effect considered. Comparing Mw-ESI relationships across geologically diverse environments is a fruitful avenue for future research.

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47

Xu, Xiwei, Chong Xu, Guihua Yu, Xiyan Wu, Xi Li y Jianguo Zhang. "Primary Surface Ruptures of the LudianMw 6.2 Earthquake, Southeastern Tibetan Plateau, China". Seismological Research Letters 86, n.º 6 (23 de septiembre de 2015): 1622–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0220150038.

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48

Tun, S. T., Y. Wang, S. N. Khaing, M. Thant, N. Htay, Y. M. M. Htwe, T. Myint y K. Sieh. "Surface Ruptures of the Mw 6.8 March 2011 Tarlay Earthquake, Eastern Myanmar". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 104, n.º 6 (21 de octubre de 2014): 2915–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120130321.

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49

Little, T. A., R. Van Dissen, J. Kearse, K. Norton, A. Benson y N. Wang. "Kekerengu Fault, New Zealand: Timing and Size of Late Holocene Surface Ruptures". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 108, n.º 3B (2 de enero de 2018): 1556–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120170152.

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50

Sapkota, S. N., L. Bollinger, Y. Klinger, P. Tapponnier, Y. Gaudemer y D. Tiwari. "Primary surface ruptures of the great Himalayan earthquakes in 1934 and 1255". Nature Geoscience 6, n.º 1 (16 de diciembre de 2012): 71–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1669.

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