Tesis sobre el tema "Reward and punishment theory"

This thesis examined the extent to which individual differences, as conceptualised by the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, influenced young drivers' information processing and subsequent acceptance of anti-speeding messages. Using a multi-method approach, the findings highlighted the utility of combining objective measures (a cognitive response time task and electroencephalography) with self-report measures to assess message processing and message acceptance, respectively. This body of research indicated that responses to anti-speeding messages may differ depending on an individual's personality disposition. Overall, the research provided further insight into the development of message strategies to target high risk drivers.

This thesis details a continuing body of research investigating the contribution of personality to disordered eating and alcohol abuse in young women. There is growing evidence of high levels of reward sensitivity in women with both disorders, and high levels of punishment sensitivity in dysfunctional eating women. However, it is unlikely that personality alone accounts for the development of such dysfunctional behaviour. Two studies were conducted to further examine the contribution of reward and punishment sensitivity to these disorders. In the first study, 443 university women completed self-report measures of alcohol use, dysfunctional eating, reinforcement sensitivity, parental drinking, family environment and maternal eating. Reward and punishment sensitivity were better predictors of disordered behaviour than family factors, although maternal dysfunctional eating significantly increased the risk of daughters' dysfunctional eating. Punishment sensitive daughters of bulimic mothers reported the highest level of bulimic symptoms themselves. Punishment sensitivity also functioned as a partial pathway variable between family risk and disordered eating. Given the stronger contribution of personality to disordered behaviour, a second study was conducted in which 131 women completed behavioural tasks under conditions of reward and punishment. Performance on a computerised measure of punishment sensitivity was associated with greater levels of dysfunctional eating but not drinking. However, performance on a card-sorting task of reward sensitivity failed to correlate with self-reported reward sensitivity or disordered behaviour. It was concluded that an innate sensitivity to reward increases the risk of disorders characterised by strong approach tendencies, whilst high punishment sensitivity, perhaps due to a chaotic family, increases the risk of dysfunctional eating, particularly daughters of eating disordered mothers.

This thesis details a continuing body of research investigating the contribution of personality to disordered eating and alcohol abuse in young women. There is growing evidence of high levels of reward sensitivity in women with both disorders, and high levels of punishment sensitivity in dysfunctional eating women. However, it is unlikely that personality alone accounts for the development of such dysfunctional behaviour. Two studies were conducted to further examine the contribution of reward and punishment sensitivity to these disorders. In the first study, 443 university women completed self-report measures of alcohol use, dysfunctional eating, reinforcement sensitivity, parental drinking, family environment and maternal eating. Reward and punishment sensitivity were better predictors of disordered behaviour than family factors, although maternal dysfunctional eating significantly increased the risk of daughters' dysfunctional eating. Punishment sensitive daughters of bulimic mothers reported the highest level of bulimic symptoms themselves. Punishment sensitivity also functioned as a partial pathway variable between family risk and disordered eating. Given the stronger contribution of personality to disordered behaviour, a second study was conducted in which 131 women completed behavioural tasks under conditions of reward and punishment. Performance on a computerised measure of punishment sensitivity was associated with greater levels of dysfunctional eating but not drinking. However, performance on a card-sorting task of reward sensitivity failed to correlate with self-reported reward sensitivity or disordered behaviour. It was concluded that an innate sensitivity to reward increases the risk of disorders characterised by strong approach tendencies, whilst high punishment sensitivity, perhaps due to a chaotic family, increases the risk of dysfunctional eating, particularly daughters of eating disordered mothers.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
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Features of impulsivity underlie multiple psychological disorders. The body of work examining impulsivity has largely focussed on self-report measurement and has incorporated psychological constructs without reference to the broader biological factors that may influence impulsive behaviour. Two studies were conducted to examine whether environmental stress and genetic status associated with dopaminergic and serotonergic function (DRD2, ANKK1 and 5HT2AR genotypes) were predictive of dimensions of impulsivity and risky behaviour (alcohol use). The two studies used a multi-method approach in a non-clinical community sample of young adults (aged 17-25 years). Dopamine is integral to the two leading theories of impulsive personality, Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Cloninger's Psychobiological model of personality. Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward reinforcement circuits in the brain. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 gene (also referred to as TaqIA of the DRD2 gene region) and the CC genotype of the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene have both been associated with reduced D2 dopamine receptor density in key structures linked to brain reward. In addition, a strong body of evidence implicates their involvement in a number of clinical disorders associated with impulsivity. Serotonin function has also been associated with impulsivity in Cloninger's theory and there is also evidence of associations of two polymorphisms of the 2A serotonin receptor gene (5HT2AR T102C and -1438A/G SNPs) with impulsivity. Acute and chronic forms of stress are also important correlates of impulsive behaviour and the two studies directly examined the relationship between genotype, stress and impulsivity. Study 1 (N=180) utilised a cross-sectional design and examined interactions between these polymorphisms and chronic stress exposure on key impulsivity dimensions of reward sensitivity, Novelty Seeking and rash impulsiveness. Participants completed psychological questionnaires measuring chronic stress, dimensions of impulsivity, mood and substance use and provided mouth swab samples of buccal mucosal cells for DNA analysis. The study confirmed the association between A1 and CC allelic status and chronic stress being associated with harm avoidance and sensitivity to punishment. This suggests a role for both dopamine and background stress in impulsive behaviour. Study 2 (N=73) built upon this questionnaire research in the laboratory by utilising experimental psychological paradigms of impulsive behaviour and experimentally manipulating acute stress. Study 2 employed a mixed experimental design with a sub-sample of those studied in the cross-sectional sample. These behavioural paradigms included pre- and post- stress induction administration of the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (capturing behavioural approach in the presence of reward cues, presumed to reflect reward sensitivity) and post-induction delay discounting and response inhibition measures. Study 2 confirmed the role of one of the two dopamine-related polymorphisms, with those with A1+ allelic status demonstrating lower reward responsiveness prior to rest or stress induction, which was overcome in the second administration of this task, independent of environment. A1+ allelic individuals also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition independent of stress, further confirming the association between A1+ allelic status and impulsivity. Those with CC allelic status showed an increase in reward responsiveness only in the stress induction condition. Together, results from the two studies inform the development of a multidimensional model of impulsivity that captures gene-environment influences on discrete aspects of impulsive personality and behaviour. Further refinement of this model may lead to the development of more effective customised prevention and treatment interventions for clinically disordered impulsivity. The implications of dopaminergic systems and stress in understanding disorders such as ADHD and substance dependence are discussed.

Features of impulsivity underlie multiple psychological disorders. The body of work examining impulsivity has largely focussed on self-report measurement and has incorporated psychological constructs without reference to the broader biological factors that may influence impulsive behaviour. Two studies were conducted to examine whether environmental stress and genetic status associated with dopaminergic and serotonergic function (DRD2, ANKK1 and 5HT2AR genotypes) were predictive of dimensions of impulsivity and risky behaviour (alcohol use). The two studies used a multi-method approach in a non-clinical community sample of young adults (aged 17-25 years). Dopamine is integral to the two leading theories of impulsive personality, Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Cloninger's Psychobiological model of personality. Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward reinforcement circuits in the brain. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 gene (also referred to as TaqIA of the DRD2 gene region) and the CC genotype of the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene have both been associated with reduced D2 dopamine receptor density in key structures linked to brain reward. In addition, a strong body of evidence implicates their involvement in a number of clinical disorders associated with impulsivity. Serotonin function has also been associated with impulsivity in Cloninger's theory and there is also evidence of associations of two polymorphisms of the 2A serotonin receptor gene (5HT2AR T102C and -1438A/G SNPs) with impulsivity. Acute and chronic forms of stress are also important correlates of impulsive behaviour and the two studies directly examined the relationship between genotype, stress and impulsivity. Study 1 (N=180) utilised a cross-sectional design and examined interactions between these polymorphisms and chronic stress exposure on key impulsivity dimensions of reward sensitivity, Novelty Seeking and rash impulsiveness. Participants completed psychological questionnaires measuring chronic stress, dimensions of impulsivity, mood and substance use and provided mouth swab samples of buccal mucosal cells for DNA analysis. The study confirmed the association between A1 and CC allelic status and chronic stress being associated with harm avoidance and sensitivity to punishment. This suggests a role for both dopamine and background stress in impulsive behaviour. Study 2 (N=73) built upon this questionnaire research in the laboratory by utilising experimental psychological paradigms of impulsive behaviour and experimentally manipulating acute stress. Study 2 employed a mixed experimental design with a sub-sample of those studied in the cross-sectional sample. These behavioural paradigms included pre- and post- stress induction administration of the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (capturing behavioural approach in the presence of reward cues, presumed to reflect reward sensitivity) and post-induction delay discounting and response inhibition measures. Study 2 confirmed the role of one of the two dopamine-related polymorphisms, with those with A1+ allelic status demonstrating lower reward responsiveness prior to rest or stress induction, which was overcome in the second administration of this task, independent of environment. A1+ allelic individuals also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition independent of stress, further confirming the association between A1+ allelic status and impulsivity. Those with CC allelic status showed an increase in reward responsiveness only in the stress induction condition. Together, results from the two studies inform the development of a multidimensional model of impulsivity that captures gene-environment influences on discrete aspects of impulsive personality and behaviour. Further refinement of this model may lead to the development of more effective customised prevention and treatment interventions for clinically disordered impulsivity. The implications of dopaminergic systems and stress in understanding disorders such as ADHD and substance dependence are discussed.

L’étude de la sanction du comportement du contractant fait l’objet d’un intérêt particulier à l’heure où la loi de ratification du 21 avril 2018 introduit un mouvement de consécration de la notion. Cet élan se traduit principalement par une volonté politique de renforcer l’attractivité des contrats et la sécurité juridique. Notion polysémique, la sanction revêt une acception incertaine malgré son omniprésence. Est-ce une réaction ? Une punition ? Une réparation ? Elle est tantôt envisagée comme un remède, tantôt caractérisée par sa fonction préventive, réparatrice ou encore punitive. La tâche entreprise consiste à délimiter les contours de la sanction du comportement afin de la définir et d’explorer sa mise en œuvre. Il s’agit de montrer pourquoi elle n’est pas un remède, pourquoi elle n’est pas uniquement une punition et pourquoi elle ne doit pas être seulement envisagée à travers le passé, le présent ou le futur, mais plutôt dans chacune de ces dimensions temporelles. Par une approche tant normative que volontariste, la sanction du comportement apparaît comme un véritable instrument d’orientation justifiant la proposition d’un régime spécifique
The study of the sanction of the behavior of the contractor is of particular interest at a time when the law of ratification of 21 April 2018, introduces a movement of consecration of the concept. This momentum is mainly reflected in a political will to strengthen the attractiveness of contracts, and legal certainty. However, despite its omnipresence, the sanction of behavior remains a polysemic notion whose meaning is uncertain. Is it a reaction? A punishment? A reparation? It’s sometimes considered as a remedy, sometimes characterized by its preventive, restorative or punitive function. Therefore, the task undertaken is to delineate the contours of the sanction of behavior, in order to define it, and to explore its implementation. It’s a question of showing why it’s not a remedy why it’s not only a punishment and why it should not be considered only in the past, the present, or the future, but rather in each of these temporal dimensions. Through both a normative and proactive approach, the sanction of behavior appears as a real guidance instrument justifying the proposal of a specific regime

According to recent studies, the number of schools that have severely limited or eliminated recess and free-play opportunities is on the rise across the nation. School officials cite the increasing levels of state and federal pressure to perform on standardized tests as the primary reason for this shift away from the playground. The threat of lawsuits and safety concerns are also listed as factors in this change of policy. The purpose of this mixed methods study was to examine the perceptions of directors of schools, supervisors, principals, assistant principals, teachers, and students regarding recess and free play in three East Tennessee school systems. Representative schools were chosen from each system and examined. In addition, results from standardized test scores as provided by the state of Tennessee were examined for the selected schools. The findings of this study revealed that directors, supervisors, principals, teachers, and students were in favor of recess and stated that offering recess and free-play opportunities provided some benefit to students. Even so, two schools in the study had chosen to limit recess and free-play opportunities to varying degrees whereas the third school maintained a policy of recess breaks. In examining the test data, the two schools that had limited recess were found to have lower test scores than the school that had maintained the integrity of recess. Other factors could attribute to the lower scores. The findings did reveal that limiting recess appeared to offer no significant gain in scores just as providing recess did not appear to cause any decrease in test scores. Stakeholders interviewed expressed the perception that the benefits of having recess outweighed any potential threat of time lost in the classroom. Recommendations for further research include repeating this study in other school settings on a larger scale to see if the same results are realized.

Young novice drivers - that is, drivers aged 16-25 years who are relatively inexperienced in driving on the road and have a novice (Learner, Provisional) driver's licence - have been overrepresented in car crash, injury and fatality statistics around the world for decades. There are numerous persistent characteristics evident in young novice driver crashes, fatalities and offences, including variables relating to the young driver themselves, broader social influences which include their passengers, the car they drive, and when and how they drive, and their risky driving behaviour in particular. Moreover, there are a range of psychosocial factors influencing the behaviour of young novice drivers, including the social influences of parents and peers, and person-related factors such as age-related factors, attitudes, and sensation seeking. Historically, a range of approaches have been developed to manage the risky driving behaviour of young novice drivers. Traditional measures predominantly relying upon education have had limited success in regulating the risky driving behaviour of the young novice driver. In contrast, interventions such as graduated driver licensing (GDL) which acknowledges young novice drivers' limitations - principally pertaining to their chronological and developmental age, and their driving inexperience - have shown to be effective in ameliorating this pervasive public health problem. In practice, GDL is a risk management tool that is designed to reduce driving at risky times (e.g., at night) or in risky driving conditions (e.g., with passengers), while still enabling novice drivers to obtain experience. In this regard, the GDL program in Queensland, Australia, was considerably enhanced in July 2007, and major additions to the program include mandated Learner practice of 100 hours recorded in a logbook, and passenger limits during night driving in the Provisional phase. Road safety researchers have also continued to consider the influential role played by the young driver's psychosocial characteristics, including psychological traits and states. In addition, whilst the majority of road safety user research is epidemiological in nature, contemporary road safety research is increasingly applying psychological and criminological theories. Importantly, such theories not only can guide young novice driver research, they can also inform the development and evaluation of countermeasures targeting their risky driving behaviour. The research is thus designed to explore the self-reported behaviours - and the personal, psychosocial, and structural influences upon the behaviours - of young novice drivers This thesis incorporates three stages of predominantly quantitative research to undertake a comprehensive investigation of the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Risky driving behaviour increases the likelihood of the young novice driver being involved in a crash which may harm themselves or other road users, and deliberate risky driving such as driving in excess of the posted speed limits is the focus of the program of research. The extant literature examining the nature of the risky behaviour of the young novice driver - and the contributing factors for this behaviour - while comprehensive, has not led to the development of a reliable instrument designed specifically to measure the risky behaviour of the young novice driver. Therefore the development and application of such a tool (the Behaviour of Young Novice Drivers Scale, or BYNDS) was foremost in the program of research. In addition to describing the driving behaviours of the young novice, a central theme of this program of research was identifying, describing, and quantifying personal, behavioural, and environmental influences upon young novice driver risky behaviour. Accordingly the 11 papers developed from the three stages of research which comprise this thesis are framed within Bandura's reciprocal determinism model which explicitly considers the reciprocal relationship between the environment, the person, and their behaviour. Stage One comprised the foundation research and operationalised quantitative and qualitative methodologies to finalise the instrument used in Stages Two and Three. The first part of Stage One involved an online survey which was completed by 761 young novice drivers who attended tertiary education institutions across Queensland. A reliable instrument for measuring the risky driving behaviour of young novices was developed (the BYNDS) and is currently being operationalised in young novice driver research in progress at the Centre for Injury Research and Prevention in Philadelphia, USA. In addition, regression analyses revealed that psychological distress influenced risky driving behaviour, and the differential influence of depression, anxiety, sensitivity to punishments and rewards, and sensation seeking propensity were explored. Path model analyses revealed that punishment sensitivity was mediated by anxiety and depression; and the influence of depression, anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity were moderated by the gender of the driver. Specifically, for males, sensation seeking propensity, depression, and reward sensitivity were predictive of self-reported risky driving, whilst for females anxiety was also influential. In the second part of Stage One, 21 young novice drivers participated in individual and small group interviews. The normative influences of parents, peers, and the Police were explicated. Content analysis supported four themes of influence through punishments, rewards, and the behaviours and attitudes of parents and friends. The Police were also influential upon the risky driving behaviour of young novices. The findings of both parts of Stage One informed the research of Stage Two. Stage Two was a comprehensive investigation of the pre-Licence and Learner experiences, attitudes, and behaviours, of young novice drivers. In this stage, 1170 young novice drivers from across Queensland completed an online or paper survey exploring their experiences, behaviours and attitudes as a pre- and Learner driver. The majority of novices did not drive before they were licensed (pre-Licence driving) or as an unsupervised Learner, submitted accurate logbooks, intended to follow the road rules as a Provisional driver, and reported practicing predominantly at the end of the Learner period. The experience of Learners in the enhanced-GDL program were also examined and compared to those of Learner drivers who progressed through the former-GDL program (data collected previously by Bates, Watson, & King, 2009a). Importantly, current-GDL Learners reported significantly more driving practice and a longer Learner period, less difficulty obtaining practice, and less offence detection and crash involvement than Learners in the former-GDL program. The findings of Stage Two informed the research of Stage Three. Stage Three was a comprehensive exploration of the driving experiences, attitudes and behaviours of young novice drivers during their first six months of Provisional 1 licensure. In this stage, 390 of the 1170 young novice drivers from Stage Two completed another survey, and data collected during Stages Two and Three allowed a longitudinal investigation of self-reported risky driving behaviours, such as GDL-specific and general road rule compliance; risky behaviour such as pre-Licence driving, crash involvement and offence detection; and vehicle ownership, paying attention to Police presence, and punishment avoidance. Whilst the majority of Learner and Provisional drivers reported compliance with GDL-specific and general road rules, 33% of Learners and 50% of Provisional drivers reported speeding by 10-20 km/hr at least occasionally. Twelve percent of Learner drivers reported pre-Licence driving, and these drivers were significantly more risky as Learner and Provisional drivers. Ten percent of males and females reported being involved in a crash, and 10% of females and 18% of males had been detected for an offence, within the first six months of independent driving. Additionally, 75% of young novice drivers reported owning their own car within six months of gaining their Provisional driver's licence. Vehicle owners reported significantly shorter Learner periods and more risky driving exposure as a Provisional driver. Paying attention to Police presence on the roads appeared normative for young novice drivers: 91% of Learners and 72% of Provisional drivers reported paying attention. Provisional drivers also reported they actively avoided the Police: 25% of males and 13% of females; 23% of rural drivers and 15% of urban drivers. Stage Three also allowed the refinement of the risky behaviour measurement tool (BYNDS) created in Stage One; the original reliable 44-item instrument was refined to a similarly reliable 36-item instrument. A longitudinal exploration of the influence of anxiety, depression, sensation seeking propensity and reward sensitivity upon the risky behaviour of the Provisional driver was also undertaken using data collected in Stages Two and Three. Consistent with the research of Stage One, structural equation modeling revealed anxiety, reward sensitivity and sensation seeking propensity predicted self-reported risky driving behaviour. Again, gender was a moderator, with only reward sensitivity predicting risky driving for males. A measurement model of Akers' social learning theory (SLT) was developed containing six subscales operationalising the four constructs of differential association, imitation, personal attitudes, and differential reinforcement, and the influence of parents and peers was captured within the items in a number of these constructs. Analyses exploring the nature and extent of the psychosocial influences of personal characteristics (step 1), Akers' SLT (step 2), and elements of the prototype/willingness model (PWM) (step 3) upon self-reported speeding by the Provisional driver in a hierarchical multiple regression model found the following significant predictors: gender (male), car ownership (own car), reward sensitivity (greater sensitivity), depression (greater depression), personal attitudes (more risky attitudes), and speeding (more speeding) as a Learner. The research findings have considerable implications for road safety researchers, policy-makers, mental health professionals and medical practitioners alike. A broad range of issues need to be considered when developing, implementing and evaluating interventions for both the intentional and unintentional risky driving behaviours of interest. While a variety of interventions have been historically utilised, including education, enforcement, rehabilitation and incentives, caution is warranted. A multi-faceted approach to improving novice road safety is more likely to be effective, and new and existing countermeasures should capitalise on the potential of parents, peers and Police to be a positive influence upon the risky behaviour of young novice drivers. However, the efficacy of some interventions remains undetermined at this time. Notwithstanding this caveat, countermeasures such as augmenting and strengthening Queensland's GDL program and targeting parents and adolescents particularly warrant further attention. The findings of the research program suggest that Queensland's current-GDL can be strengthened by increasing compliance of young novice drivers with existing conditions and restrictions. The rates of speeding reported by the young Learner driver are particularly alarming for a number of reasons. The Learner is inexperienced in driving, and travelling in excess of speed limits places them at greater risk as they are also inexperienced in detecting and responding appropriately to driving hazards. In addition, the Learner period should provide the foundation for a safe lifetime driving career, enabling the development and reinforcement of non-risky driving habits. Learners who sped reported speeding by greater margins, and at greater frequencies, when they were able to drive independently. Other strategies could also be considered to enhance Queensland's GDL program, addressing both the pre-Licence adolescent and their parents. Options that warrant further investigation to determine their likely effectiveness include screening and treatment of novice drivers by mental health professionals and/or medical practitioners; and general social skills training. Considering the self-reported pre-licence driving of the young novice driver, targeted education of parents may need to occur before their child obtains a Learner licence. It is noteworthy that those participants who reported risky driving during the Learner phase also were more likely to report risky driving behaviour during the Provisional phase; therefore it appears vital that the development of safe driving habits is encouraged from the beginning of the novice period. General education of parents and young novice drivers should inform them of the considerably-increased likelihood of risky driving behaviour, crashes and offences associated with having unlimited access to a vehicle in the early stages of intermediate licensure. Importantly, parents frequently purchase the car that is used by the Provisional driver, who typically lives at home with their parents, and therefore parents are ideally positioned to monitor the journeys of their young novice driver during this early stage of independent driving. Parents are pivotal in the development of their driving child: they are models who are imitated and are sources of attitudes, expectancies, rewards and punishments; and they provide the most driving instruction for the Learner. High rates of self-reported speeding by Learners suggests that GDL programs specifically consider the nature of supervision during the Learner period, encouraging supervisors to be vigilant to compliance with general and GDL-specific road rules, and especially driving in excess of speed limit. Attitudes towards driving are formed before the adolescent reaches the age when they can be legally licensed. Young novice drivers with risky personal attitudes towards driving reported more risky driving behaviour, suggesting that countermeasures should target such attitudes and that such interventions might be implemented before the adolescent is licensed. The risky behaviours and attitudes of friends were also found to be influential, and given that young novice drivers tend to carry their friends as their passengers, a group intervention such as provided in a school class context may prove more effective. Social skills interventions that encourage the novice to resist the negative influences of their friends and their peer passengers, and to not imitate the risky driving behaviour of their friends, may also be effective. The punishments and rewards anticipated from and administered by friends were also found to influence the self-reported risky behaviour of the young novice driver; therefore young persons could be encouraged to sanction the risky, and to reward the non-risky, driving of their novice friends. Adolescent health programs and related initiatives need to more specifically consider the risks associated with driving. Young novice drivers are also adolescents, a developmental period associated with depression and anxiety. Depression, anxiety, and sensation seeking propensity were found to be predictive of risky driving; therefore interventions targeting psychological distress, whilst discouraging the expression of sensation seeking propensity whilst driving, warrant development and trialing. In addition, given that reward sensitivity was also predictive, a scheme which rewards novice drivers for safe driving behaviour - rather than rewarding the novice through emotional and instrumental rewards for risky driving behaviour - requires further investigation. The Police were also influential in the risky driving behaviour of young novices. Young novice drivers who had been detected for an offence, and then avoided punishment, reacted differentially, with some drivers appearing to become less risky after the encounter, whilst for others their risky behaviour appeared to be reinforced and therefore was more likely to be performed again. Such drivers saw t

Reward has been shown to improve multiple forms of learning. However, many of these studies do not distinguish whether reward directly benefits learning or if learning is boosted by modulation of top-down factors such as attention and motivation. The work outlined in this dissertation explores the modulatory effects of reward and punishment without directly manipulating top-down factors such as attention or motivation. We achieved this goal by studying the effects of reward and punishment on incidental learning – a branch of procedural learning where learning occurs without intention and through repetition. Our results reveal that reward is able to bolster incidental learning during the performance and learning of an associative task, even when awareness of how to achieve the reward is minimized (Experiments 1 and 2). However, a similar benefit was not observed in an analogous set of experiments examining the effect of punishment on incidental learning (Experiments 3 and 4). A direct comparison between the effect of reward and punishment on incidental learning revealed a significant advantage for rewarded combinations over punishment. However, this advantage was only observed when high cognitive (associative) demands were emphasized (Experiment 6), as opposed to high motor demands (Experiment 5). Finally, we explored the role of dopamine in the effect of reward on incidental learning. Because dopamine neuron dynamics have been implicated in both reward processing and in various forms of learning, we hypothesized that patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), who experience an accelerated rate of death of dopamine neurons, would experience impaired learning from rewards compared to healthy older adults. Experiment 7 revealed a significant impairment in reward-related incidental learning for patients with Parkinson's disease relative to comparisons. The amount of levodopa medication taken by PD patients predicted the effect of reward, demonstrating a potential link between dopamine levels and the effect of reward on incidental learning. Together, this dissertation demonstrates that 1) reward improves incidental learning, 2) reward may be an exceptional form of feedback, as opposed to punishments, and 3) dopamine levels may potentially drive the effect of reward on incidental learning

Is the carrot more effective than the stick? Through a combination of behavioural experiments, pharmacological manipulations and computational modelling, this thesis investigates the effects of reward and punishment feedback on adaptive motor learning, in both healthy subjects and stroke survivors. The role of error-based motor learning in neurorehabilitation is still unclear partly because, although it leads to fast and large changes in behaviour, these changes are often short-lived once the perturbation is removed. Nevertheless, recent evidence shows that motivational feedback can increase adaptation to a perturbation and retention of the motor memory in healthy subjects. In the first study presented in this thesis I show that these effects partially apply also to stroke survivors. In particular, reward or punishment-based feedback enhance error-correction during adaptation, and reward increases the retention of the new motor memory in stroke survivors. I then moved to investigate the role of dopamine in error-based motor learning under reward or punishment in healthy young subjects. Consistently with results in stroke patients, reward increased motor memory retention. In addition, I show here that this effect of reward on retention is mediated by dopaminergic pathways. Finally, I investigated if pharmacologic dopaminergic stimulation can potentiate the positive effect of reward on retention in dopamine-deficient subjects, such as older adults. Unfortunately, likely due to the dopaminergic deficit, reward had no effect on elderly participants, and this study failed to show a benefit of dopaminergic stimulation in the elderly. However, this evidence is not sufficient to rule out possible positive effects of pharmacologic dopaminergic stimulation on motor learning in brain injured patients, such as stroke survivors. Taken together, these results represent a step further toward the combined use of reward feedback, pharmacological stimulation and motor learning paradigms in clinical rehabilitation. Indeed, as shown by the qualitative survey presented at the beginning of this thesis, an evidence-based guide to the use of reward and punishment feedback during rehabilitation would be welcome by stroke professionals.

The primary goal of the proposed research is to identify how stress is internalized to affect cognitive functioning and increase the risk for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Dysfunctional stress reactivity has been proposed to be a risk factor for ongoing affective distress, yet mechanisms underlying this process remain unexplained. The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been implicated in the etiology of MDD, in the reactivity to stress, as well as in the adaptation of behavior to reinforcement. The combined activities of this particular neural system identify it as a focal node by which stress may be internalized to affect cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. The experiments detailed here examined electroencephalographic (EEG) features that reflect cognitive control functions in the mPFC. Participants underwent EEG assessment as they completed a reinforcement (reward and punishment) learning task sensitive to mPFC-basal ganglia functioning, both with and without a laboratory stress manipulation. This experiment assessed how stress reactivity altered neural systems of reinforcement, and it contrasted these same factors with currently depressed individuals. In this series of investigations, we have identified a measure of how, and a possible mechanism by which, punishment information is internalized in stress reactivity and in the expression of MDD: error and punishment signals are increasingly coupled with the salience of "bad" outcomes. Stress-related alteration of reward and punishment learning systems - particularly in the mPFC - is a viable candidate for how dysfunctional stress reactive responses are translated into ongoing cognitive and affective distress in depression.

This thesis reconstructs John Rawl's Original Position in order to show that within a liberal democratic culture, the institution of punishment ought to conform to the Moral Education Theory of Punishment, put forth by Jean Hampton. According to Hampton, punishment should facilitate a medium where the state educates the criminal on the moral implications of her wrongdoing. I argue that citizens would select the Moral Education Theory of Punishment in the Original Position, since it offers the best opportunity to redress two calamities related to the criminal's wrongdoing---namely, that it threatens the moral status of the victim, and that it results from the wrongdoer's deficient moral sensibility. Upon consideration, the representatives in the Original Position recognize that redressing either of the two calamities necessitates redressing the other; thus, both objectives reinforce one another. Consequently, the representatives would unanimously select the principles of punishment manifest in the Moral Education Theory.

This paper attempts to justify punishment on the grounds that it is a benefit to the person being punished. I accept the basic premise of a previous theory of punishment, the Moral Good Theory (MGT), which states that we cannot harm anyone. Thus, punishment can only be justified if it is not a harm. The MGT claims that punishment is beneficial in that it provides a moral education to the offender. I I reject the idea that punishment is morally educational and instead propose a new theory which revises and strengthens the MGT, accounting for its flaws. This new theory, the Social Good Theory, argues instead that punishment is beneficial because it allows a criminal to be reintegrated into society.

This thesis contributes to a growing body of research on the impact of China’s rustication programme—a social mobilisation, transferring urban school graduates to rural communities during the Cultural Revolution—on the lives of the Cultural Revolution cohort (CR cohort), and more broadly, to research on the impact of socialist campaigns on social mobility. The analyses of this thesis are based on two national surveys as well as interviews that I conducted with former rusticates and non-rusticates. Distinct from earlier studies which stated that the rustication programme had indiscriminate and adverse effects on all social groups, my results show the process itself was socially stratified: (1) children from the bad class origin and highly-educated families were intensively targeted, and (2) the privileged military families were spared from the mobilisation, and their children were sent to join the People's Liberation Army (PLA). In view of the timing of major life transitions, rusticates lag behind their non-rusticated counterparts and individuals from adjacent cohorts, despite the fact that the delayed attainment of further education was experienced by all members of the CR cohort. After controlling for experience of rustication, children of party officials have a higher chance of obtaining a college degree than those from other social backgrounds. The analysis of the complete work-life histories of the CR cohort as a whole reveals four employment trajectories: Rusticates are more likely to be in the trajectory group characterised by unemployment in the late stage of their career than non-rusticates. Children of party members have a higher likelihood to be in the trajectory dominated by managerial work with short initial spells in the PLA. Rusticates are found to be less satisfied with their lives, their current situation is more deprived and they are more likely to be active in conflict solving, as opposed to non-rusticates and members of adjacent cohorts. Interviews suggest that rusticates viewed the experience of rustication as being an important part of their past and display a thirst for public recognition. Yet, the extent of the transformation that this experience has made in their lives is stratified by their work-life experiences. Non-rusticates reckoned their lives were also affected by the rustication through their close links with rusticates.

Social psychologists have noted that compliance strategies based on the social norm of reciprocity can be an effective tool for changing behavior (e.g., Cialdini, 2001). In contrast to expectancy-based behavior-change strategies, which offer a reward after a behavior is completed (post-behavior reward); reciprocity-based strategies present the reward first in the form of a gift (pre-behavior reward). Although there are no explicit contingencies attached to the gift, a sense of obligation to reciprocate may be a powerful motivator to comply with the request. It was hypothesized that pre-behavior rewards would be more effective than post-behavior rewards at low magnitudes of reward, and that both strategies would be effective at higher levels. This study examined effects of the timing and magnitude ($1 vs. $10) of a cash reward on compliance with a request to use a specially designed thank-you card recognizing prosocial and proenvironmental behavior. The hypotheses were not supported. The highest rate of compliance occurred in the post-behavior $10 condition, where 35.5% of participants complied, followed by post-behavior $1 (18.8%), pre-behavior $1 (12.9%) and pre-behavior $10 (8.8%). Pairwise comparisons revealed compliance in the $10 post-behavior condition was significantly higher than the rate of compliance in the $1 and $10 pre-behavior conditions, Chi-Square (1, n = 62) = 4.31, p < .05 and Chi-Square (1, n = 65) = 6.82, p < .01 respectively. The lack of evidence for the effectiveness of pre-behavior reward strategy is discussed and contrasted with previous findings.
Master of Science

This thesis presents an experimental investigation of free riding behaviour and, more particularly, individual responses to it using, as a workhorse, the so called public goods game. This game starkly isolates the conflict between private and collective interest, providing us with a simple measure of the extent of free riding behaviour. The unifying theme of the thesis is elicitation and analysis of different indicators for how subjects perceive free riding under a number of treatment manipulations. Chapter 2 explores how people judge the morality of free riding in a public goods game by eliciting people's moral evaluations in hypothetical scenarios. The scenarios differed with respect to the framing of the game, the order of moves, and the behaviour of the non-judged player. Our findings suggest that free riding is perceived as morally reprehensible, except when the free rider moves second after observing that the other player free rode as well. We also find that moral judgments depend on others' behaviour, on framing and on the order of moves. Chapter 3 analyses the effect of framing on social preferences, as measured by self- reported emotions and punishment. Our findings are that, for a given pattern of contributions, neither punishment nor emotion depends on our framing manipulation. Chapter 4 assesses the behavioural consequences of unfair punishment. In this experiment, we generate an unfair environment by assigning punishment to all group members, irrespective of their first stage behaviour, We find that, although unfair punishment causes a different time profile of contributions, contributions are, on average, little different from in the standard punishment game; and the assignment of punishment in the latter is unaffected by experience of an environment with unfair punishment. However, a history of unfair punishment causes different reactions to helping behaviour and punishment received, respectively.

While studies about minority group prisoners are becoming more commonplace in prison research, knowledge about the experiences of hard of hearing (HoH) and d/Deaf prisoners remains limited. A primary aim of this thesis is to provide a more comprehensive understanding about the lives of HoH/d/Deaf people in prisons throughout England and Wales than what is already available, and to explore existing claims that d/Deaf prisoners suffer disproportionately whilst in custody. In order to do this a qualitative methodology is adopted, with semi-structured interviews being carried out with HoH, severely deaf and profoundly Deaf prisoners, and staff members across seven prisons in England, and observations being made at each establishment. This thesis shows that in an environment like prison, those who are seen as ‘different’ often become institutionally deficient. While this could apply to many different subsections of prison populations, findings presented throughout show that the difference of d/Deafness is unique because sound rules in prison, with penal regimes being reliant on sound in order to run. However, d/Deafness, it is shown, is not merely a lack of hearing, and on the contrary there are different levels and layers of d/Deafness. Consequently, how a d/Deaf person experiences prison depends strongly on the way in which they identify with their d/Deafness and the way their d/Deafness is viewed by the prison. Despite such differences, findings suggest that there is little room for either deafness or Deafness in prison, with HoH/deaf and particularly Deaf prisoners often experiencing the pains of imprisonment more severely than their hearing peers as a result the Prison Service's inability to accommodate such difference. This thesis makes an original and significant contribution to existing knowledge for a myriad of reasons. Firstly, it fuses together the fields of Deaf Studies and prison studies in a way that has not been done before, and considers d/Deafness on both an audiological and cultural level. In doing this, it notes the similarities and differences between the experiences of those who are HoH, those who are severely deaf, and those who are culturally and linguistically Deaf; giving meaningful consideration to the role of imported identity in prison. Secondly, excluding small-scale unpublished undergraduate dissertations, it is the first empirical study about d/Deaf prisoners in England and Wales to carry out face-to-face interviews with these prisoners. Finally, as the most in-depth research yet to be carried out about HoH/d/Deaf prisoners in England and Wales, this thesis provides a level of insight which has not been available previously.

Recent developments in behavioral and experimental economics have shown that many people display other-regarding motives, in addition to self-interest. These social preferences – which include inequality aversion, conditional cooperation, and motives for punishment – make sense of a number of phenomena left unexplained by standard economic theory. This thesis is a collection of studies examining social preferences using the tools of experimental economics. Chapter 1 introduces the thesis explaining our goals and methods, as well as previewing our substantive contributions. Chapter 2 reports an experiment designed both to replicate and extend previous studies. We elicit and compare stated and revealed inequality aversion at the individual- level for subjects drawn from three different subject pools. Chapter 3 investigates whether inequality aversion, as modelled by Fehr and Schmidt (1999), explains free riding and conditional cooperation in a public good game. Chapter 4 investigates whether observed variation in the directionality of punishment between two subject pools can be explained by the “Culture of Honor” hypothesis. Chapter 5 concludes.

The general aim of this work is to examine the main features of some of the most influential contemporary theories of criminal justice, to look at their conceptual and methodological relative advantages and shortcomings, and to try to glean in them a direction for the devising of a more promising, more optim ising way of accounting for crime and deviance, as well as for prospects of successful social control. The general contention of the work is that the key question to be asked in this respect is what value ought to lie at the base of all such explanatory attempts. The general answer, with which the 'restorative theory of crime-handling', espoused herein, deals, is that this value ought to be trust. All those arrangements which can generally be characterised as trust-enhancing appear to be optimising as well, and to contribute in a constructive way to the resolution of conflicts. Punishment, on the other hand, does not appear to be trust-enhancing; on the contrary, it seems to play an essentially trust-degrading role in most contexts, and thus creates an atm osphere and consequences which do not suggest the possibility of both effective and humane social control mechanisms. It has been the aim of theories of social control for decades to avoid excessive punitiveness and maximise the consensus which is built around the particular policies to that effect. Yet, most such theories have ended up neglecting the role of trust, and em phasising justice instead. Another contention of the arguments contained herein is to the effect that justice ought not to play such a prom inent role in any theory of social control which aspires to be trust-enhancing. Following the unavoidable directions of argum ents advanced over decades, the argum ents herein deal with theories such as 'retributivism ' and 'utilitarianism ', 'com m unitarianism ' and 'republicanism ', thereby bordering on political, and even on sociological theory. Yet, they do not remain on the level of presenting argum ents for and against these theories - the value of what is argued here against such theories, if there is any value in it, lies in its contribution to the fuller illum ination of the real role of trust in a social theory of crime-control which would derive strongly from the popular 'conflict-resolution' theories, but which, at the same time, would seek to avoid some of their greatest calam ities. To w hat extent this w ork m ight have succeeded in accomplishing that end, however, is, of course, up to the reader to judge.

Optimal decision-making entails outcome evaluation, comparing received costs and benefits with predicted costs and benefits. The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a brain area with major connections to the appetitive and aversive motivation systems, may provide the neural substrate of this evaluation process. One way to measure the relative contribution of these systems on decision-making is to measure individual differences in risk-taking behaviors. For individuals who make risky choices, this evaluation step may be biased: some show a preference for immediate, short-term rewards (increased appetitive system), while devaluing the long-term consequences of their choices (decreased aversive system). However, most studies supporting this theory have utilized monetary loss as the punishment. Other punishments that represent the presence of an aversive outcome, such as delivery of a painful stimulus, may be processed in a separate brain area and thus, may have differing effects on decision-making. The current study aimed to answer two main questions. First, we asked: is the ACC engaged by both appetitive stimuli and aversive stimuli? To answer this question, we recorded the Feedback-Related Negativity (FRN) response, a component thought to represent activity of the ACC, during a passive reward and punishment prediction task. Results indicated that the FRN responded to whether the outcome was A) unexpected and B) delivered or withheld, but not to the valence of the outcome. Second, we asked: do individual differences in these two systems have a differential impact on decision-making? To answer this question, participants completed a gambling task where they had to choose between large and small bets based on a probability of winning while we recorded their FRN response. They also completed self-report questionnaires indicating their sensitivity to reward/punishment and risk-taking behaviors. Results indicated that increased sensitivity of the appetitive system and decreased sensitivity of the aversive system (measured by both self-report and ERPs) predicted risky choice on the self-report measure and less so on the behavioral measure. Taken together, these results complement those that suggest the ACC is involved in evaluating both costs and benefits and may be influenced by both appetitive and aversive motivational systems.

Many problems that societies face have the character of social dilemmas, in which cooperation benefits the whole society but is costly to the individual. The recent literature in experimental economics has focused on uncovering driving factors of cooperative success in social dilemmas. This thesis contributes to this literature and includes three research studies that investigate the influence of individual cooperative dispositions, societal and cultural differences, as well as institutional differences on human cooperative behaviour. Chapter 1 introduces the research questions, discusses the research methods used, and outlines the substantive contributions of the thesis. Chapter 2 presents an experimental test of a common implicit assumption in the literature, which suggests that only people with a cooperative disposition engage in the punishment of defectors in social dilemmas. The experimental test rejects this assumption and shows that individual cooperativeness is independent of one's propensity to punish. Chapter 3 investigates the channels through which culture and societal differences affect cooperative behaviour. The experimental results show that societal differences in behaviour are mainly driven through differences in beliefs about other people's behaviour. Chapter 4 reports on an experimental comparison of informal and formal sanctioning institutions. These experiments show that informal sanctions like peer pressure are necessary to foster high and stable cooperation levels in the long run. Chapter 5 concludes.

Includes bibliographical references (leaves 46-48).
This formative theory evaluation investigated the feasibility of the programme theory underlying a staff reward and recognition intervention within a retail setting. It contained academic literature which discussed the effects of reward and recognition programmes on motivation and turnover. In addition, best practice guidelines for motivational reward and recognition programmes were used as measure of comparison against the programme's theory. The evaluation questions contained in this dissertation covered various programme evaluation elements and assisted in evaluating the programme's theory.

A communicative theory of punishment is justified because it expresses censure and engages with the offender as a deserved response to the wrong that has been committed. The communicative theory treats all offenders as rational, autonomous agents capable of understanding and engaging with moral discourse. The focus of this thesis is R A Duff’s communicative theory of punishment which states that punishment as communication should involve what he calls secular penance, this aims to encourage the offender to repent, reconcile and reform. In this thesis I will present an argument in support of Duff’s communicative theory of punishment. However, the theory does not adequately deal with the punishment of dangerous offenders. If the communicative theory became practice then dangerous offenders would be subject to the same punishment as other, non-dangerous offenders; this does not seem to adequately address the seriousness of their ongoing behaviour. Even more problematic is that it appears that the punishment of dangerous offenders could not be justified at all within a communicative theory. I argue that there is a solution to the problem of dangerous offenders which is broadly consistent with Duff’s communicative theory, if a system of non-punitive detention is accepted.

Thesis advisor: David M. Rasmussen
This dissertation defines and defends the concept of ‘criminal oppression.’ Criminal oppression occurs when people are excluded from full participation in important social and political institutions because they are perceived to have violated certain community norms. Oppression is primarily a structural phenomenon, in which practices of formal and informal institutions unjustly harm people based on group membership. In structural oppression, there is rarely an individual who can be said to be responsible for the oppression, but I argue that at times, individuals may also be agents of oppression when they create, perpetuate, or exacerbate structural oppression. Applying this theory of oppression, the criminal justice system in the United States is an oppressive structure that unjustly harms those considered to be ‘criminals’ through a variety of practices. There are three categories of unjust practices: policing, adjudication and punishment, and collateral effects of arrest and conviction. These three categories of practices create the social group ‘criminals’ by subjecting certain people to these kinds of treatments. I use the word ‘criminal’ to describe those who are treated as criminals by police, the courts, and even private individuals like employers. To be a ‘criminal,’ it is not necessary that one has committed a crime or been convicted of a crime. Racial and criminal oppression deeply related historically and conceptually. Nevertheless, they are distinct kinds of oppression. In the United States, those who are not racially oppressed but are ‘criminals’ face many of the same unjust obstacles as those who are racially oppressed in addition to being ‘criminals.’ Some may argue that ‘criminals’ duly convicted of crimes deserve to be socially and politically excluded. But, I argue that the criminal justice system is not properly conceived of as an apolitical institution that can assess moral blameworthiness. Nor should it be able to offer punishments that amount to social and political exclusion. Instead, the criminal justice system is one political institution amongst many, and it ought to be governed by the same principles of liberty and equality that govern other political institutions. Criminal law’s proper function is to facilitate government as a system social cooperation. Therefore, it ought to respond to criminal acts with actions designed to promote inclusion rather than exclusion. Moreover, even if someone has committed a crime, that does not mean that they ought to be subject to violence or permanent second-class status. Finally, I address specific, feminism-driven arguments for using the criminal justice system to fight violence against women. Some feminists argue that the expressivist function of punishment—the ability of punishment to express disapproval and disavowal—makes it a perfect tool for fighting the normalization of violence against women. The problem, they contend, is that this violence is under-punished in the United States, and the solution to ending violence against women is to increase prosecutions and advocate for harsher punishments because punishment will change the social norms and make violence against women rarer. To this, I argue that those who create laws or mete out punishments do not have control over the social meaning of punishment with precision. The historical and present-day oppressive features of criminal law and punishment interfere with the ability of prosecution and punishment to condemn certain types of acts without also condemning people. Thus, feminists who try to use the criminal justice system to fight gender-based violence will find it to be ineffective and potentially harmful to the already oppressed group of ‘criminals.” Chapter 1argues that ‘criminals’ are oppressed using a structural model of oppression that focuses on how collections of institutional policies and practices can create and maintain unjust power relations between groups of people. I will also use an externalist theory of group identity to argue that being arrested or convicted of a crime is not necessary or sufficient for membership in the social group ‘criminal.’ Chapter 2 explains the relationship between racial oppression and the oppression of ‘criminals,’ noting the historical development of the modern prison system. Chapter 3 argues that the proper role of criminal law is to support systems of social cooperation, not to punish pre-political wrongs. I will suggest that criminal law is in essence part of the social contract, not a separate sphere of justice to which distinctive, retributive principles apply. Instead, the criminal law cannot determine moral blameworthiness and is only justified in sanctioning rule violations for the sake of supporting social cooperation in a society whose institutions are worth supporting. In Chapter 4, I propose a feminist, expressivist defense of the use of prosecution and harsh punishment as a response to rape and domestic violence that takes the structural nature of violence against women into account. Chapter 5, however, demonstrates why even this theory cannot justify incarceration in the non-ideal sphere because of the oppressive history and practice of the American criminal justice system
Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2020
Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
Discipline: Philosophy

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Neste trabalho analisaremos o conceito de desejo e seu desdobramento na teoria de Thomas Hobbes, identificando-o como um elemento fundamental na constituição do corpo, a partir da antropologia, ou psicologia empírica, desenvolvida por Hobbes, subvertendo a ordem tradicional do universo ético e político. Desejo que aparece como uma força, um impulso que dá movimento a vida, sinônimo de felicidade, mas que, por sua desmedida insaciabilidade, coloca o homem sob risco da morte prematura e violenta. Estado de conflito, representado pelo estado de natureza hobbesiano, no qual o homem, num contexto hipotético de pura igualdade, ataca por desejo, seja para obter mais e mais poder, seja para não perder o que possui. Por trás do medo da morte, há o medo da perda do objeto mais cobiçado, ou seja, a vida. Mas apesar do homem espreitar o inimigo e aparentar irracionalidade, é capaz do consenso, quando faz uso da razão, com a qual se somam vontade e eloqüência. O consenso é o pacto, que cria as condições de possibilidade p
In this study we will analyze the concept of desire and its implication in Thomas Hobbes’ Theory, identifying it as a fundamental element in the determination of the man’s action, through the anthropology or empiric psychology developed by Hobbes, changing the traditional order of the ethics and political universe. Desire that appears as a power, an impulse which gives movement to life, synonym of happiness, but, because it is without measure or satisfaction, puts man in situations where the risk of premature and violent death is present. State of conflict, represented by the hobbesian state of nature, in which man, in a context of pure equality, attacks for desire, either to obtain more and more power, or not to lose what he had already achieved. Behind the fear of death, there is the fear of losing the most desired object: life. But, despite spying the enemy, man is also capable of a consensus, when he uses his sense, with which he adds will and elocution. The consensus is the pact which creates the conditi

Companies compete for employees based on their perceived employer brand value. This study investigates what influences a strong or weak employer brand has on the preference for total rewards. The results should assist remuneration agents in appropriately leveraging the company’s employer brand value, as a factor, when compiling a total rewards package for potential employees. A questionnaire was developed, asking participants to indicate their preferences relating to total rewards in the context of their current employer, with regard to stronger and weaker employer brands. Results of the study indicate that potential employees would require financial reward increases in the range of 15% - 30% in order to change employment, irrespective of whether it is perceived as a strong or weak employer brand. It was observed that a stronger employer brand could offer increases closer to the bottom of the range compared to weaker employer brands which would have to pay a premium to the top end of the range Employer brand value appears to increase the total reward costs for companies, irrespective of how the brand is perceived. It is however beneficial to be viewed as a strong employer brand, as the value of this perception translates to a smaller premium compared to weaker employer brands.
Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2011.
Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS)
unrestricted

AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF VERNON SWEETIN, for the Doctor of Philosophy degree, DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING, COLLEGE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, presented on June 23, 2010, at Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. TITLE: WILLINGNESS TO REWARD OR PUNISH BRANDS AS MODERATORS FOR THE BRAND PERSONALITY DIMENSION OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY MAJOR PROFESSOR: Dr. John H. Summey Social responsibility has received empirical support for its addition to the Brand Personality construct. The objectives of this study were first, to compare and contrast attitudinal reactions to varying descriptions of Social Responsibility as a Brand Personality dimension and second, to examine the data for possible moderation effects with the consumers' Willingness to Reward construct and the Willingness to Punish construct, with the latter as a proposed new construct for how consumers' respond to the Brand Dimension, Social Responsibility. The study tested 4 forms of social responsibility in a between-subjects factorial design. The study found that the subjects in the socially responsible condition had a difference in the Willingness to Reward construct when compared to the subjects in the socially irresponsible condition and the control condition. The study's support for the existence of the new moderator Willingness to Punish was found coupled with confirmatory support for Willingness to Reward as a moderator.

Many convicted offenders around the world do not vote in elections because they have been disenfranchised, which is the legal deprivation of their voting rights as a consequence of their convictions. Addressing this practice from the perspective of legal and constitutional theory, this dissertation deals with the question of how modern democracies should understand the connection between the right to vote and the commission of a criminal offence. After careful analysis of issues related to the democratic importance of the right to vote, the civic virtue of offenders and the requirements of a democratic punishment, the dissertation argues that disenfranchisement is a practice that constitutes an unjustified exception to the general principle of universal suffrage. However, it may also critically express and shape some of our general ideas about democracy and citizenship. In particular, it is argued that the exclusionary and degrading aspects of disenfranchisement can illuminate inclusionary aspects associated to the right to vote. In making this argument, it is suggested that the right to vote not only works as a right of participation but also embodies a mechanism of democratic recognition. Addressing the current common law jurisprudential trends on disenfranchisement, it formulates a case for a strong judicial review of legislation in cases in which voting eligibility is at stake.

The Behavioral Activation System (BAS) has been described as playing a central role in approach motivation and reward sensitivity (Gray, 1970). Self-report measures of BAS (e.g., Carver & White, 1994) have been used to index BAS activity, with higher scores interpreted as indicating greater BAS activity (e.g., Hundt et al., 2008). However, Beauchaine and colleagues (e.g., Brenner, Beauchaine, & Sylvers, 2005) have challenged this view, noting psychophysiological and neuroimaging evidence showing that externalizing behaviors are associated with reduced BAS functioning. Furthermore, global self-reported BAS scores are often used to index approach behavior, despite evidence that two main BAS traits, impulsivity and reward reactivity, are psychometrically distinct (Smillie et al., 2006). The present study tested a measurement model of these proposed components of BAS, as well as relationships between self-report and psychophysiological BAS indices. A large undergraduate student sample completed self-report indices (N=599) and a smaller subsample also completed psychophysiological (N=18) indices of BAS-related constructs. As hypothesized, a two-factor model with impulsivity and reward reactivity as separate, correlated constructs demonstrated better model fit than a one-factor alternative model. Associations between psychophysiological indices of BAS and indices of reward reactivity and impulsivity were mixed. Implications regarding future measurement of BAS and autonomic response to reward are discussed.
Master of Science

This thesis attempts to identify and explain what influences the length of time an inmate spends on Florida's death row. A systematic random sample of 33 Florida death row inmates was drawn from the Florida Department of Corrections death row roster and the Florida Commission on Capital Cases inmate roster. Documented for each death row inmate was how long he spent on Florida's death row navigating the various stages and steps in Florida's post-conviction capital punishment process. The data show that petitions to the state trial courts and appeals to the Florida Supreme Court take the longest time in Florida's post-conviction capital punishment process. It also shows a considerable amount of "dead time," which refers to any additional time that an inmate spends on death row with no legal actions pending. A theory of "benign neglect" is proposed as the most likely explanation for the excessive delays.
M.S.
Department of Criminal Justice and Legal Studies
Health and Public Affairs
Criminal Justice MS

Background: Anecdotal accounts of stereotypes and/or generalisations about perceived generational differences within the workplace have become commonplace. Generational cohort theories are often used to identify generational cohorts of employees that are argued to be different, including having differing expectations, needs, preferences and even values. In addressing and/or accommodating such individual differences organisations are increasingly adopting strategies and interventions that take such generational differences amongst employees into account (Costanza & Finkelstein, 2015). Addressing generational differences within the workplace has particularly become popular in the design and implementation of total reward or remuneration and recognition strategies, policies and practices. Understanding generational and/or demographic characteristics, specifically differences, that create distinct cohorts allow organisations to design reward and recognition packages that create distinctly unique value for their employees. Offering tailored or more focused reward strategies and practices, designed with individual differences in mind are believed to enhance attraction, employee engagement and retention and so allow an organisation to bolster its competitive advantage and contribute to sustained organisational success (Snelgar, Renard, & Venter, 2013). In support of this notion, empirical studies are showing promising results for targeted reward strategies and practices. Rationale for the Research Study Effective talent management, i.e. attracting, engaging and retaining sought-after highly skilled employees is critical for the success of any organisation. However, organisations are increasingly experiencing challenges in recruiting, motivating and retaining scarce human capital, colloquially referred to as talent (Barkhuizen, 2014). Failure on the part of organisations to understand and adapt to differences in the workforce may result in them not being able to attract the talent required; keep employees motivated and engaged; and experience unintended employee turnover which is associated with notable direct and indirect costs for them (Westerman & Yamamura, 2007). Organisations, therefore, are constantly searching for new and innovative approaches to more effectively attract, retain and engage employees (Snelgar et al., 2013). There is a growing body of research (Haynes, 2011; Snelgar, Renard, & Venter, 2013) that has shown that identifying distinct reward and recognition preferences amongst cohorts of employees and targeting reward and recognition strategies accordingly, is showing promising potential in this regard. When designing and implementing targeted approaches to reward and recognition, employee cohorts are most often identified using generational cohort theory, i.e. using various established guidelines to group employees into generational cohorts that are believed to be distinctly different to one another, while those within these groups being more similar than not. Results obtained from studies using these various employee cohorts as a framework have been used to inform the design of targeted reward and recognition practices and policies. Generational cohort theory is, however, mostly grounded on a set of historical events that took place in the United States of America (USA). Despite this, the American-based framework used to identify individuals belonging to various generations has been adopted globally, both within organisations and even used in research studies published in peer-reviewed literature. However, several authors have criticised the indiscriminate use of a popular American-based generational framework, i.e. focusing on events affecting Americans arguing that this has resulted in a somewhat narrow or even skewed view generational cohorts. These authors have gone as far as to argue that the American-based generational framework may not be appropriate or ineffective outside of the USA at all (Close, 2015). Following this reasoning, they have called for alternative frameworks that create distinct generational cohorts relevant in contexts outside of America, i.e. based on different events and criteria more applicable to those contexts. Aim of the research study The aim of the present study was to investigate the reward preferences of a broad range of employees in an effort to assess whether the popular generational model of Strauss and Howe (1991) is relevant and/or as effective in a non-American context, as well as to possibly find support for alternative perspectives or approaches to identify distinct generational cohorts in organisations that may be more appropriate and/or effective when designing reward offerings for different cohorts of employees. Given time and cost constraints, South Africa was chosen to investigate this claim given that it is a developing economy (vs the USA being a developed economy) and has a different set of notable events that have shaped its history to that which is applicable to the USA. Given the aim of the present study, an exploratory research design was considered most appropriate to investigate generational cohort theory within a non-American context as a framework to identify employee groups/cohorts that have distinctly different total reward preferences. For the purposes of the present study, it was decided that a quantitative approach would be followed as it is most useful to draw conclusions or inferences related to the total reward preferences of employee groups/cohorts. The present study followed a non–probability or convenience sampling approach with a realised sample of 169 respondents. The majority of respondents were Coloured and were further female, with majority of attaining a qualification post matric. Main results and findings A one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) revealed no statistically significant difference between the generational groups based on the popular generational model of Strauss and Howe (1991), nor for a proposed generational cohort framework that was designed for the purposes of the present study and which was based on notable South African historical events. Following a data-driven exploratory approach, cluster analysis, on the other hand, yielded three distinct generational cohorts based on their perceived reward preferences for typical total rewards elements. Significant differences in the total reward preferences of respondents born after 1994 and those before 1994. Choice-based modelling (choice-based conjoint analysis) revealed that most respondents considered financial rewards as being the two most preferred total reward elements for them, including remuneration (guaranteed pay) followed by benefits and then non-financial rewards (work-life balance being the most preferred non-financial reward preference). Theoretical and Practical Implications Numerous research studies have made use of the popular American-based generational model to identify the reward preferences of cohort groups, without taking into account context-specific variables. There is further a dearth of empirical research that has been conducted to investigate generational cohort theory specifically, while none were found that were conducted in developing economies, such as South Africa. The present study address this gap in current literature. The use of choice-based modelling or choice-based conjoint analysis, furthermore, makes a methodological contribution given that this method is seldom found in total reward preference studies. This method was shown to identify total reward preferences that could not be determined using a field-survey or questionnaire. Choice-based modelling is different to typical survey approaches in that it is better able to replicate human decision making, i.e. assessing relative importance of attributes and levels based on combinations of choices and related sacrifices that humans deal with when making a choice-decision. In terms of the practical contribution of the present study, the results provide insights for organisations that may be incorporated when designing differentiated total reward strategies to accommodate and/or address the needs of the different generational groups.

The Eden Narrative (EN) pivots upon humans acquiring הדעת ,טובורע “the knowledge of good and bad/evil” (Gen 2:9, 17; 3:5, 22). This study will offer a revised interpretation of this enigmatic phrase. Although long debated, scholars remain in disagreement regarding a consensus interpretation of הדעת .טוב ורע Proposed interpretations of this phrase include: Mental Faculty of Discrimination (Basic and Moral); Wisdom; Omniscience; Cultural Knowledge; Sexual Knowledge; Maturity; Moral Discernment; Moral Autonomy; and Magic (amongst others).The majority of interpreters agree that because a phrase akin to הדעת טוב ורע (Gen 2:9, 17) only appears in four passages in the EN (Gen 2:9, 17; 3:5, 22), one must turn to other passages in the HB to supply the data needed to interpret this phrase. To which passages anyone interpreter turns varies greatly upon the methodology and interpretation of each interpreter. For example, to confirm the interpretation of wisdom, interpreters turn to the Wisdom Literature of the HB. Some interpreters base their interpretation of הדעת טוב ורע first upon other texts in the HB, as opposed to themes and motifs in the EN. I will begin my exegetical work within the EN before turning to other texts in the HB. That being said, seven of the most oftcited passages from the HB, for any one interpretation of הדעת טובורע in the history of research, come from Genesis, Deuteronomy, and the books of the DtrH, three of which come from the Throne Succession Narrative (TSN; 2 Sam 9–20 & 1 Kgs 1–2). In light of the disagreement of interpretation and varied methodological approaches within the history of research, I contend that there are three parameters that must be employed by any interpreter who wishes to move forward. The first parameter requires that an interpretation must classify הדעת טובורע as divine knowledge; a non-human knowledge that is possessed by YHWH and the divine beings of Gen 3:5 and 3:22. The second parameter requires that an interpretation must show how the Hebrew lexemes טוב and רעע function when YHWH is the subject or causation of these extremes in the EN and its surrounding context (e.g., Gen 1:4; 3:14–19, inferred; 4:7; 6:5). This second parameter is practically missing from the history of research, and it will be my primary contribution to this discussion. The third parameter requires that an interpretation reasonably demonstrate why it is that הדעת טובורע is forbidden on pain of death (Gen 2:16–17) and why human acquisition of הדעת טובורע serves as a threat to YHWH (Gen 3:22–23). None of the interpretations proposed to the present adhere to all three of these parameters. Therefore, I propose that a revised interpretation of this expression in the EN should employ a methodology that adheres to the aforementioned boundaries, which I will accomplish in this study. Beginning with the EN and its surrounding context of Gen 1–11, I will show that certain permutations of טוב and ,רעע when resulting from the will and/or discrimination of YHWH, are a reference to YHWH's blessing (gift/reward) and curse (punishment). In this way, I suggest that הדעת ,טוב ורע in the EN, is best interpreted as the knowledge for administering reward and punishment (retribution). Prior to humans acquiring הדעת טובורע (i.e., Gen 3:6), this knowledge belonged only to YHWH and the divine beings; they alone were able to distribute reward and punishment. There are not enough occurrences of טוב and רעע within the EN, when YHWH is the subject or cause of these extremes, to confirm this interpretation. Some scholars (e.g., Otto, Lohfink, Mettinger) suggest that there are strong resonances between the EN, Deuteronomy, and the DtrH. The divine test of Gen 2:16–17 and the divine curse of Gen 3:14–19 are evidence of these themes and theology. In light of these shared motifs, I suggest that certain permutations of טוב and רעע in the latter (DtrH) can shed new light upon the former (EN). I shall therefore analyse key occurrences of good and evil in Genesis and the DtrH. As we shall see, this data confirms my suggested interpretation of the 'knowledge of good and evil' in the EN as the knowledge that YHWH and the divine beings have to reward and to punish. In other words, what is forbidden to humans in the EN is the divine knowledge for administering retribution. In this way, I will show how certain permutations of טוב and רעע (when YHWH is the subject or the cause), in these narrative texts of Genesis and the DtrH, form a textual reference to YHWH's reward (blessing) and punishment (curse), which together serve as his tools for establishing a particular political and social order in the body politic (e.g., Josh 23:15). As will also be demonstrated, humans likewise enforce a particular social and political order in their use of טוב ורע in Genesis and the DtrH (e.g., 1 Sam 24–25), which confirms human acquisition of הדעת ,טוב ורע at least within the framework of this discussion and topic. Finally, I will apply this analysis of טוב and רעע to the TSN, showing how both humans and YHWH dispense reward and punishment ( טוב ;ורע retribution) for the establishment of order in the body politic. As a result of this analysis of the data in the EN, Genesis, and the DtrH, I submit that the most reasonable interpretation for the phrase, הדעת ,טובורע in the EN, is, the knowledge for administering reward and punishment; a divine knowledge that enables humans to become 'judges' and actively employ retribution in human society, similar to YHWH in the HB and for the purpose of sustaining a particular moral and political order in the social sphere. Thus the Eden Narrative tells a story of how humans partly attain divinity, becoming like YHWH and the divine beings (Gen 3:5; 3:22; Ps 82) in having acquired the forbidden divine knowledge of ultimate power (reward and punishment); albeit, through a transgressive act of moral autonomy.

The thesis developed a system for categorising video game rewards, and explored the impact of those reward types on the player experience. We found that a diverse assortment of reward types is associated with increased player enjoyment, and that an individual's trait reward responsiveness also plays an important role in facilitating enjoyment. Participants with higher levels of trait reward responsiveness may be more likely to enjoy video games than people with comparatively low levels of trait reward responsiveness.

Research on reward-driven learning has produced and substantiated theories of model-free and model-based reinforcement learning (RL), which respectively explain how humans and animals learn reflexive habits and build prospective plans. A highly developed line of work has unearthed the role of striatal dopamine in model-free learning, while the prefrontal cortex (PFC) appears to critically subserve model-based learning. The recent theory of meta-reinforcement learning (meta-RL) explained a wide array of findings by positing that the model-free dopaminergic reward prediction error trains the recurrent prefrontal network to execute arbitrary RL algorithms—including model-based RL—in its activations.

In parallel, a nascent understanding of a third reinforcement learning system is emerging: a non-parametric system that stores memory traces of individual experiences rather than aggregate statistics. Research on such episodic learning has revealed its unmistakeable traces in human behavior, developed theory to articulate algorithms underlying that behavior, and pursued the contention that the hippocampus is centrally involved. These developments lead to a set of open questions about (1) how the neural mechanisms of episodic learning relate to those underlying incremental model-free and model-based learning and (2) how the brain arbitrates among the contributions of this abundance of valuation strategies.

This thesis extends meta-RL to provide an account for episodic learning, incremental learning, and the coordination between them. In this theory of episodic meta-RL (EMRL), episodic memory reinstates activations in the prefrontal network based on contextual similarity, after passing them through a learned gating mechanism (Chapters 1 and 2). In simulation, EMRL can solve episodic contextual water maze navigation problems and episodic contextual bandit problems, including those with Omniglot class contexts and others with compositional structure (Chapter 3). Further, EMRL reproduces episodic model-based RL and its coordination with incremental model-based RL on the episodic two-step task (Vikbladh et al., 2017; Chapter 4). Chapter 5 discusses more biologically detailed extensions to EMRL, and Chapter 6 analyzes EMRL with respect to a set of recent empirical findings. Chapter 7 discusses EMRL in the context of various topics in neuroscience.

Animals are commonly trained to perform behaviors during routine husbandry procedures. However, some husbandry procedures have aversive consequences when the real procedure is performed. This commonly results in loss of the trained behavior. The present study assessed whether maintaining the antecedent environmental stimulus conditions between appetitive and aversive outcomes would prevent this effect and, conversely, whether adding a stimulus discrepancy would facilitate this effect. Three domestic rats served as participants in a multiple baseline across participants design with multi-element components. All three rats stopped performing a trained behavior when a discrepant stimulus reliably predicted an aversive outcome. In addition, all three rats continued to perform the same behavior when antecedent environmental stimulus conditions were consistent between aversive and appetitive outcomes. Results are discussed in terms of practical implications for behavior change agents and conceptual implications for learning theory.

The environment is abundant with visual information. Each moment, this information competes for representation in the brain. From billboards and pop-up ads to smart phones and flat screens, in modern society our attention is constantly drawn from one salient object to the next. Learning how to focus on the objects that are most important for the current task is a major developmental hurdle. Fortunately, rewards help us to learn what is important by providing feedback signals to the brain. Sometimes, in adolescence for example, reward seeking can become the pre-potent response. This can ultimately lead to risky and impulsive behaviors that have devastating consequences. Until recently, little has been known about how rewards operate to influence the focus of attention. In this document, I first demonstrate the robustness of various behavioral paradigms designed to measure reward processing in vision. I found that even mundane rewards, such as images of money, are effective enough to prime the attentional system on the basis of value. Remarkably, this effect extended to images of Monopoly money. This observation suggests that whole classes of visual stimuli, such as food, pornography, commercial logos, corporate brands, or money, each with its own reward salience value, are likely vying for representation in the brain. This work has implications for the growing digital economy as it suggests that novel value systems, such as the digital currency Bitcoin, could eventually become as psychologically relevant as physical currency provided sufficient use and exposure. Likewise, this work has implications for gamification in the industrial setting. Next, I examined the sensitivity of the system to make optimal economic decisions. When faced with an economic choice normative theories of decision-making suggest that the economic actor will choose the response that affords the greatest expected utility. Contrary to this account, I developed a new behavioral paradigm (reward contingent capture) and reveal that the attentional homunculus is a fuzzy mathematician. Specifically, I found that low-level attentional processes conform to the same probability distortions observed in prospect theory. This finding supports a unified value learning mechanism across several domains of cognition and converges with evidence from monkey models. Then, I demonstrate the influence of rewards on high-order search parameters. I found that images of money can implicitly encourage observers to preferentially adopt one of two search strategies – one that values salience versus one that values goals. Together, my results expose two distinct ways in which the very same rewards can affect attentional behavior – by tuning the salience of specific features and by shaping global search mode settings. Lastly, I draw from my empirical results to present a unified model of the manifold role of rewards on visual attention. This model makes clear predictions for clinical applications of rewarded attention paradigms because it incorporates a dimension of complexity upon which learning processes can operate on attention. Thus, future work should acknowledge how individual traits such as developmental trajectory, impulsivity, and risk-seeking factors differentially interact with low- and high-level attentional processes. In sum, this document puts forward the notion that rewards serve a compelling role in visual awareness. The key point however is not that rewards can have an effect on attention but that due to the nature of visual processing, reward signals are likely always tuning attention. In this way we can consider reward salience an attentional currency. This means then that deciding where to attend is a matter of gains and losses.