Tesis sobre el tema "Quasi contratti"

The purpose of this thesis is to make a contribution to the reflection on quasi-contracts by surveying the most problematic aspects of the subject. In particular, through the analysis of the evolutionary path made starting from the classification of the sources of obligation, it will be attempted whether the quasi-contract is already attested in the classical Roman jurisprudential thought and, at the same time, to understand what is the process that led to the development of the same. The analysis is structured in four chapters. In the first one, it is outlined a brief historical evolutionary framework of the quasi-contract that starts from the reflections made by Roman jurists, in the main historical periods, and then reaches, passing through the discipline of common law and the doctrine of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the reasons that led to its non-acceptance within the current regulatory framework of the Italian Civil Code of 1942. In the second part, starting from the summa divisio obligationum contained in the Institutiones of Gaius, the first question is why a partition that is originally presented as basically complete, is not in fact so, and then what can be, following the close relationship between mutuum and solutio indebiti, the perspective from which the jurist moves in the elaboration of his partition. All of this, trying to establish whether, starting from the proper juridical foundation on which the obligationes ex variis causarum figuris are based, there is any clear dialectical purpose between what Gaius asserts in his multifunctional institutional manual and the subsequent elaboration envisaged in the Libri rerum cottidianarum sive aureorum. In the third one, after that, an attempt will be made to demonstrate both the truthfulness and completeness of what has been transmitted to us in the Res cottidianae, about the tripartition of the sources of obligations and the figures that can be traced back to it, especially in the light of what was the subsequent elaboration expressed in Justinian’s Institutions, and then, questioning the relationship between obligatio and actio in personam, to establish whether, before and during the period in which Gaius lived, the cases listed among the obligationes ex variis causarum figuris were known, and likewise to ascertain whether they were treated in the same way as obligations that did not come within the category of contracts, but could, however, be approached analogically to them. Finally, in the fourth chapter, taking its cue from Justinian’s systematization, in which the threefold division of the sources of obligations was replaced by a fourfold division in which, in addition to obligations under contract and delict, there are obligations quasi ex contractu and those quasi ex delicto, a review is made of the individual obligationes quasi ex contractu contained in the Iustiniani Institutiones, in relation to those provided for in the Res cottidianae, and concludes with an analysis of the relevant passages, devoted to quasi contractus, in the Greek Paraphrase to the Imperial Institutions of Theophilus.

Le quasi-contrat est consacré comme une source autonome d’obligation dans le code civil. Pourtant, l’unité de la notion est problématique. En effet, la loi définit le quasi-contrat comme un fait volontaire dont il résulte un engagement alors que la doctrine le présente comme une notion à mi-chemin entre le contrat et la responsabilité civile extra-contractuelle en raison de l’application du régime contractuel en dehors d’un accord de volontés des parties. Or, en pratique, hormis la gestion d’affaires qui obéit au régime du mandat sans pouvoir exprès, l’enrichissement sans cause, (désormais enrichissement injustifié) et la répétition de l’indu n’obéissent pas à un régime contractuel. Si la doctrine a tenté de proposer le critère du transfert de valeurs dépourvu de cause pour justifier l’unité de la notion, ce critère se trouve mis à mal par la jurisprudence sur les loteries publicitaires. La thèse tente ainsi de rechercher une nouvelle unité, recherche qui s’avère difficile, voire impossible, dans la mesure où chaque quasi-contrat répond à des règles tantôt propres au contrat, tantôt propres à la responsabilité civile extra-contractuelle, ce qui vient alors fausser l’autonomie du quasi-contrat
Quasi-contracts are set as an autonomous part of the civil code, yet the notion answers to no unity. Law defines the notion as a voluntary fact leading to bind its author but scholars are considering quasi-contracts to be halfway between contract law and tort law due to the lack of will leading nevertheless to binding obligations. Practice shows that, except for the business management based on a mandate without any express will, the other quasi-contracts, unjust enrichment and repetition of undue do not follow any contractual regime. Scholars have attempted to propose the transfer of value for explaining the unity of the notion but this criterion is no longer relevant since cases creating a new quasi-contracts: lotteries. This work aims to discover a new criterion to find back unity of quasi-contracts. Impossible task as each quasi-contract shares common aspects of contract law and of tort law

Les situations péri-contractuelles se caractérisent par le fait qu'une tierce personne a réalisé des prestations au profit d'une personne publique en l'absence de contrat valide. Le prestataire ne peut réclamer le paiement du service rendu à la collectivité en invoquant les obligations résultant de l'accord qu'il a passé avec l'Administration. Pour sa part, la personne publique ne bénéficie d'aucune garantie contractuelle, ou post-contractuelle, au titre des malfaçons affectant l'ouvrage livré. Afin de garantir les divers intérêts en présence, le juge administratif a progressivement élaboré une solution juridique équitable, qui permet de régler le déséquilibre entre les situations financières des parties, en combinant les fondements de responsabilité, soit quasi-contractuelle, soit quasi-délictuelle. L'indemnité d'enrichissement sans cause permettra ainsi de couvrir l'ensemble des dépenses que le prestataire a utilement exposées au profit de la personne publique et une indemnisation complémentaire pourra lui être accordée afin de compenser le manque à gagner qu'il a subi du fait de l'inexistence d'un contrat. De plus les dommages résultant pour la personne publique, de la livraison d'un ouvrage non conforme à sa destination, pour avoir été construit en méconnaissance des règles de l'art, ouvrent droit à réparation sur le fondement de la responsabilité quasi-délictuelle des entreprises
The situations peri-contract are characterized by the fact that a third person realizes services for the benefit of a public person in the absence of valid contract. The person receiving benefits cannot demand the payment of the service provided in the community by calling upon the obligations resulting from an agreement spent with the Administration. The public person does'nt benefit from any contractual guarantee, or post-contractual, in conformance for the faults affecting the delivered work. To guarantee the diverse interests in presence, the administrative judge gradually developes a legal solution which enables to adjust the imbalance between the financial situations of the parts by combining the foundations of quasi-contractual or quasi-delictual responsibility. The compensation of enrichment without cause will in that way allows to cover the total expense that the person receiving benefits usefully exposed for the benefit of the public person and a complementary compensation can be granted to him to compensate for the loss of income which he suffered because of the absence of contract. More the damage resulting for the public person, of the delivery of a work not in compliance with its destination, to have been built in misunderstanding of the rules of the art, opens straight ahead to repair on the foundation of the quasi-delictual responsibility of companies

La sélection du droit applicable aux quasi-contrats oblige à identifier le contenu de la catégorie quasi-contractuelle, c'est-à-dire a déterminer la place des quasi-contrats au sein des différentes sources d'obligations. Détachés du principe selon lequel nul ne peut s'enrichir injustement aux dépens d'autrui, ils peuvent être définis comme des faits licites qui produisent des effets de type contractuel. Sont ainsi vises les trois quasi-contrats traditionnellement recensés et un nouveau quasi-contrat : la théorie de l'apparence. Les rattachements nécessaires à la détermination du droit applicable ont été sélectionnés sur le fondement du principe de proximité en réaction aux excès de rigidité et de non-signification des critères territoriaux classiques. Ils garantissent une solution internationale parfaitement appropriée au litige. La détermination de la loi applicable aux quasi-contrats diffère selon qu'ils naissent ou non à l’ occasion d'une relation sous-jacente. S'ils sont apparus à l’ occasion d'une telle relation, la gestion d'affaires, le paiement de l'indu et l'enrichissement sans cause sont régis par la loi de la relation. S'ils sont nés indépendamment de toute relation, ces trois quasi-contrats sont régis par la loi du lieu du bénéfice, c'est-à-dire par la loi du lieu où s'est réalisé l'avantage que le débiteur a
The choice of the law rule applicable to quasi-contractual claims supposes that the question of characterization of the quasi-contractual category has to be resolved. Therefore, it was necessary to compare the classification proposed by the French civil code. The quasi-contracts have been defined as "lawful fact which products contractual effects" and have been separated from the principle of unjust enrichment. This definition is a large one, designs the three traditional quasi-contracts : negotorium gestio, payment of a debt not due, unjust enrichment and designs a new one which can be describe as the "theory of apparent situations". The choices of law rules that have been adopted in the French legal system are unsatisfactory. The solution proposed is found on the "proper law approach" provided from mechanical and accidental localization and obliges to consider events which have a consequential relationship with the act leading to the situation. If the quasi-contractual claim arises out of a pre-existing relationship, the law to be applied in all these cases is the law which governed the prior contract or legal relationship. This could more

En droit privé, l'existence du quasi-contrat est remise en cause. Il en est autrement en droit administratif, ou le quasi-contrat acquiert une autonomie conceptuelle. Il a principalement, une fonction complémentaire supplétive et substitutive selon qu'il est relatif à un contrat parfait, à un contrat nul ou non formé, ou qu'il joue en dehors de tout cadre contractuel. Il occupe une situation intermédiaire entre le contrat et le quasi-délit. Ainsi se dégagent trois types de quasi-contrat selon leur degré de proximité avec l'idéaltype contractuel : - exécution d'une prestation utile sur volonté initiale de l'administration a laquelle autrui souscrit ; - exécution d'une prestation utile tolérée par l'administration ; - exécution d'une prestation nécessaire effectuée à son insu. Le juge identifie dans ce fait complexe, une source d'obligations autonome, auquel il attache des conséquences spécifiques. Le régime juridique du quasi-contrat révèle principalement l'existence de la responsabilité quasi-contractuelle fondée sur le principe général du droit l'enrichissement sans cause. Ce dernier a un domaine d'application plus large, tantôt sanctionné par l'action d’in rem verso, tantôt sanctionne par l'action en responsabilité quasi-contractuelle. Enfin les règles de la responsabilité quasi-contractuelle lui sont propres ; priorité et combinaison spécifique avec la responsabilité quasi-délictuelle
In French civil rights, the existence of "quasi-contrat" (implied-contract) is strongly denied. It is different in administrative law because the "quasi-contrat" gets a conceptual autonomy. It has mainly a complementary function, supplied and substitutive according as it is relative to a perfect contract, a not valid or not formed contract, or it is playing on the outside of any contractual framework. It holds an intermediary place between the contract and the "quasi-delit" (tort law). So three "types" of "quasi-contract" come into view according their degree of proximity the "contractual ideal-type" : - performance of a useful prestation, on the initial will of the administration ; - performance of a useful prestation, with its tolerance ; - performance of a necessary prestation executed without its knowledge. The judge identifies in this fact, a fount of autonomous obligations, for which he attributes specifical consequences. The legal system of "quasi-contrat" is mainly characterized by the existence of the "quasi contractuelle" liability founded on "enrichissement sans cause", and by the existence of peculiar rules: priority and specifical combination with the "quasi-delictuelles" liability

Avec l’apparition de plusieurs sources d’obligations en droit romain (le contrat et le délit), les juristes ont cherché à classer ces sources. Cela a commencé avec la classification des Institutes de Gaius. Cette étude propose d’étudier l’évolution de la classification des sources des obligations depuis son apparition en droit romain jusqu’à ses aspects les plus récents. Elle porte en conséquence sur les classifications doctrinales de l’ancien droit, la classification présente dans le Code civil et son interprétation par la doctrine du XIXe siècle, et les évolutions de cette classification au XXe siècle sous l’influence du droit allemand notamment
With the appearance of several sources of obligations in Roman law (contract and torts), jurists sought to classify these sources. That started with the classification of Gaius in his Institutes. This study proposes to study the evolution of the classification of the sources of the obligations since its appearance in Roman law until its most recent aspects. It relates consequently to doctrinal classifications of the former law, classification present in the Civil code and its interpretation by the doctrines of the 19th century, and the evolutions of this classification at the 20th century under the influence of the German right in particular

A défaut de définition légale du cadre, la notion est fonctionnelle et s’applique à des modes de fonctionnement, allant du salariat traditionnel au quasi-entrepeneuriat. Aujourd’hui, les cadres exerçant un pouvoir de commandement s’effacent devant les cadres experts mettant en oeuvre une compétence technique. Leur mode de fonctionnement professionnel est de moins en moins en adéquation avec le droit du travail : le contrat de travail classique devient incongru pour le cadre quasi – indépendant qui dispose d’autonomie, s’affranchit du lien de subordination et participe au pouvoir de direction. Face à l’inadaptation du droit et à son impuissance, il est nécessaire de construire un régime juridique pour ces « cadres quasi-indépendants », hors du droit du travail. Malgré un expansionnisme manifeste du droit du travail, se dessine une cohabitation entre salariat et non salariat. L’instauration d’un droit de l’activité, susceptible de regrouper un corps de règles d’application générale, dépassant le clivage traditionnel entre activités salariées et non salariées peut apporter des éléments de réponse aux « cadres quasi-indépendants », désireux de sortir de la protection traditionnelle inadaptée du droit du travail. Aussi plutôt que de « forcer » le cadre traditionnel du droit du travail en multipliant les exceptions et statuts dérogatoires pour protéger des pseudos salariés, il semble préférable de faciliter le passage du contrat de travail au contrat d’entreprise, en l’aménageant en cas de « dépendance économique » pour en faire un contrat d’activité sécurisé (cf parasubordination)
The management and professional employee population which is rapidly expanding has been classified in 3 categories by the Aubry 2 law. The first of these three categories covers management/professional employees who have retained a traditional work profile. The second and third categories cover employees enjoying more autonomy and senior managers, both of the latter are far removed from the traditional manufacturing environment due to their self sufficiency and technical know-how. Our centre of interest is focused on these” virtually independent” employees. Their professional behaviour bears less and less relationship to current labour law, the traditional contract of employment is disconnected from the professional environment of today’s manager who is independent, autonomous and takes part in senior management responsibilities. Faced with the inadequacy of current labour law it is necessary to develop a new legal approach for these “independent” managers / professional employees. Inspite of the unrelenting expansion of labour legislation a form of “cohabitation” between wage earners and self employed is developing. The emergence of activity based labour legislation bringing together basic generic regulations and overcoming the customary split between salary earners and free lance activities may be a suitable approach for the new “independent” management and professional categories wishing to move away from the standard form of welfare protection written into labour law. Therefore rather than “forcing “traditional labour legislation by multiplying exceptions and opt outs to protect pseudo wage earners it seems preferable to encourage a move away from the contract of employment approach towards a company contract which could, as required, be adapted to employees who are subordinated to an employer and thus need the protection of a standard contract of employment

Aux termes de l'article 1371 du code civil francais, le quasi-contrat est une source autonome des obligations. Il appartient aux engagements qui se forment sans convention. Au plan economique, il est un mouvement de valeurs constitue de l'appauvrissement d'une personne et de l'enrichissement correlatif d'une autre personne. Au plan juridique, ce deplacement doit etre spontane. La spontaneite caracteristique du quasi-contrat a, pour critere negatif, l'absence de cause et, par indirecte, exige l'absence de faute commise de mauvaise foi. Le deplacement de valeurs est injustifie, l'ordre commutatif oblige a un retour au statu quo ante. La notion etudiee connait une tripartition des actions - gestion d'affaires, repetition de l'indu, et enrichissement sans cause -, au-dela plusieurs figures juridiques ont ete greflees par la doctrine contemporaine. Le present travail tente aussi de discerner le bien-fonde des rattachements le plus communement operes
According to the article 1371 of the french civil code, the quasi-contract is an autonomous source of obligations. It belongs to the commitment witch are formed without convention. At the economic level, it's a movement of values made up of the impoverishment of a person and a correlative enrishment of an another. At the juridical level, this transfert must be spontaneous. The typical characteristic of the quasi-contract has, for the negative criteria, the absence of cause, and by indirect, the absence of fault made by dishonesty. The operated shifting of values is injustified, the commutative order obliged to a come back of anotatus quo. The studied notion knows a tripartition of the actions-business management, repetition of undue and the enrishment without cause. Beyond, many legal figures are grafted on the the quasi-contract by the doctrine. The present work also attemps to discern the well-founded of the linking up the most commonly operated

A défaut de définition légale du cadre, la notion est fonctionnelle et s applique à des modes de fonctionnement, allant du salariat traditionnel au quasi-entrepeneuriat. Aujourd hui, les cadres exerçant un pouvoir de commandement s effacent devant les cadres experts mettant en oeuvre une compétence technique.Leur mode de fonctionnement professionnel est de moins en moins en adéquation avec le droit du travail : le contrat de travail classique devient incongru pour le cadre quasi indépendant qui dispose d autonomie, s affranchit du lien de subordination et participe au pouvoir de direction. Face à l inadaptation du droit et à son impuissance, il est nécessaire de construire un régime juridique pour ces cadres quasi-indépendants , hors du droit du travail. Malgré un expansionnisme manifeste du droit du travail, se dessine une cohabitation entre salariat et non salariat. L instauration d un droit de l activité, susceptible de regrouper un corps de règles d application générale, dépassant le clivage traditionnel entre activités salariées et non salariées peut apporter des éléments de réponse aux cadres quasi-indépendants , désireux de sortir de la protection traditionnelle inadaptée du droit du travail.Aussi plutôt que de forcer le cadre traditionnel du droit du travail en multipliant les exceptions et statuts dérogatoires pour protéger des pseudos salariés, il semble préférable de faciliter le passage du contrat de travail au contrat d entreprise, en l aménageant en cas de dépendance économique pour en faire un contrat d activité sécurisé.

Nul ne peut s'enrichir aux depens d'autmi. L'enrichissement sans cause fut reconnu en fiance en tant que source autonome d'obligations en 1892 (arret boudier}. Son evolution technique en droit francais connut un essor considerable au debut du xxeme siecle. Apres la derniere these de francois gore en 1949, plus aucun travail ne fut consacre sur le probleme des obligations nees d'un enrichissement injuste. A la meme epoque, les autres droits continentaux, principalement ceux d'inspiration germanique, connurent un renouveau du mecanisme interdisant de s'enrichir aux depens d'autmi. Une distinction fondamentale, reposant sur la nature des choses, permit de sepa, rer les enrichissements nes par prestation de ceux nes sans prestation. Outre son caractere fonc, tionnel, cette distinction s'evertue a attribuer des definitions differentes aux elements constitutifs de l'enrichissement injuste dont notamment celui de "cause". La tentative d'introduire en droit francais la distinction entre les enrichissements nes par prestation et ceux nes sans prestation, en meme temps que d'accorder une image plus moderne a l'institution, constitue l'objectif essentiel de cet essai
Enrichment without cause was recognized in france as an autonomous source of obligations in 1892 (case boudier). Its technical evolution in french law had a significant rise at the beginning of 20th century. After the last thesis from francois gore in 1949, no more essays were dedicated to the problem of unjust enrichment. At that period, though the other continental laws, mainly those of germanic inspiration, this mechanism, which does not allow somebody to get rich at the expense of others, sprang back to life. A fundamental distinction, based on the nature of things, made it possible to separate the benefits conferred with payment from benefits acquired "in any other manner". Besides its functional aspect, this distinction strives to attach different definitions to the constitutive elements of unjust enrichment, especially that of "cause". The attempt to intro, duce the distinction between benefits conferred with payment and benefits acquired "in any other manner" in french law, and at the same time to bring this institution up-to-date, is the essential purpose of our essay

La thèse a pour objet, dans le cadre d'une présentation renouvelée des sources de l'obligation, la mise en lumière de deux d'entre elles, l'engagement et le quasi-engagement. Le quasi-engagement, c'est la fausse promesse, l'engagement qui sciemment n'est pris qu'en apparence et qui a trompé la croyance de son destinataire. Révélé par la jurisprudence sur les loteries, il a pour objet de rendre obligatoire des engagements a priori inefficaces parde que nuls, inopposables ou inexistants. Il a ceci d'original que, simple fait juridique, il produit les effets d'un acte juridique. S'il n'est pas consacré comme tel par le droit positif, qui recourt à d'autres techniques, il n'en est pas moins une réalité, qui procède de l'équité. A côté du quasi-engagement, on trouve l'engagement: à côté de la promesse apparente, la promesse réelle. Nécessairement unilatéral à la source (on s'engage toujours seul), l'engagement peut rester unilatéral (il est indépendant d'un engagement réciproque) ou se couler dans le moule du contrat (il est interdépendant d'un autre engagement). Alors que l'existence de l'engagement contractuel n'est pas discutée, celle de l'engagement unilatéral le reste vivement, alors pourtant qu'elle se vérifie dans de nombreux domaines du droit privé. L'engagement constitue le critère de l'acte juridique. Envisagé en tant que source de l'obligation, il produit, en principe, deux effets remarquables: la création d'obligations à la charge de l'auteur de la promesse et l'attribution d'un pouvoir de contrainte à son destinataire. L'engagement est ainsi dissocié de l'obligation à laquelle il donne naissance, ce qui autorise une étude distincte des deux notions.

La mer comme mère du droit n'est pas un postulat juridique général, l'idée traduisant simplement le constat séculaire de la mise en mouvement originelle, par le droit maritime, de préceptes moraux à vocation solidaire et sociale : ainsi des faits d'assistance aux personnes. A propos de l'irrésolue question de l'indemnisation du préjudice subi en portant secours à autrui, le particularisme maritime a lancé dans le monde juridique les prescriptions s'y rapportant avant d'être relayé avec maladresse et inélégance par le droit des obligations dans toute sa généralité. Si les multiples fondements envisagés à cette fin montrent bien la ténacité avec laquelle les tribunaux veulent doter l'assistant bénévole d'un statut juridique, il demeure que le droit n'a guère de vue synthétique sur le problème posé. Surtout, il est impossible de dire que le législateur, en omettant de prévoir un régime spécial d'indemnisation du préjudice souffert au service d'autrui, ait manifesté l'évidente volonté de le créer. Aussi la jurisprudence a-t-elle dû faire œuvre constructive en élargissant progressivement les cas de réparation. A l'examen, les solutions dégagées ne constituent pourtant pas un ensemble homogène et harmonieux. Au-delà de leur souci commun d'indemnisation, elles se présentent dans des conditions complexes, englobant plusieurs techniques juridiques juxtaposées les unes aux autres, sans cohérence interne ni externe. Dans le domaine juridique des faits d'assistance aux personnes, il semble donc discursif de partir a priori une nouvelle fois du particularisme maritime pour dégager a posteriori un principe général d'indemnisation du préjudice subi en portant secours à autrui
The "sea as the source of all law" is not a general juridical postulate. Such an idea simply translates the age-long observation of the original implementation by maritime law of moral precepts aiming at solidarity and social progress: It will be so with cases of assistance to persons. Concerning the unresolved issue of the indemnification for the damage sustained during persons rescue operations, the maritime idiosyncrasy has brought clear instructions to the legal sphere, before it was awkwardly and inelegantly replaced by the law of obligations and its sweeping statements. Even if the many foundations envisaged by the courts to settle this issue give evidence of the tenacity with which the lawmaker is trying to give the unpaid rescuer a juridical status, it remains that the law does not hold a synthetic view on this issue. Above all it is impossible to say that when the lawmaker omitted to make provisions for a special system of indemnification for the damage sustained while giving help to persons, he was actually showing a genuine desire to create such a system. Therefore the jurisprudence has had to play a constructive role by widening gradually the spectrum of compensation cases. After close scrutiny it is fair to say that the answers that have emerged do not form a homogeneous and harmonious set of law. Outside their common aim for indemnification, they appear in complex situations and resort to several legal techniques that have been juxtaposed without any internal nor external coherence. In the legal field of cases of assistance to people, it seems discursive to start once more from the maritime idiosyncrasy, to draw out a general rule of indemnisation

Les enjeux de la quasi-régie (traduction française du « contrat « in house » ») sont multiples car elle constitue avant tout une dérogation aux règles de passation des contrats publics. Elle est de ce fait entièrement conditionnée par cette caractéristique et repose sur une combinaison particulière entre plusieurs modalités liées au fonctionnement des prestataires intégrés et aux relations qu’ils entretiennent avec leurs détenteurs. Seules les situations qui ne sont pas susceptibles de porter atteinte au bon fonctionnement du marché peuvent donc être qualifiées de mécanismes interorganiques. La quasi-régie est ainsi clairement distincte d’autres notions, telles les associations transparentes ou les montages artificiels, et constitue une véritable construction juridique légitime que les acteurs du secteur peuvent manier. Sa malléabilité est toutefois révélée par l’étude des modes d’intervention multiples avec lesquels elle est compatible en France : la société publique locale n’est par exemple qu’un moyen parmi d’autres de la mettre en oeuvre. Cette flexibilité est confirmée par le fait que les disciplines financière et fiscale françaises ne se saisissent pas de ce mécanisme, de telle sorte que la quasi-régie ne constitue pas un mode de gestion intermédiaire entre régie et externalisation. La qualité de contrat spécial, plus précisément celle de « contrat interorganique », semble toutefois pouvoir lui être attribuée car la quasi-régie repose sur une combinaison de circonstances contractuelles et institutionnelles spécifiques qui impliquent avant tout des modalités particulières en termes de passation, sans pour autant exclure certaines singularités en matière d’exécution
“In-house providing procurements” concern contracts awarded by contracting authorities without application of the procedures laid down in european secondary law. They thus have to be first considered as a derogation, which reveals their stakes but also the way they’ve been shaped. To make sure that it would’nt be used to abuse european law, european institutions have paid special attention to in-house operation’s conditions. In-house contracting parties have to prove the existence of particular conditions relating to the functioning of the contractor and its relations with its holders. Through those characteristics lies the particularity of in-house providing, which can be distinguished from other notions, such as “transparent associations” or “artificial schemes”. This is also a way to affirm in-house procurements’ legitimacy and to make it a real legal construction. This naturally leads to its qualification. Studying its manifestations in french public law makes clear that this construction is not complete. In-house contractor may take many legal forms, which brings to light in-house providing’s flexibility. It also prevents financial and fiscal french law to seize this derogation. In house-contracts can’t therefore be described as a an intermediary governance mode, between outsourcing and internal governance (in-house operations stricto sensu). Nevertheless, in-house providing procurements embody a type of special contracts, “les contrats interorganiques”, which implies particular rules relating to their passation and admits a certain particularity concerning their execution

Les fonctions des banques islamiques ne diffèrent pas trop de ceux de la banque universelle existant en Allemagne ou au Japon. Cependant, elles ne recourent pas directement à l'emprunt monétaire mais uniquement à travers les biens et les services. Ainsi, elles n'imposent pas un taux d'intérêt fixe (Riba) à leurs clients, mais leur financement se fait, d'une part, à travers les biens et services contre des remboursements à échéances fixes (Murabaha, Ijara) et, d'autre part, à travers des contrats de financement basés sur le partage des profits et des pertes (Musharaka, Mudaraba). Ces banques ne se limitent pas au rôle d'intermédiaires financiers, elles effectuent aussi des opérations d'investissement direct. Les différentes opérations des banques islamiques sont effectuées en respectant la loi islamique(Charia). La majorité des banques islamiques existent dans un environnement défavorable, caractérisé par la bureaucratie, la corruption, etc. Ces problèmes aggravent l'asymétrie d'information et des droits de propriété, ce qui met les banques islamiques dans une situation non-compétitivité difficile devant les banques conventionnelles en particulier, parce que les banques islamiques encourent plus de risque dans les opérations d'investissement. Cela explique le recours de ces banques au financement à court terme (quasi-dette) comme Murabaha, au lieu des contrats de Musharaka et Mudaraba (quasi-capitaux propres). Malgré tous, les banques islamiques se développent considérablement et constituent un véritable concurrent des banques conventionnelles dans les pays qui sont peuplés par une majorité de personnes musulmanes, dont le Yémen, grâce à l'effet du facteur religieux.

nel presente lavoro di tesi è stata esplorata una via di sintesi alternativa di precursori prochirali di bisfosfonati mediata da organocuprati. Tale classe di precursori, preparati per altra via, sono stati utilizzati in reazioni di epossidazione asimmetrica mediante acqua ossigenata e catalizzate da basi organiche chirali di origine naturale. Gli epossidi così ottenuti sono stati sottoposti ad apertura dell’anello per l’ottenimento di bisfosfonati enatioarricchiti quali potenziali farmaci per il contrasto dell’osteoporosi.

Lo scopo di questa tesi è sintetizzare precursori vinilidene bisfosfonato prochirali e bisfosfonati chirali enantioarricchiti. I precursori sono stati preparati sia con la procedura tradizionale che prevede la condensazione di aldeidi con tertaetil metilene-1,1-bisfosfonato catalizzata da TiCl4, sia con tecniche innovative. A tal fine è stata messa a punto una nuova sintesi tra il tertaetil vinilidene-1,1-bisfosfonato (VBP) e lo iodobenzene catalizzata da Pd(OAc)2 (Heck). Questa da risultati paragonabili alla sintesi tradizionale ma non è stato possibile isolare il prodotto; inoltre i risultati non sono stati replicati con i derivati dello iodobenzene testati. In un secondo momento si è passati alla funzionalizzazione di alcuni precursori (VBP e prochirali) nel tentativo di ottenere BP dotati di attività farmacologia. In questo contesto i risultati ottenuti nell’ addizione di Michael di tioli ed ammine al VBP, con i relativi test di tossicità ed attività antiriassorbimento, saranno oggetto di un articolo. Infine è stata approfondita l’addizione di tioli aromatici a precursori VBP prochirali che in certi casi ha dato eccessi enantiomerici superiori al 90%.

Consider Bayesian inference on statistical models in which contrasts among parameters are of interest. Usually, the multivariate posterior distribution of contrasts is not available in closed form and approximate Bayesian inference relies on a sample from that distribution. This, however, makes it difficult to report the posterior density in practice, for example in a journal publication, and therefore to allow subsequent readers to perform inference on contrasts of their own interest. We propose an approximation to the posterior distribution, which can easily be reported in published work. The approximation is in terms of a set of univariate densities qj(x) such that the posterior of any set of contrasts can be approximated by considering the original parameters as independent random variables, with the j-th parameter having density qj . This approximation resembles the quasi-variance approximation to the covariance matrix of contrasts, so the densities qj may be called quasi-densities. In order to calculate quasi-densities, we model the logarithm of each density as a spline function. We present ways of estimating the parameters of the log-spline quasidensities and discuss their numerical implementation. Some alternative parametric forms are also considered. It is also discussed how to assess the accuracy of the quasi-density approximation by using suitable error functionals, such as the total variation distance and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov distance. Finally, the use of quasi-densities is illustrated in some real-data examples. Statistical models considered in these examples include generalized linear models, mixed-effects models, Bradley-Terry models and association models.

Le report des garanties accessoires sur l’obligation de restitution du contrat principal anéanti est une règle du code civil dans sa version issue de l’ordonnance n° 2016-131 du 10 février 2016 portant réforme du droit des contrats, du régime général et de la preuve des obligations. Précisément, la règle est formulée par l’article 1352-9 du code civil : « Les sûretés constituées pour le paiement de l'obligation sont reportées de plein droit sur l'obligation de restituer sans toutefois que la caution soit privée du bénéfice du terme ». Il s’agit de la codification d’une jurisprudence rendue en d’abord en matière de cautionnement, ensuite étendue à l’hypothèque, enfin, par généralisation, à l’ensemble des sûretés, y compris à la solidarité. La portée d’une telle règle est donc générale en droit français. En droit uniforme des affaires issu de l’OHADA, l’Acte uniforme portant organisation des sûretés révisé n’a pas prévu une telle règle. Par contre, le récent projet de texte d’Acte uniforme portant droit général des obligations dans l’espace OHADA prévoit, en s’inspirant de la solution retenue en droit français, d’adopter la règle sous la forme d’une « extension » des garanties accessoires sur l’obligation de restitution du contrat principal anéanti. En effet, l’article 210 alinéa 1 du projet de texte uniforme précité énonce : « Les garanties stipulées pour le paiement de l’obligation primitive sont étendues à l’obligation de restitution ». Les formulations des deux textes, les articles 1352-9 du code civil et 210 alinéa 1 du projet de texte uniforme, sont différentes mais la logique et la politique législative de deux systèmes juridiques convergent. La thèse défendue est que le terme « report » employé par le code civil en son article 1352-9 dans sa version issue de l’ordonnance n° 2016-131 du 10 février 2016 n’existe pas en tant que tel. Le report est en réalité une double substitution ; il y a une substitution d’abord, dans le rapport principal d’obligation et une substitution consécutive dans le rapport de cautionnement. La première substitution qui a lieu concerne le rapport entre le débiteur principal et le créancier. L’anéantissement des effets du contrat principal produit une substitution à l’obligation initiale de source conventionnelle d’une obligation légale fondé sur le quasi-contrat de paiement de l’indu. Cette première substitution conduit à la disparition, par le jeu ou la règle de l’accessoire, de l’obligation initiale de la caution et de son remplacement par une obligation légale nouvelle. Il y a donc une substitution dans le rapport entre le créancier et la caution due à la première substitution. L’obligation légale nouvelle de la caution reprend certains éléments de l’obligation conventionnelle ancienne de celle-ci, tout en étant distincte par d’autres éléments. La base même de l’obligation nouvelle de la caution reste le cautionnement que la caution avait souscrit préalablement
The postponement of ancillary guarantees on the obligation to return the terminated main contract is a rule of the Civil Code in the version resulting from Order No. 2016-131 of 10 February 2016 related to the reform of contract law of the general regime and the proof of obligations. Specifically, the rule is formulated by article 1352-9 of the Civil Code: "Securities created for the payment of the obligation are automatically transferred under the obligation to return without however depriving the surety of the benefit of the term". It is about the codification of case law handed down first in the field of suretyship, then extended to mortgages, and finally, by generalization, to all securities, including solidarity. The scope of such a rule is therefore general in French law. In the uniform business law of OHADA, the revised Uniform Act on the Organization of Security Interests has not provided for such a rule. On the other hand, the recent draft text of the Uniform Act on the general law of obligations in the OHADA area provides, under the inspiration of the solution adopted in French law, for the adoption of the rule in the form of an "extension" of the accessory guarantees on the obligation to return the terminated main contract. Indeed, Article 210 paragraph 1 of the aforementioned draft uniform text states: "The guarantees stipulated for the payment of the original obligation are extended to the obligation of restitution". The wording of the two texts, Articles 1352-9 of the Civil Code and 210 paragraph 1 of the draft uniform text, are different, but the logic and legislative policy of both legal systems converge. This thesis focuses on the determination of the legal nature of the deferral (or extension) mechanism and its regime. It defends the view that postponement (or extension) is not a technical concept. The deferral is actually a double substitution: a substitution in the main report and a substitution in the bond report

L’application des conditions de l'enrichissement sans cause dans les relations de famille est particulière. Le lien familial, les relations affectives perturbent l'application traditionnelle de ce quasi-contrat. La condition de subsidiarité qui permet de délimiter le champ d'application de l'action de in rem verso est interprétée d'une manière très souple. Les plaideurs sont traités différemment selon leur qualité (époux, concubins, partenaires d'un pacs, enfants), selon qu'ils bénéficient ou non d'une institution spécifique (salaire différé, prestation compensatoire, indemnité exceptionnelle d'équité). Cela aboutit à des injustices quant à la recevabilité ou irrecevabilité de l'action en enrichissement sans cause. La condition d'absence de cause qui permet de savoir si un déséquilibre patrimonial doit être corrige est faussement caractérisée. L’action de in rem verso ne s'exerce généralement qu'au-delà du titre juridique (dépassement de la contribution aux charges du ménage, dépassement du devoir de piété filiale). Il y a donc seulement absence partielle de cause. De plus, les déplacements de valeurs sont souvent justifies (intention libérale) dans ce domaine ou les relations entre les parties sont empreintes d'affection. En définitive, la pratique jurisprudentielle révèle une inadaptation quant à l'application des conditions de l'enrichissement sans cause dans les relations de famille. Une indemnisation devrait être assurée par un droit spécial plus adapté.

This study investigates the required implementation of the System of Choice in the Swedish County Council of Västerbotten. The System of Choice is a national law with the objective to improve efficiency within primary care in Sweden. This was done by opening the market for more competition and giving the citizens the right to choose where to seek care. The reform was a big change for the organisation of health provision, which had up until the reform been characterized by monopolistic behaviour by county councils as dominant firms. At the time of this study it had been three years since the beginning of Health Choice, which is the name for the reform in Västerbotten. The aim of this research was to find out if the way in which Västerbotten County Council has chosen to shape Health Choice has led to the fulfilment of the objective of increased competition and thus higher motivation to perform quality care. This has been done by examining the development of the Health Choice and its reimbursement system through the eyes of the primary care providers. The study has further looked at the reasons underlying the result and ways to improve it. This area is not new ground for research. The organisation of health care is a popular topic all over the world since the population is growing and becoming older, thus putting increased pressure on the provision of health care (WHO, 2010, p. VI). Research has however showed that the optimal organisation of a reimbursement system for the primary care largely depends upon local conditions (Anell, 2005, p. 61). Since there is little previous in-depth information about the outcome of the Health Choice, the approach of this study has been inductive. Due to this exploratory and explanatory nature of the study a qualitative approach was applied. The data-collection has been done through 14 semi-structured interviews of about an hour each. To be able to catch the effects of the reimbursement system 11 of the interviews were conducted with health centre directors, representing both private and public providers as well as the different regions within the county council. The three other interviews were held with representatives from the county council and the supporting department for the Primary Care Group. The interviews generated transcribed text of 250 pages. This material was sifted and processed using the template analysis approach. The result shows that the county council‟s attitude to the Health Choice has negatively affected how it has been implemented. Too little resources have been spent on the purchasing department that is responsible for the development of the Health Choice and its reimbursement system. These factors have led to an organisation of Health Choice that discourages private providers to enter the primary care market in Västerbotten and there has thus only been a small increase in competition. A complex system with low continuity, lack of information and focus on the wrong things have led to the value of the reimbursement system as a motivational tool for increasing cost effectiveness and quality of care to be low.

Le turnover au sein des organisations, à un faible niveau, peut être bénéfique pour le renouvellement des ressources. Mais en atteignant des sommets, il perturbe l'organisation et oblige à une gestion de l'immédiat, nuisible pour la performance des hommes et de l'entreprise. Le groupe Veolia Transport souffre de cet aléa organisationnel de manière récurrente, quand le cœur de son activité est basé sur la délégation de service public, où la qualité des hommes est gage de la performance de l'organisation. En appui de cet impératif qualitatif, le groupe promeut une politique générale de formation ambitieuse afin d'intégrer, professionnaliser et fidéliser ses collaborateurs. Le fer de lance de cette politique est l'alternance, la formation diplômante en alternance. Dès lors, l'alternance impacte-t-elle à la baisse le turnover ? À travers une démarche proche d'un design quasi-expérimental, mobilisant une enquête dite longitudinale par questionnaire et l'appui d'un groupe de contrôle je teste, sur les exploitants du groupe en France, un design théorique explicatif de la relation alternance-turnover, par le prisme de l'implication organisationnelle. En proposant une définition gestionnaire de l'alternance, mes résultats démontrent le développement d'une relation dialectique individu-organisation par l'alternance, conditionnée par la mise en exergue d'un contrat psychologique fort et d'un double tutorat organisationnel. En croisant mes résultats avec 18 entretiens dits de validation, il ressort que l'alternance développe une socialisation organisationnelle partielle, en raison de la difficulté à comprendre pleinement son rôle en fin de cursus. Un glissement de la fonction tutorale en un système tutoral apparait, où la communauté de travail aide à l'apprentissage du métier, quand le supérieur-tuteur conserve un rôle de mentor. Enfin, l'alternance possède un effet positif sur l'intention de quitter, en créant les conditions du développement de l'implication organisationnelle, à la condition d'une gestion dédiée. Dans ce dessein, je propose la mise en place d'une gestion spécifique des alternants, en ne considérant plus l'alternance comme un outil de formation mais comme un outil de gestion des ressources humaines, créateur de potentiels.

Les missions internationales en entreprise ne parviennent plus à retenir les talents alors même que leur coût reste très élevé. La délocalisation de l’individu apparaît donc comme une nouvelle forme d'expatriation à mi-chemin entre expatriation auto-initiée et mission internationale en entreprise. Cependant, celle-ci résonne comme une violation du contrat psychologique liant l’individu à son entreprise. En effet, le diplôme ne semble plus protéger l’employé contre la délocalisation de son poste vers des pays à coût plus bas. Cette étude de cas a aidé à identifier les facteurs influençant les talents à accepter une relocalisation sous contrat local dans un pays à moindre coût. De ce fait, cette thèse fournit aux entreprises des éléments contributifs à la gestion globale des talents dans un contexte de délocalisation
Individual offshoring emerges as a new form of organizational-initiated expatriation which bridges self-initiated-expatriation and international assignment. The failure of IA to retain talented individuals (talent) and a growing pressure on costs leave no choice to companies but to dramatically reconsider how expatriation can develop talent globally in a different but still sustainable way.However, this new form of expatriation resonates as a breach of the psychological contract. If talent no longer expect to remain in the same company for a large part of their career, they still hold an expectation that white collar activities associated to higher degrees would protect their jobs from moving abroad. This thesis was a case study of a company offshoring some of its global talent to lower cost locations. The purpose was to understand what factors talent consider in accepting to relocate to a lower cost location under a local contract. This research contributes to talent retention and sustained talent management while offshoring ac-tivities to lower cost countries

This PhD dissertation is about legal fictions in private law. A legal fiction, broadly, is a false assumption knowingly relied upon by the courts. The main aim of the dissertation is to formulate a test for which fictions should be accepted and which rejected. Subsidiary aims include a better understanding of the fiction as a device and of certain individual fictions, past and present. This research is undertaken, primarily, to establish a rigorous system for the treatment of fictions in English law - which is lacking. Secondarily, it is intended to settle some intractable disputes, which have plagued the scholarship. These theoretical debates have hindered progress on the practical matters which affect litigants in the real world. The dissertation is divided into four chapters. The first chapter is a historical study of common-law fictions. The conclusions drawn thereform are the foundation of the acceptance test for fictions. The second chapter deals with the theoretical problems surrounding the fiction. Chiefly, it seeks precisely to define 'legal fiction', a recurrent problem in the literature. A solution, in the form of a two-pronged definition, is proposed, adding an important element to the acceptance test. The third chapter analyses modern-day fictions and recommends retention or abolition for each fiction. In the fourth chapter, the findings hitherto are synthesised into a general acceptance test for fictions. This test, which is the thesis of this work, is presented as a flowchart. It is the author's hope that this project will raise awareness as to the merits and demerits of legal fictions, de-mystify the debate and bring about reform.

L'analyse des politiques en Afrique s'est jusqu'à présent focalisée sur l'évaluation de celles-ci. Au moment où plusieurs réformes sont entreprises et où la démocratisation amène progressivement de nouveaux acteurs sur la scène politique, il est utile d'analyser comment les politiques publiques se font. Cette thèse examine la réforme de la politique de recrutement des enseignants en Afrique francophone. Elle montre que la réforme est née des insuffisances de la politique habituelle, mais surtout des recherches en économie de l'éducation qui ont conclu qu'elle était nécessaire. Cependant, tous les pays ne l'ont pas adopté. Parmi ceux qui l'ont fait, les facteurs l'ayant déclenché sont variables : fort déficit en enseignants, existence de schémas alternatifs de recrutement et surtout pression des bailleurs via l'aide extérieure. Dans certains pays, la société civile a été plus impliquée dans la réforme. Mais, cette plus forte implication n'a pas nécessairement empêché que la réforme qui ciblait la réduction du salaire des nouveaux enseignants soit conduite.

Ricorre l’arricchimento indiretto o mediato tutte le volte in cui un terzo si sia arricchito grazie ad una prestazione ridondata a suo vantaggio, ma eseguita in virtù di un rapporto intervenuto tra il depauperato ed un altro soggetto, cosiddetto intermediario, qualora l’esecutore materiale della prestazione per qualsivoglia ragione non sia riuscito ad ottenere il compenso dalla propria controparte per conto della quale ha operato. L’obiettivo di tale tesi è stato quello di verificare se nel nostro ordinamento in tale ipotesi sussistano tutti i presupposti, indicati negli art. 2041 e 2042 cod. civ., ai quali la legge subordina il rimedio dell’arricchimento senza causa. Inizialmente, dopo aver messo in luce anche attraverso l’ausilio di esempi quando ricorra l’arricchimento indiretto, ho effettuato una panoramica storico-normativa di tale azione con uno sguardo particolarmente attento all’ordinamento francese. Tale introduzione, che ripercorre anche la giurisprudenza non solo italiana ma anche francese, ha avuto lo scopo di mettere in luce che nel nostro ordinamento i dubbi circa l’ammissibilità di tale azione sono sorti a causa del tenore delle disposizioni del Codice Civile. E, precisamente, il dibattito riguarda due presupposti dell’azione: il nesso di correlazione che deve intercorre fra arricchimento e impoverimento e la sussidiarietà dell’azione. Nel corso del secondo capitolo, dopo aver individuato con precisione cosa si intenda con i termini arricchimento e depauperamento, ho verificato quale ruolo giocasse il requisito del nesso di correlazione nell’ammissione o meno dell’azione per arricchimento indiretto. Ho cercato, quindi, di mettere in luce con chiarezza quali fossero l’essenza e la struttura del nesso di correlazione. In particolare, quello che fin da subito ho voluto evidenziare è stato che le principali teorie in materia circa il modo di intendere questo requisito siano errate in partenza, in quando si limitano ad applicare all’arricchimento senza causa le nozioni elaborate in tema di fatti illeciti. Individuato il nesso di correlazione come un «fait juridique au sense large» (diverso dal nesso di causalità ex art. 2043 cod. civ.), in cui quello che è rilevante è la compresenza dell’arricchimento e del depauperamento, come eventi da considerare insieme sotto la specie di uno spostamento patrimoniale che produce variazioni di segno opposto fra loro, ha spiegato che l’interpretazione dello stesso debba ancorarsi all’art. 2038 cod. civ. Esposta, quindi, la tesi, seguita anche dalla pronuncia della Corte di Cassazione a Sezione Unite del 8 ottobre 2008, n. 24772, che, mediante l’estensione dei principi contenuti in tale articolo, consente la possibilità di agire ex art. 2041 cod. civ. anche nell’ipotesi di arricchimento mediato senza causa qualora il trasferimento nei confronti dell’arricchito sia avvenuto a titolo gratuito, ho concluso, anche attraverso l’ausilio della dottrina francese, che non vi siano ragioni per negare l’azionabilità dell’arricchimento indiretto neppure qualora il trasferimento in capo all’arricchito sia avvenuto a titolo oneroso e addirittura senza alcun titolo. Tale soluzione ha eliminato così uno dei due ostacoli concernenti l’ammissibilità all’interno del nostro ordinamento di un’azione per arricchimento indiretto e mi ha suggerito di esaminare, nel corso dell’ultimo capito, l’altro requisito, quello della sussidiarietà per verificare se quest’ultima impedisca la possibilità di esperire tale azione. Dopo aver individuato il fondamento del principio di sussidiarietà e aver esaminato le diverse teorie italiane e francesi mettendone in luce le ambiguità e le carenze, ho ritenuto necessario procedere all’individuazione di soluzioni differenziate che tengano conto della diversità ontologica delle varie fattispecie. Avendo effettuato tale differenziazione tra le varie ipotesi e affermando che il riferimento dell’art. 2042 cod. civ. all’altra azione non impone la necessaria identità di soggetti fra l’altra azione menzionata in tale articolo (azione, per così dire, principale) e l’azione di arricchimento senza causa, ho ritenuto, quindi, di poter concludere che non si siano ragioni ostative all’esercizio di un’azione per arricchimento indiretto non solamente nelle ipotesi in cui il depauperato non disponga di alcuna altra azione, ma anche nei casi in cui quest’ultima azione si sia rivelata infruttuosa o sia stata rigettata nel merito o nel rito; diversamente invece è opportuno orientarsi nei casi di prescrizione/decadenza dell’azione principale od ostacolo di diritto.
The Indirect enrichment or mediated occur all times a third-part has enriched thanks to a redundant service to his advantage, but performed on the basis of an agreement between the depleted and another person, so-called intermediary, whenever the perpetuator of the service is not able for whatever reason to obtain the compensation from his counterpart for whom he worked. The aim of this thesis was to investigate whether in our legal system all the condition exist, considering the art. 2041 and 2042 of Civ. Cod., to which the law makes the remedy of unjust enrichment. Initially, after highlighting some example where the indirect enrichment occurred, I did an historical overview of the legislation of that action with a particularly carful look to the French one. This introduction, which traces the Italian but also French law, was aimed to highlight that in our system the doubts about the legality of such action have arisen because of the wording of the provisions in the Civil Code. And, specifically, the debate is about two assumptions action: the relationship that must exist between enrichment and impoverishment and subsidiarity action. In the second chapter, after identifying precisely what is meant by the terms enrichment and impoverishment, I checked what was playing the role of the nexus requirement of correlation in admitting or less indirect action for enrichment. I tried, therefore, to highlight clearly what were the essence and structure of the link correlation. In particular, what I wanted to highlight Immediately was the the major theory about the understanding of this requirement are wrong since the beginning due to their limitation in applying the unjust enrichment without the notions developed in the field of tort. Identified the relation as a "fait au juridique large sense" (different from nexus of causality as art. 2043. Civ. Cod.), In which what is important is the simultaneous enrichment and impoverishment, as events to be considered together under the form of a transfer of assets that produces vary inversely with each other, explained that its interpretation should anchor art. 2038 cod. Civil Code. Exposed, then the thesis, also followed by the decision of the Court of Cassation in United Section on October 8, 2008, no. 24772, which, through the extension of the principles contained in that article, allows the possibility to act as ex-art. 2041 cod. Civil Code. even if mediated enrichment without cause if the transfer has taken place against the enriched for free. Therefor I have concluded, through the help of the French doctrine, that there is no reason to deny the enforceability of enrichment even indirect if the transfer to the enriched happened for consideration and even without a title. This solution has eliminated one of the two obstacles of eligibility within the Italian legal system for an action of indirect enrichment and suggested the examination of the other requirement, the one of subsidiarity check to understand the possibility to bring such an action. After identifying the basis of the principle of subsidiarity and having examined the various theories Italian and French highlighting the ambiguities and shortcomings, I found necessary to develop solutions that take into account the different ontological diversity of the various cases. Having made such a distinction between the various hypotheses and saying that reference in Article 2042 Civil Code other action does not impose the necessary identity of subjects in the other action mentioned in that article (the principal action, so to speak) and the action of unjust enrichment, I felt, therefore, to conclude that there were no impediments for the exercise of an action of indirect enrichment not only in cases in which the impoverished do not have any other action, but also in cases where the action has proved to be unsuccessful or has been rejected on the merits or rite, otherwise instead should orientate in cases of limitation/ revocation of the principal or obstruction of law.

This thesis is about attempts to provide a theoretical framework for the law of Restitution, a subject in which there is growing academic and judicial interest. Part I of the thesis considers the concept of "unjust enrichment", which is currently gaining the status of orthodoxy as an explanation of Restitution. The law of Restitution, perceived to be a third category, alongside contract and tort, of the law of obligations, is said to consist of liability rules uniformly explicable as having a purpose of the reversal of unjustly obtained or retained enrichment. As a brief historical survey of Restitution demonstrates, unjust enrichment theory is an a-historical attempt to unify and explain a very diverse range of topics. Part I goes on to consider what unjust enrichment means, specifically by considering the content given to the two most important parts of that concept: "unjustness", and "enrichment" or "benefit". A range of views as to the meaning of both parts are considered. None of these views or approaches, however, satisfactorily allows us to explain liability in many cases. Many cases said to be explicable on the basis of the reversal of unjust enrichment are not in fact so concerned. It is concluded that the concept of unjust enrichment is not useful as an explanation of much of the law of Restitution. In Part II of this thesis, the writer consequently seeks alternative ways of conceptualising Restitution. Rather than conceive of that subject as explicable in terms of one, unifying principle, the writer instead identifies four distinct categories of cases. Each category addresses very different types of problems, and is explicable in terms of distinct ideas. In the first category of cases, (Chapter 6) liability is imposed because of particular conduct of a defendant, where a plaintiff has relied on such conduct to his or her detriment. Liability is imposed on a defendant at least to return the plaintiff to his or her previous position before the offending conduct, and irrespective of whether the defendant has obtained any benefit. In the second category of cases (Chapter 7) liability may arise because parties share a common interest in a matter, which matter is affected by an unprovided for contingency. In such cases, the parties community of interest in the matter justifies the operation of a principle of "just sharing", which principle requires the parties to share gains and losses arising as a result of the contingency, according to their relative contributions to the matter in which they have the common interest. In the third category of cases (Chapter 8) liability may arise where a plaintiff has justifiably intervened in another's affairs, and seeks to recover the costs of such intervention from that other. Social policy concerns appear to be the most important factor in determining in which circumstances such recovery will ensue. In the fourth category of cases (Chapter 9) recovery is sought from an innocent defendant who have received something (money, goods or services) from a plaintiff. The plaintiff will be entitled to recover the money or goods, or obtain some form of remedial relief for the services conferred, where such remedial relief or recovery in no way leaves the innocent defendant at a disadvantage.

La tematica dei contratti di swap, oggetto di profonde riflessioni dottrinali ed al centro di un acceso dibattito in giurisprudenza, si caratterizza per le problematicità connesse alla struttura, alla natura giuridica nonché alla corretta individuazione della sanzione applicabile a seconda della violazione concretamente posta in essere. Il lavoro rappresenta il frutto di un’analisi della giurisprudenza ad oggi dominante la quale sembra, talvolta, abusare tanto del concetto di causa in concreto quanto di quello di meritevolezza degli interessi perseguiti. Ad emergere sembra, dunque, una certa forzatura sistematica, posto che non tutto ciò che risulta sconveniente o in qualche misura viziato può automaticamente risultare invalido o immeritevole di tutela. Sembrerebbe quasi che la giurisprudenza, non potendo procedere alla dichiarazione di nullità direttamente dalla violazione di norme comportamentali, definisca in termini di causa in concreto o di immeritevolezza anomalie che nulla avrebbero a che vedere con esse. Così procedendo, tuttavia, si legittima la proliferazione di una nullità di matrice giurisprudenziale il più delle volte frutto di valutazioni di tipo valoriale. Sussiste infatti, una profonda differenza fra vizio strutturale e quello incidente sul rapporto, posto che nel primo caso il contratto sarà invalido, mentre nel secondo la condotta illegale determina conseguenze di ben altro tipo.

碩士
國立高雄應用科技大學
光電與通訊研究所
96
Low contrast profile images are frequently encountered in medical practice and correct interpretation of these images is of vital importance. We propose a contrast enhancement technique based on singular value decomposition (SVD) to enhance the low contrast fracture X-ray image. The region of interest is manually cropped, then histogram equalization (HE) and singular value selection procedure follows for further image presentation. The spectral property of SVD is exploited and singular value selection technique is developed on the analogy to the Fourier domain technique for high frequency enhancement. Our method can generate extra viewpoints of the target images to supplement the HE processing. The proposed singular value selection technique does not need any arbitrary parameters as for X-ray enhancement in this paper. The performance of our work was justified by ten physicians and presented with Visual Analogue Scale (VAS). The average VAS score improves from 2.5 with HE along to 8.3 by the proposed method. Experimental results indicate that the proposed method has promising result and is helpful in fracture X-ray image processing. We develop a robust, quasi- highpass filter for edge detection in medical images. Our algorithm is kernel-based one similar to conventional edge detectors. The edge detector we proposed has mathematical form of local variance and is adaptive in nature. The mathematical formulation of the detector is exploited and re-expressed as quadratic form of Toeplitz matrix. The detector has highly structured internal architecture with abundant spatial isotropic symmetricity. With our proposed operator, the frequently encountered problems in edge detection such as fragmentation, position dislocation, and thinness loss are greatly diminished. The detector is robust to noise and has excellent ability to extract the important edge features contained in object boundaries. We named this new operator as WL-operator (Wang and Lin). The performance of WL-operator is compared to the other edge detectors and justified with experts using Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) scores. Results for different medical imaging modalities including X-ray, CT, and MRI are promising, with statistical significance demonstrated by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Experimental results indicate that the WL-operator has good performance and is helpful in medical image processing.

Dopo più di quarant’anni di tentativi tesi alla realizzazione di un titolo di protezione brevettuale “comunitario”, nel 2012 sono stati emanati due regolamenti, il n. 1257/2012 e il n. 1260/2012, attuativi di una cooperazione rafforzata tra ventisei Stati membri dell’Unione europea: essi creano un brevetto europeo con effetto unitario e ne disciplinano il regime di traduzione applicabile. L’anno successivo, venticinque Stati membri hanno firmato un accordo istitutivo del Tribunale unificato dei brevetti. I summenzionati strumenti normativi costituiscono il c.d. “pacchetto brevetti”, che entrerà in vigore una volta che almeno tredici Stati membri, tra cui Germania, Francia e Regno Unito, avranno ratificato l’Accordo. Rispetto al panorama attuale, caratterizzato da una frammentazione normativa e giurisdizionale, tale nuova architettura porterà indubbiamente notevoli vantaggi. Da un lato, infatti, i regolamenti europei introducono un “nuovo brevetto” che estende la sua efficacia oltre i confini nazionali; la portata della protezione e gli effetti saranno infatti uniformi in tutto il territorio degli Stati membri partecipanti. Dall’altro, il Tribunale unificato, competente a giudicare quasi tutte le controversie in materia brevettuale, si sostituirà ai giudici nazionali, garantendo l’uniformità della giurisdizione e delle decisioni. Tuttavia, il risultato ottenuto con il “pacchetto brevetti” non sembra essere adeguato agli obiettivi di unitarietà che le istituzioni europee e gli Stati membri si erano prefissati. Si tratta infatti di un quadro normativo complesso, che combina il diritto dell’Unione europea, il diritto internazionale (in particolare l’Accordo sul Tribunale unificato e la Convenzione sul brevetto europeo), e il diritto nazionale degli Stati membri, a cui gli atti citati rinviano in diverse occasioni, e che istituisce due strumenti, il brevetto europeo con effetto unitario e il Tribunale unificato dei brevetti, dalla natura assai controversa. Per tale ragione, la nuova normativa solleva molteplici questioni di natura costituzionale, in ordine alla compatibilità del nuovo sistema con l’ordinamento giuridico dell’Unione europea. Uno dei profili problematici di particolare interesse riguarda la cooperazione rafforzata in tema di tutela brevettuale unitaria, che sembra essere stata instaurata per eludere il dissenso di Italia e Spagna in relazione al regime linguistico applicabile. Inoltre, nei due regolamenti europei manca una vera e propria disciplina sostanziale, sollevando pertanto dei dubbi sull’effettiva “unitarietà” del nuovo brevetto. Infine, alcune caratteristiche del Tribunale unificato, quali la sua particolare struttura, il riparto interno delle competenze, il regime linguistico e la previsione di un periodo transitorio in cui è possibile ancora adire il giudice nazionale, si pongono in contrasto con il fine di unificazione giurisdizionale. A tali considerazioni si aggiunge che la decisione del Regno Unito di uscire dall’Unione europea potrebbe compromettere l’entrata in vigore del “pacchetto brevetti”. Obiettivo del presente lavoro è quello di analizzare in modo organico l’intera disciplina, nell’ottica di verificarne l’effettiva compatibilità con l’ordinamento dell’Unione europea. Solamente attraverso un approccio sistematico fondato sui principi e sugli strumenti dell’UE, si possono superare le attuali criticità che emergono dal “pacchetto brevetti”, nell’ottica di un effettivo miglioramento di tale nuova disciplina e del conseguente raggiungimento di una reale unitarietà nella tutela brevettuale.

Il settore del commercio elettronico è un settore in sempre più ampio e rapido sviluppo. Le motivazioni possono essere molteplici ma sono sicuramente legate al cambiamento dello stile di vita delle persone e alla possibilità di accedere all’acquisto di beni che altrimenti sarebbe stato pressoché impossibile acquistare. La disciplina riguardante questo settore è anch’essa stata elaborata mano a mano che questo settore si è evoluto, per rispondere di volta in volta alle diverse necessità che si sono presentate. La disciplina è tutt’oggi ancora in evoluzione, soprattutto a causa del fatto che in questo settore ci sono molteplici forme contrattuali che vengono utilizzate per creare accordi commerciali dei più vari tipi, e ognuno dei quali prospetta problematiche diverse. In questo lavoro si parte dalla nascita e dallo sviluppo del commercio elettronico per analizzare l’evoluzione della disciplina associata. Dopodiché si analizza il tipo di contratto posto in essere tra la Santoni S.p.A. (noto marchio di calzature di alta gamma) e la Filoblu s.rl. (società veneta che si occupa della creazione e gestione di piattaforme e-commerce) per valutarne i punti cruciali. Dopo aver analizzato in dettaglio gli aspetti sopra citati, viene illustrata la disciplina delle denunce per difetto di conformità del bene e come queste vengono gestite dalla Santoni S.p.A., per passare poi all’analisi delle denunce per difetto di conformità degli ultimi 3 anni. Questo perché, come si noterà, questo è un campo in cui le problematiche sono controverse e gran parte della gestione viene lasciata alle ditte produttrici che si trovano di volta in volta di fronte alla scelta su come gestire il caso per rendere il cliente soddisfatto del servizio. La disciplina segue i suoi sviluppi e cerca di prevenire (per quanto possibile) situazioni sgradevoli sia per il fornitore del bene che per l’acquirente. L’entusiasmo mostrato dagli acquirenti per la comodità e la facilità dell’acquisto on-line, viene molto spesso smorzato dall’impossibilità di vedere e toccare con mano il bene oggetto della transazione, creando un senso di inquietudine legata alla qualità del bene che si sta acquistando. Per questo motivo, nel momento in cui un acquirente denuncia un difetto di conformità sul bene acquistato on-line o semplicemente la sua insoddisfazione su determinati aspetti del bene (colore, calzata, forma, ecc.), si attiva un meccanismo volto a valutare la presenza o meno di un eventuale difetto sul bene e di risolverlo nel modo più soddisfacente per l’acquirente. Dopotutto per un’azienda, gestire un negozio on-line equivale ad avere una vetrina di sé stessa attiva 24 ore su 24 e visibile a chiunque abbia un accesso al mondo di internet, e per questo motivo gestire i clienti che utilizzano questo tipo di servizio significa migliorare o peggiorare, in maniera esponenziale rispetto a quanto può avvenire in un negozio fisico, l’immagine percepita da ogni singolo acquirente. C’è però da dire che, in molti casi registrati, nonostante una perizia tecnica effettuata da operai specializzati sul prodotto venduto, la poca conoscenza dei processi di produzione dei singoli clienti, mette i venditori in situazioni difficili da gestire, in quanto il cliente non riesce a capire che quello che lui percepisce come un difetto in realtà non lo è, e che quindi non è imputabile all’azienda quello che lui crede che lo sia. Generalmente in questi casi, sempre per cercare di limitare degli inevitabili danni d’immagine, si offrono al cliente soluzioni alternative come resi gratuiti, omaggi di piccoli prodotti complementari o buoni sconto su acquisti successivi, ma sarebbe sicuramente necessaria una normativa completa e definitiva, che indichi in maniera risoluta come gestire casistiche particolari che si presentano frequentemente nella fase post-vendita. Viste le innumerevoli problematiche che si riscontrano frequentemente in questo ambito, la normativa a tutt’oggi presente non risulta essere sufficientemente soddisfacente per lo scopo a cui è stata creata. Come detto precedentemente, tutto il meccanismo che viene messo in atto all’interno di ogni azienda dopo una denuncia di difetto di conformità, si innesca per risolvere il problema ed evitare un inevitabile danno d’immagine, quindi si può concludere che, nonostante la presenza di una normativa (anche se ancora in via di sviluppo), l’arma migliore che un consumatore on-line può mettere in atto e che spaventa di più i venditori è sicuramente il danno d’immagine. Una cattiva recensione su un blog, un social network, o semplicemente un racconto di una brutta esperienza derivante da un acquisto on-line, può vanificare tutti gli sforzi fatti dal venditore per raggiungere una buona percezione del proprio marchio, e innestare un meccanismo a catena che non giova all’immagine aziendale.