Tesis sobre el tema "Panthera pardu"

Single-species research dominates the field of ecology; however there is a growing appreciation of the importance of a multi-species approach to holistic conservation. Carnivores exert a top-down control on other species, and are vital components of stable ecosystem functioning. Physiologically adapted for predation upon other animals, competition between carnivores can be particularly aggressive; frequently resulting in mortality, and even population suppression. Big cat research has historically focused on those species that are most easily observable; in particular the lion Panthera leo. The majority of the Felidae however are secretive and elusive, and receive relatively little scientific attention. In particular, there are few data available that measure the effect of direct intraguild interactions between carnivores. Using leopards Panthera pardus as a model species, this research aimed to investigate the impact of lions on the behavioural ecology of a socially subordinate carnivore. Leopards are the most abundant large carnivore in Africa, and have the largest global range of all felids; their ecological niche overlapping with that of both lions and tigers. The knowledge gained from examining their competitive interactions is therefore widely relevant, and may be applicable to other subordinate carnivore species that remain unstudied. Biotelemetry and camera-trap data were modelled using novel algorithms to show that lions impact on leopard population density, demographics and spatial ecology. Faecal analyses suggest that dietary niche segregation may facilitate sympatry. These results indicate the level of impact that large carnivores can exert over smaller species, and the potential for a focus on single-species conservation to undermine holistic conservation. The manifestation of intraguild competition has a significant influence on an animal’s ecology; leopards are generalist species that cope with persecution by adapting their behaviour and niche. Ecological specialists may not fare as well under competitive pressure, and proactive conservation initiatives may be required for endangered species.

Ecology and conservation of tigers Panthera tigris and leopards Panthera pardus are studied in this thesis. The study was carried out between 2008 and 2011 in the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (SWR), a subtropical lowland area in Nepal. Both these large carnivores are sympatric in many parts of their distributional ranges in Asia. Due to poaching, habitat loss and prey depletion, the tiger is already considered an endangered species globally, whereas leopard is nearly threatened. The present study addresses the ecology and conservation of these sympatric carnivores in one densely settled area situated within the Terai Arc Landscape of Nepal, where the tiger population recently declined by about sixty percent within a decade long period. Because carnivore ecology is largely governed by their prey, understanding the feeding ecology and behavioural flexibility of felids in prey selection is essential to address their conservation requirements. The prey selection by the two carnivores were quantified by scat analysis and the distance sampling line transect method in an area of about 250 km2. Results obtained from camera trapping were used to quantify the activity patterns as well as the status and spatial behaviour of the tigers and leopards. In addition, non- invasive genetic analysis of their scats were made to identify the minimum number of tigers and leopards in SWR. For the genetics part, the Karnali floodplain area (ca. 100km2) of Bardia National Park (BNP) located 150 km further east was also included. On average, 131 and 175 individual prey animals per km2 were estimated during the dry seasons of 2010 and 2011, respectively. Of these, 62-63% was wild prey and 38% were domestic animals. Individually, swamp deer was the most abundant wild prey, followed by chital, rhesus, langur, hog deer, wild boar, nilgai and muntjac in 2010. However, in 2011 chital was the most abundant among wild prey, followed by swamp deer, rhesus, hog deer, langur, wild boar, muntjac and nilgai. The analysis of 194 tiger and 42 leopard scats showed the occurrence of 12 and 14 prey species, respectively. Tiger and leopard diets were composed of a large quantity of wild ungulates (77% for tigers and 51% for leopards). The relative occurrences of prey items (wild ungulates) in the diet differed significantly between tiger and leopard (G=11.12; df=1, p<0.001). Medium sized prey species, such as chital were most common in the tiger diet, whereas small species showed up most frequently in the leopard diet, followed by medium sized species. Tigers consumed more large prey than the leopards did. The niche overlap values indicated a great dietary overlap of tiger than leopard. Camera trapping data showed that both tigers and leopards were photo-captured more frequently at night than during the day thus indicating that both have a nocturnal activity, however, tigers were found to have more diurnal activity than leopards. Variances in time use, temporally or spatially, have been recognized as behavioural characteristics that may motivate coexistence. In general, between 11AM- 5PM leopards were less active than tigers, probably to avoid the hottest period of the day, and because of a preference for the small sized prey that are most active during dusk and dawn. Concentration within certain areas and limited diurnal activity of leopards indicated the existence of temporal niche segregation between these cats. Camera trapping identified 11 individual tigers (six males and five females) and 9 leopards (five males and four females) in SWR. The genetic analysis identified only 5 tigers and 4 leopards from SWR, and 6 tigers from the Karnali floodplain of BNP. Population density of tigers in SWR was estimated at between 1.8 and 2.9/100 km2, while that for leopards was estimated at between 1.8 and 2.6/100 km2 during the study period. From 9 tigers in SWR. I calculated an average home range (HR) of 36.6 km2, with male HR (43.3 km2) being 1.45 times larger on average than those of females (29.9 km2). Among leopards (n=7) an average HR of 17.9 km2, was recorded, with males HRs (26.6 km2) 2.86 times larger than those of females (9.3 km2). The HRs of all male tigers overlapped each other at least partially and almost completely in some cases. HRs of male tigers overlapped more than those of female tigers, and male HRs overlapped with more than one individual female. Leopard HRs tended to overlap less than those of tigers, with values ranging up to 7 km2 for females to 2-24 km2 for males (overall mean 8.83 km2). As displayed by the tiger, male leopard HRs tended to overlap with those of several females. The data suggested that even though there was 12 to 18 % median overlap between tiger and leopard HRs, there was a clear spatial separation between them. Leopards were more restricted to the periphery of the reserve, while tigers occupied the core or mostly undisturbed areas of the reserve. This research provides the first set of data on tigers, leopards and their prey in SWR, Nepal during the dry season. However, immediate needs for further research on wildlife disease, especially focused on large carnivores, and human-disturbance in the reserve including prey availability in the eastern selection of the reserve area, an issue which was not included in this study. Furthermore research is needed on predator-prey relation with the inclusion of trans-boundary wildlife corridor utilization and the link between the smaller protected areas in the trans-border level.

The Persian leopard is the largest cat in west Asia, and is considered to be endangered - poaching and habitat degradation are thought to be responsible. The rugged mountains and high altitudes it favours present considerable challenges for scientists, and it is consequently one of the least known subspecies. I have addressed this through exploring the subspecies' fundamental ecology across three national parks in northeastern Iran. I used satellite telemetry, camera trapping, genetic analysis and questionnaire surveys. The perceived role of leopards in livestock depredation was negligible compared to that of wolves. This was associated with relative tolerance of leopards compared with wolves; but the economic loss associated with predator damage did appear to influence peoples' attitudes. I also estimated a mean home range of 103.4 ± SE 51.8 km2 for resident males which is larger than what has been observed in other studies on Asian leopard. Five out of six of leopards spent 17.9% of their time outside the national park, among human communities. The kill rate was quantified as 3.7 ± SE 0.5 medium-sized prey/month per leopard, which is higher than reported by previous studies. Surprisingly, considering the subspecies' reported low density based on previous studies, I found relatively high population densities, varying between 4.01 ± SE 1.98 and 8.02 ± SE 2.67 individuals/100 km². The number of adult leopards detected in Tandoureh (30 individuals) was larger than identified during comparable surveys at any other site globally. Persian leopards exhibited moderately high genetic diversity at six microsatellites (A_N = 7.45, H_O = 0.69, H_E =0.75) and low haplotype diversity (Hd = 0.198) across three closely related haplotypes in NADH-5 gene. There was a weak evidence of spatial population partitioning. My research findings highlight the key role of mountainous ecosystems as refugia in supporting a high density of apex predators. Although land sharing is an inevitable solution for coexistence across Asian crowded montane landscapes, sparing mountains with improved law enforcement is encouraged for large cat conservation in Asian mountains. Finally, my thesis raises new hope for leopard viability as well as highlights the potential capacity of the Kopet Dag Ecoregion as a significant conservation unit for leopards.

Genetic variation is crucial for the long-term survival of the species as it provides the potential for adaptive responses to environmental changes such as emerging diseases. The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a gene family that plays a central role in the vertebrate’s immune system by triggering the adaptive immune response after exposure to pathogens. MHC genes have become highly suitable molecular markers of adaptive significance. They synthesize two primary cell surface molecules namely MHC class I and class II that recognize short fragments of proteins derived respectively from intracellular (e.g. viruses) and extracellular (e.g. bacteria, protozoa, arthropods) origins and present them to immune cells. High levels of MHC polymorphism frequently observed in natural populations are interpreted as an adaptation to detect and present a wide array of rapidly evolving pathogens. This variation appears to be largely maintained by positive selection driven mainly by pathogenic selective pressures. For my doctoral research I focused on MHC I and II variation in free-ranging cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and leopards (Panthera pardus) on Namibian farmlands. Both felid species are sympatric thus subject to similar pathogenic pressures but differ in their evolutionary and demographic histories. The main aims were to investigate 1) the extent and patterns of MHC variation at the population level in both felids, 2) the association between levels of MHC variation and disease resistance in free-ranging cheetahs, and 3) the role of selection at different time scales in shaping MHC variation in both felids. Cheetahs and leopards represent the largest free-ranging carnivores in Namibia. They concentrate in unprotected areas on privately owned farmlands where domestic and other wild animals also occur and the risk of pathogen transmission is increased. Thus, knowledge on adaptive genetic variation involved in disease resistance may be pertinent to both felid species’ conservation. The cheetah has been used as a classic example in conservation genetics textbooks due to overall low levels of genetic variation. Reduced variation at MHC genes has been associated with high susceptibility to infectious diseases in cheetahs. However, increased disease susceptibility has only been observed in captive cheetahs whereas recent studies in free-ranging Namibian cheetahs revealed a good health status. This raised the question whether the diversity at MHC I and II genes in free-ranging cheetahs is higher than previously reported. In this study, a total of 10 MHC I alleles and four MHC II alleles were observed in 149 individuals throughout Namibia. All alleles but one likely belong to functional MHC genes as their expression was confirmed. The observed alleles belong to four MHC I and three MHC II genes in the species as revealed by phylogenetic analyses. Signatures of historical positive selection acting on specific sites that interact directly with pathogen-derived proteins were detected in both MHC classes. Furthermore, a high genetic differentiation at MHC I was observed between Namibian cheetahs from east-central and north-central regions known to differ substantially in exposure to feline-specific viral pathogens. This suggests that the patterns of MHC I variation in the current population mirrors different pathogenic selective pressure imposed by viruses. Cheetahs showed low levels of MHC diversity compared with other mammalian species including felids, but this does not seem to influence the current immunocompetence of free-ranging cheetahs in Namibia and contradicts the previous conclusion that the cheetah is a paradigm species of disease susceptibility. However, it cannot be ruled out that the low MHC variation might limit a prosperous immunocompetence in the case of an emerging disease scenario because none of the remaining alleles might be able to recognize a novel pathogen. In contrast to cheetahs, leopards occur in most parts of Africa being perhaps the most abundant big cat in the continent. Leopards seem to have escaped from large-scale declines due to epizootics in the past in contrast to some free-ranging large carnivore populations in Africa that have been afflicted by epizootics. Currently, no information about the MHC sequence variation and constitution in African leopards exists. In this study, I characterized genetic variation at MHC I and MHC II genes in free-ranging leopards from Namibia. A total of six MHC I and six MHC II sequences were detected in 25 individuals from the east-central region. The maximum number of sequences observed per individual suggests that they likely correspond to at least three MHC I and three MHC II genes. Hallmarks of MHC evolution were confirmed such as historical positive selection, recombination and trans-species polymorphism. The low MHC variation detected in Namibian leopards is not conclusive and further research is required to assess the extent of MHC variation in different areas of its geographic range. Results from this thesis will contribute to better understanding the evolutionary significance of MHC and conservation implications in free-ranging felids. Translocation of wildlife is an increasingly used management tool for conservation purposes that should be conducted carefully as it may affect the ability of the translocated animals to cope with different pathogenic selective pressures.
Genetische Variabilität ist entscheidend für das langfristige Überleben von Arten, denn es ermöglicht dem Organismus sich Umweltveränderungen, wie z.B. neu aufkommende Krankheiten, schneller anzupassen. Der Haupthistocompatibilitätskomplex (MHC) ist eine Familie von Genen, der eine zentrale Rolle im Immunsystem von Wirbeltieren zukommt, da sie nach Pathogenkontakt das adaptive Immunsystem aktivieren. Zudem sind MHC Gene geeignete molekulare Marker um Anpassungsfähigkeiten aufzuzeigen. MHC Gene kodieren primär für Zelloberflächenmoleküle, die kurze Peptidfragmente erkennen und den Immunzellen präsentieren, die im Falle der Klasse I Gene intrazellulären (z.B. von Viren) oder im Falle der Klasse II Gene extrazellulären (z.B. von Bakterien, Protozoen, Arthropoden) Ursprungs sein können. In der Regel wird in natürlich vorkommenden Populationen ein hoher Grad an Polymorphismus im MHC beobachtet, was als Anpassung an das Erkennen und Präsentieren einer großen Anzahl sich schnell entwickelnder Pathogene interpretiert wird. Das Bestehen vieler MHC Varianten über große Zeiträume hinweg wird hauptsächlich durch positive Selektion bewirkt, der ein pathogengetriebener Selektionsdruck zugrunde liegt. In meiner Doktorarbeit habe ich mich mit der Variation von MHC I and MHC II in freilebenden Geparden (Acinonyx jubatus) und Leoparden (Panthera pardus) in Farmgebieten innerhalb Namibias beschäftigt. Beide Felidenarten leben sympatrisch und sind so demselben Pathogendruck ausgesetzt, sie unterscheiden sich allerdings in ihrem evolutionären und demographischen Hintergrund. Mein Hauptziel war es 1) das Ausmaß und Muster der MHC Variation auf Populationsebene beider Feliden zu untersuchen; 2) einen möglichen Zusammenhang zwischen dem Grad der MHC Variation und der Krankheitsresistenz in frei lebenden Geparden aufzudecken und 3) zu untersuchen, welche Rolle der Selektion auf die MHC Variabilität beider Arten in der Vergangenheit wie auch gegenwärtig zukommt. Geparden und Leoparden repräsentieren die größten frei lebenden Carnivoren Namibias. Beide Arten kommen hauptsächlich in Farmgebieten vor, die sich in Privatbesitz befinden, und können dort mit anderen Wild- aber auch Haustieren zusammentreffen und potentiell Krankheitserreger austauschen. Die Kenntnis über die adaptive genetische Variation, die für Krankheitsresistenzen mitverantwortlich ist, kann für den Schutz beider Felidenarten von Bedeutung sein. Geparden werden häufig in Lehrbüchern als klassische Beispiele für eine Tierart mit einer generell geringen genetischen Diversität verwendet. Neben neutralen Markern ist bei Geparden auch eine geringe Variabilität der MHC Gene beschrieben worden, die als Ursache einer hohen Anfälligkeit für infektiöse Krankheiten gesehen wird. Bisher wurde allerdings eine erhöhte Krankheitsanfälligkeit nur bei Geparden aus Gefangenschaft beschrieben, wohingegen neuste Studien an frei lebenden Geparden diesen einen guten Gesundheitsstatus attestierten. Dadurch stellt sich die Frage, ob die MHC I und II Diversität in frei lebenden Geparden nicht höher sein könnte als bisher angenommen. In dieser Arbeit konnten insgesamt 10 MHC I und vier MHC II Allele in 149 frei lebenden Geparden aus ganz Namibia nachgewiesen werden. Die Zugehörigkeit zu funktionellen MHC Genen wurde durch Expressionsanalysen bei allen Allelen, außer einem, bestätigt. Durch phylogenetische Analysen konnten die Allele vier MHC I und drei MHC II Genen zu geordnet werden. Das Wirken von positiver Selektion in der Vergangenheit konnte an spezifischen Aminosäuren des Proteins, die in direktem Kontakt zu den pathogenen Antigenen stehen, festgestellt werden. Dies traf für beide MHC Klassen zu. Des Weiteren konnte eine starke genetische Differenzierung des MHC I zwischen Geparden aus einer nord-zentralen und einer ost-zentralen Region festgestellt werden, von denen auch bekannt ist, dass sie unterschiedlichen, felidenspezifischen, viralen Pathogenen ausgesetzt sind. Das lässt vermuten, dass die unterschiedlichen Muster der MHC I Variation in der gegenwärtigen Population den unterschiedlichen pathogengetriebenen Selektionsdruck durch Viren in den beiden Regionen widerspiegelt. Verglichen mit anderen Säugetierarten, insbesondere andere Feliden, zeigen Geparden einen geringen Grad an MHC Diversität, doch das scheint die derzeitige Immunkompetenz frei lebender Geparden in Namibia nicht einzuschränken und widerspricht der bisherigen Meinung dass Geparden ein typisches Beispiel für eine krankheitsanfällige Tierart sind. Es kann allerdings nicht ausgeschlossen werden, dass bei neu auftauchenden Krankheiten die geringe MHC Variation eine erfolgreiche Immunkompetenz verhindert, da möglicherweise keines der gegenwärtigen Allele die Fähigkeit besitzt neue Pathogene zu erkennen. Im Gegensatz zu Geparden kommen Leoparden in allen Teilen Afrikas vor und sind wahrscheinlich die am weitverbreiteste Großkatze des afrikanischen Kontinents. Es scheint, dass Leoparden, im Gegensatz zu anderen afrikanischen Großkatzen, einer ausgedehnten Dezimierung durch Tierseuchen in der Vergangenheit, der einige Populationen afrikanischer Großkatzen ausgesetzt waren, entkommen sind. Bisher fehlten Information über die MHC Variabilität in afrikanischen Leoparden. In dieser Studie konnte ich die genetische Variation der MHC I und MHC II Gene frei lebender namibischer Leoparden charakterisieren. In 25 Tieren aus einer Population der ost-zentralen Region konnten sechs MHC I sowie sechs MHC II Sequenzen nachgewiesen werden. Aus der maximalen Anzahl Allele pro Tier kann auf drei MHC I und auf drei MHC II Gene geschlossen werden. Außerdem konnten die typischen Kennzeichen einer variationserhaltenden MHC Evolution betätigt werden, wie positive Selektion in der Vergangenheit, Rekombination und über Artgrenzen hinaus bestehender Polymorphismus. Der geringe Grad an MHC Variation in namibischen Leoparden ist jedoch noch nicht endgültig und weitere Untersuchungen in unterschiedlichen Regionen aus der gesamten geographischen Verbreitung des Leoparden sind notwendig um die MHC Variation der Leoparden in Gänze einschätzen zu können. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit werden zu einem besseren Verständnis des evolutionären Stellenwerts des MHC und in Folge zu einem besseren Schutz von frei lebenden Feliden beitragen. Die Umsiedelung von Wildtieren ist ein zunehmend angewendetes Hilfsmittel im Natur- und Artenschutz, welches jedoch mit Sorgfalt eingesetzt werden sollte, da die umgesiedelten Tiere möglicherweise einem anderen pathogenen Selektionsdruck ausgesetzt sind, dem sie nichts entgegenzusetzen haben.

The trophy hunting of African leopards Panthera pardus pardus may generate revenue to help foster their conservation. However, leopards are sensitive to hunting and populations decline if overharvested. The practice therefore requires careful management grounded in robust estimates of population density/status. Camera-trap surveys are commonly used to establish leopard numbers, and may guide harvest quotas. However, such surveys are limited over wide spatial scales and many African governments lack resources to implement them. In this thesis I explore the potential use of a harvest composition scheme applied to puma Puma concolor in North America, to monitor leopards. The method hinges on the susceptibility of different leopard cohorts to hunting and if this varies, then predictions can be made about harvest composition. Susceptibility is likely to be governed by space use, encounter rates with bait lures (a common method used to attract leopards to hunting hides) and hunter selectivity. Thus in this thesis I explore leopard susceptibility to these factors using a protected leopard population in northern Zululand, South Africa. In my first chapter I examine using scent lures in camera-trapping. Against a backdrop of a passive survey I show adult males, females and sub-adults are captured at similar rates compared to a passive survey using lures. The use of lures does not appear to violate closure assumptions or affect spatio-temporal patterning, but their use appears limited as density estimate precision is not improved. My second chapter examines ecological (likelihood of encountering a hunter) and anthropogenic (attractiveness to hunters) susceptibility of leopards to trophy hunting. I show that adult males are the most susceptible cohort to hunting (sub-adults least susceptible). I then take the incident rates from ecological and anthropogenic models and create a theoretical harvest composition using population parameters of protected leopards. My third data chapter departs from hunting susceptibility and examines determinants of leopard trophy package price across Africa. I show that factors such as trophy quality, outfitter leopard hunting reputation and hunt success have little impact on price determination. Instead, overall outfitter reputation and the number of charismatic species in a package are positively correlated with price. These results have important consequences on several sustainable leopard hunting schemes proposed in the literature.

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the most common large predators, free roaming outside of protected areas across most of South Africa. Leopard persistence is attributed to their tolerance of rugged terrain that is subject to less development pressure, as well as their cryptic behaviour. Nevertheless, existing leopard populations are threatened indirectly by ongoing transformation of natural habitat and directly through hunting and conflict with livestock farmers. Together these threats may further isolate leopards to fragmented areas of core natural habitat. I studied leopard habitat preferences, population density, diet and the attitudes of landowners towards leopards in the Little Karoo, Western Cape, South Africa, an area of mixed land-use that contains elements of three overlapping global biodiversity hotspots. Data were gathered between 2010 and 2012 using camera traps set up at 141 sites over an area of ~3100km², GPS tracking collars fitted to three male leopards, scat samples (n=76), interviews with landowners (n=53) analysed in combination with geographical information system (GIS) layers. My results reveal that leopards preferred rugged, mountainous terrain of intermediate elevation, avoiding low-lying, open areas where human disturbance was generally greater. Despite relatively un-fragmented habitat within my study area, the leopard population density (0.75 leopards/100km²) was one of the lowest yet recorded in South Africa. This may reflect low prey densities in mountain refuges in addition to historical human persecution in the area. Currently local landowners are more tolerant of leopards than other wildlife species with incidents of conflict involving leopards being rare relative to black-backed jackals (Canis mesomelas), baboons (Papio hamadryas), caracals (Caracal caracal) and porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis). Although current levels of conflict between leopards and stock farmers are low, leopards do depredate livestock, which constitute 10-15% of their diet. Improved livestock husbandry measures and co-operation between conservation authorities and farmers are necessary to mitigate such conflict and balance economic security with biodiversity conservation in the region. Leopards are the only remaining top predators throughout much of the Little Karoo and the Western Cape and as such are predicted to play a critical role in ecosystem structure and the survival of other species. Current high levels of connectivity between areas of suitable leopard habitat bode well for the conservation status of leopards within this region and future conservation efforts need to ensure that narrow corridors linking such habitat are preserved. The potential for leopards to serve as both an umbrella and a flagship species for biodiversity conservation suggests that long term monitoring of this population would be a conservation priority for the Little Karoo.

As limited prey availability and persecution by humans in response to livestock predation are key conservation concerns for the Cape leopard (Martins & Martins 2006), the present study aimed to provide more information regarding their feeding habits. The first objective was to determine whether the Cape leopard was subject to a change in their prey base and how they responded to the change. This was established by comparison of their current diet in the Cederberg and Gamka Mountains, determined by using scat analysis techniques, with a previous dietary assessment (Norton et al. 1986). The second aim was to provide a preliminary assessment of the prey preference of the Cape leopard and examine the utility of camera trap surveys to determine leopard prey preference. Leopard diet in the Cederberg and Gamka Mountains consisted largely of small- (1-10 kg) and medium-sized (10-40 kg) mammals; rock hyraxes (Procavia capensis) and klipspringers (Oreotragus oreotragus) were key prey items. In terms of regional variation in leopard diet, there was a significant difference in the average weight of prey utilized in the Cederberg and Gamka Mountains. Despite the importance of prey availability of suitable size, their flexibility in terms of prey size utilization reflected their ability to switch to smaller prey to fulfil their dietary requirements, when prey is limited. The study suggested a dietary shift, with significant variation in prey species utilization in both regions. The shift did not appear to be in response to prey scarcity, but rather a reduction in key prey species, particularly the rock hyrax. The shift involved an increase in the number of species utilized, and only a very small increase in livestock predation in both areas. There was however no significant variation in prey size category utilization. This demonstrated their dietary flexibility, as well as the importance of suitable prey sizes rather than the presence of specific prey species to fulfil their dietary requirements. The camera trap survey revealed a strong correlation between the number of camera trap days and the number of photographs taken of identifiable species. Variation of this correlation between different habitats supported the notion that individual images are a better unit to determine sampling efficiency than trap days. The camera trap survey also showed that small rodent availability was underestimated by camera trap surveillance, which resulted in poor prey preference estimation. It was therefore suggested that camera trap surveys be restricted to the surveillance of larger prey species (> 1 kg). By excluding small rodents from the analysis, prey preference could be estimated for other species and prey size categories. Small- and medium-sized mammals were significantly preferred, whereas large mammals were significantly avoided by the Cape leopard.

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CAPES
O estudo da abundância, a atividade e o uso de habitat da onça-pintada e da onça-parda na região da Amazônia não tem sido amplo como acontece em outros biomas devido a fatores como a acessibilidade, as condições climáticas e ambientais, o que dificulta o desenvolvimento de pesquisas e assim ter uma visão mais abrangente de como as atividades humanas impactam estes aspectos biológicos destes predadores topo. Realizou-se uma pesquisa no assentamento Entre Rios (área antrópica) e na Reserva Biológica Uatumã (unidade de conservação) ao norte do rio Amazonas utilizando armadilhamento fotográfico visando levantar informação sobre a abundância da onça-pintada (Panthera onca), da onça-parda (Puma concolor), seus padrões de atividade e o uso que fazem do habitat. Durante 69 dias em Entre Rios e 76 dias na REBIO Uatumã registrou-se a presença da onça-pintada nas duas áreas e a presença da onça-parda só para a REBIO Uatumã. A abundância das onças foi mais alta na REBIO Uatumã no que em Entre rios. A onça-pintada em Entre rios esteve ativa no período diurno e na REBIO Uatumã esteve ativa nos períodos noturno e crepuscular-diurno, enquanto que a onça-parda esteve ativa ao longo do dia. A onça-pintada em Entre rios quanto na REBIO Uatumã ocorreu com maior frequência na baixada e a onça-parda na REBIO Uatumã no platô e na vertente, zonas montanhosas não alagáveis de pouca elevação. Os resultados aqui obtidos mostraram que a abundancia da onça-pintada e da onça-parda neste estudo foi uma das maiores já registradas na Amazônia, que seus ritmos de atividade esse sobrepuseram temporalmente e que houve segregação espacial como uma forma de evitar competição.

Many large carnivores are declining globally; most threatened or risk extinction due to a loss of habitat, resources, and direct removal; often the later as a result of conflict with humans. Although leopards and many meso-carnivore species are still free roaming in South Africa, few data are available on these species outside large protected areas as they are often elusive, wide ranging and found at low densities. More data are needed on the population dynamics, ecology and biology of species such as leopard, if we are to implement evidence-based approaches to their conservation within small reserves and surrounding unprotected areas. Camera traps are being increasingly utilized in research, as they can record data on a species or a whole community at relatively low cost. Here we used a network of camera traps to monitor species presence at Thaba Tholo Wilderness Reserve, Mpumalanga, South Africa. We found that camera trap efficacy varied between species, with smaller carnivores significantly under-recorded more frequently than larger predators. However, leopards were successfully captured by camera trap when compared with more traditional monitoring methods (i.e. spoor). Small reserves may play an important role in the conservation of carnivores, but often these reserves are surrounded by farmland and the successful separation of livestock and game using a fence can affect vegetation composition, fragmenting the land further. However, these effects may be limited by the free movement of wild browsers and grazers through holes in the fence which may also decrease the negative effects of fencing while supporting endangered and highly mobile species such as the leopard Panthera pardus. Leopard densities were found to be 3.04 (S.E. +/-1.55) to 4.97 (S.E. +/-2.14) leopards per 100km2, which was lower than other estimates from South Africa, however the population was stable throughout the study suggesting the reserve was a source for leopard and offspring were dispersing. Although there was no evidence of habitat preference by the leopard, habitat was found to be more significant in influencing relative local abundances of meso-carnivores than potential associations with leopard and other larger carnivores. However abundance may have been affected by factors outside the reserve as conflict with humans was evident. Negative actions towards leopard and other carnivores in retaliation to the predation of animal stock occurred in the farmland surrounding the study site, with a significantly higher percentage of commercial game farmers responding that they would take action against one or more species of carnivore compared to livestock owners. The financial loss sustained with increasing game prices in South Africa could therefore increase the conflict between humans and carnivores across the country, which in turn could have detrimental effects on local leopard and other carnivore populations. The relatively high numbers of the extremely rare erythristic leopard occurring within the relatively low density leopard population is likely to be the result of genetic drift, which may have been a result of this conflict; highlighting that although small reserves may play an important role in the protection and propagation of threatened species it is human acceptance of carnivores which is likely to be vital in the successful conservation and long term survival of predators outside protected areas.

Tanzania’s Ruaha landscape is an international priority area for large carnivore conservation, harbouring roughly 10% of the world’s lions, and important populations of leopards and spotted hyaenas. However, these large carnivore populations are threatened by intense retaliatory killing due to human-carnivore conflict on village land around Ruaha National Park (RNP), mostly as a result of livestock predation by lions, leopards and spotted hyaenas. Moreover, a current lack of ecological data on the distribution of these carnivores hinders the development of effective strategies for conservation and targeted conflict mitigation in this landscape. This study aimed to identify the most significant ecogeographical variables (EGVs) influencing the distribution of lions, leopards and spotted hyaenas across the Ruaha landscape, and to map areas of conservation importance for these species. In addition, the study assessed the influence of EGVs on livestock predation risk by these carnivores in the village land around RNP, and generated a predictive map of predation risk. The relative importance of livestock husbandry practices and EGVs in terms of influencing predation risk within enclosures was also investigated. Proximity to rivers was the most important variable influencing the distribution of large carnivores in Ruaha, and contributed to predation risk of grazing livestock. The traditional livestock husbandry adopted in bomas appeared insufficient to alleviate the inherent risk of predation by large carnivores. The study produced the first detailed maps of lion, leopard and spotted hyaena distribution in the critically important Ruaha landscape, and identified likely livestock depredation hotspots. These results will target conflict mitigation approaches around Ruaha, by identifying particularly high-risk areas for livestock enclosures and grazing stock. Improving husbandry in these areas could help reduce livestock depredation and retaliatory carnivore killing, therefore reducing one of the most significant conservation threats in this critically important landscape.

Leopards (Panthera pardus) are faced with increasing levels of anthropogenic pressure resulting in population declines across much of their historical range. While there is relatively limited knowledge of leopards occurring in African rain forests, their abundance and distribution is assumed to be impacted by a combination of several anthropogenic factors, most notably loss of prey and habitat conversion. In this study I used a long-term camera trap array that forms part of the Tropical Ecology, Assessment and Monitoring (TEAM) project - Terrestrial Vertebrate (Camera Trapping) Monitoring Protocol, to estimate the species richness of mammals, the relative abundance of leopard prey species and leopard habitat use in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park (NNNP) in the Republic of Congo. I investigated the impact of different environmental and anthropogenic factors on leopard occurrence at two camera trap arrays (a northern and southern cluster) within the NNNP using occupancy modelling. While there were no significant differences in mammalian species richness between the two clusters there was a higher relative abundance of the preferred prey species of leopards in the northern cluster. A total of 106 leopard photographic events were recorded across all camera traps and all survey years. The top occupancy model produced an average probability of site use (ψ) over all sites of 0.52 ± 0.14 (SE). The covariate specific β-coefficient estimate suggests that leopard occurrence and detectability were positively correlated with both the relative abundance of the blue duiker (Philantomba monticola) and the distance to the nearest river (β =0.062 ± SE 0.053 and 6.55 ± SE 10.84, respectively). Therefore there was no support for the prediction that the probability of leopard habitat use increases with a higher relative abundance of all potential prey species, nor was there support for the prediction that leopard habitat use would be higher further away from human settlements (β =3.42 ± SE 2.94). 2 Leopard habitat use was higher in the southern cluster which may be linked to the denser understory that would provide greater cover which is important for improved hunting success in leopards. Together, these results suggest that both the prey species and leopards appear to be thriving within the NNNP with limited evidence of anthropogenic impacts despite an increase in commercial logging and the itinerant bushmeat hunting in the peripheral area. It would be worth expanding the existing camera trap arrays to cover a greater spatial extent within NNNP and hence allow for a more detailed analysis of edge effects and to detect the potential impacts of anthropogenic activities which are predicted to increase in selected villages in the periphery of the park.

The thesis investigates the socio-ecological factors driving human-leopard conflict due to livestock and game depredation in the Blouberg Mountain Range, South Africa. Local people’s perceptions of conservation are shaped by historical and contemporary relationships with protected areas and particularly, by conflicts of land and natural resource use. Legacies of disempowerment, marginalisation and stigmatisation manifest through people’s conservation discourses, social conflict and resistance towards protected area establishment, a process defined as traumatic nature. Traumatic nature elevates distrust of local people towards wildlife authorities and decreases support for wildlife conservation, aggravating human-leopard conflicts. Leopard predation on livestock and game is most strongly influenced by distance to village and distance to water, respectively, in addition to seasonal grazing patterns, the calving season and poor livestock husbandry practices. Livestock depredation represents significant economic costs for subsistence communal farmers’, which is exacerbated by the erosion of traditional cattle sharing systems and a lack of alternative livelihood strategies. Livestock depredation results in the loss of functional and material benefits, social capital, a spiritual resource, diminished wellbeing and perceived cultural decay. Camera trap results showed a lower leopard density of 0.7 leopards per 100km2 on commercial farms compared to the Blouberg Nature Reserve of 5.4 leopards per 100km2. Commercial farms may function as ecological traps because they represent areas with disproportionate leopard mortality that otherwise provide a high abundance of prey species for leopards. A male-biased sex ratio and a high number of sub-adult male leopards indicate high leopard mortality rates in the population. Camera trap results show low occupancy rates on communal land that may reflect a low large prey biomass, potentially caused by overhunting and habitat conversion. Farming communities ascribe a wide range of environmental values to the leopard that provide barriers and support for leopard conservation. Environmental institutions need to improve responses to reports of human-leopard conflicts and build trust and legitimacy in the eyes of local people by developing stronger working relationships with farming communities. The decentralisation of authority to local government actors to manage human-leopard conflicts and the devolution of responsibility to farmers to improve livestock husbandry practices is necessary to reduce depredation incidents. Incentive and education schemes are important for reducing lethal control measures and to improve tolerance of depredation incidents and leopard conservation.

Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris) can be viewed as a proxy for intact and healthy ecosystems. Their wild populations have plummeted to fewer than 3,200 individuals in the last four decades and threats to these apex predators are mounting rather than diminishing. Global conservation bodies (Global Tiger Initiative, World Wildlife Fund, Wildlife Conservation Society, Panthera etc.) have recently called for solidarity and scaling up of conservation efforts to save tigers from extinction. In South Asia, tiger habitat ranges from tropical evergreen forests, dry arid regions and sub-tropical alluvial floodplains, to temperate mixed deciduous forest. The churia habitat is relatively unstudied and is considered a young and geologically fragile mountain range in Nepal. The contribution of the churia habitat to tiger conservation has not been considered, since modern conservation started in 1970s. This study focuses on the ecology of the tiger with respect to population density, habitat use, and prey occupancy and density, in the churia habitat of Chitwan National Park. This study also includes the first assessment of genetic diversity, genetic structure, and gene flow of tigers across the Terai Arc Landscape- Nepal. The Terai Arc Landscape harbors the only remaining tiger population found across the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal and northwest India. I used a combination of camera-trapping techniques, which have been a popular and robust method for monitoring tiger populations across the landscape, combined with a noninvasive genetic approach to gain information on tigers, thus adding new information relevant to global tiger conservation. I investigated tiger, leopard (Panthera pardus fusca), and prey densities, and predicted the tiger density across the Churia habitat in Chitwan National Park. I used a camera-trap grid with 161 locations accumulating 2,097 trap-nights in a 60 day survey period during the winter season of 2010-2011. Additionally, I used distance sampling techniques for estimating prey density in the churia habitat by walking 136 km over 81 different line transects. The team photographed 31 individual tigers and 28 individual leopards along with 25 mammalian species from a sampling area of 536 km2 comprising Churia and surrounding areas. Density estimates of tigers and leopards were 2.2 (SE 0.42) tigers and 4.0 (SE 1.00) leopards per 100 km2. Prey density was estimated at 62.7 prey animals per 100 km2 with contributions from forest ungulates to be 47% (sambar Rusa unicolor, chital Axis axis, barking deer Muntiacus muntjak, and wild pigs Sus scrofa). Churia habitat within Chitwan National Park is capable of supporting 5.86 tigers per 100 km2 based on applying models developed to predict tiger density from prey density. My density estimates from camera-traps are lower than that predicted based on prey availability, which indicates that the tiger population may be below the carrying capacity. Nonetheless, the churia habitat supports 9 to 36 tigers, increasing estimates of current population size in Chitwan National Park. Based on my finding, the Churia habitat should no longer remain ignored because it has great potential to harbor tigers. Conservation efforts should focus on reducing human disturbance to boost prey populations to potentially support higher predator numbers in Churia. I used sign surveys within a rigorous occupancy framework to estimate probability of occupancy for 5 focal prey species of the tiger (gaur Bos gaurus, sambar, chital, wild pig, and barking deer); as well as probability of tiger habitat use within 537 km2 of churia habitat in Chitwan National Park. Multi-season, auto-correlation models allowed me to make seasonal (winter versus summer) inferences regarding changes in occupancy or habitat use based on covariates influencing occupancy and detection. Sambar had the greatest spatial distribution across both seasons, occupying 431-437 km2 of the churia habitat, while chital had the lowest distribution, occupying only 100-158 km2. The gaur population showed the most seasonal variation from 318- 413 km2 of area occupied, with changes in occupancy suggesting their migration out of the lowland areas in the summer and into the churia in the winter. Wild pigs showed the opposite, moving into the churia in the summer (444 km2 area occupied) and having lower occupancy in the winter (383 km2). Barking deer were widespread in both seasons (329 - 349 km2). Tiger probability of habitat use ' ' SE(' ') was only slightly higher in winter 0.63 (SE 0.11) than in summer 0.54 (SE 0.21), but confidence intervals overlapped and area used was very similar across seasons, from 337 - 291 km2. Fine-scale variation in tiger habitat use showed that tigers intensively use certain areas more often than others across the seasons. The proportion of available habitat positively influenced occupancy for the majority of prey species and tigers. Human disturbance had a strong negative influence on the distribution of the majority of prey species but was positively related to tiger habitat use. Tigers appear to live in areas with high disturbance, thus increasing the risk of human-tiger conflict in the churia habitat. Thus, efforts to reduce human disturbance would be beneficial to reducing human wildlife conflict, enriching prey populations, and would potentially support more tigers in churia habitat of Nepal. Overall, I found high prey occupancy and tiger habitat use, suggesting that the churia is highly valuable habitat for tigers and should no longer be neglected or forgotten in tiger conservation planning. Thirdly, I assessed genetic variation, genetic structure, and gene flow of the tigers in the Terai Arc Landscape, Nepal. I opportunistically collected 770 scat samples from 4 protected areas and 5 hypothesized corridors across the Terai Arc Landscape. Historical landuse change in the Terai Arc was extracted from Anthrome data sets to relate landuse change to potential barriers and subsequent hypothesized bottleneck events in the landscape. I used standard genetic metrics (allelic diversity and heterozygosity) to estimate genetic variation in the tiger population. Using program Structure (non-spatial) and TESS (spatial), I defined the putative genetic clusters present in the landscape. Migrant analysis was carried out in Geneclass and Bayesass for estimating contemporary gene flow. I tested for a recent population bottleneck with the heterozygosity test using program Bottleneck. Of the 700 samples, 396 were positive for tiger (57% success). Using an 8 multilocus microsatellite assay, I identified 78 individual tigers. I found large scale landuse changes across the Terai Arc Landscape due to conversion of forest into agriculture in last two centuries and I identified areas of suspected barriers. I found low levels of genetic variation (expected heterozygosity = 0.61) and moderate genetic differentiation (FST = 0.14) across the landscape, indicative of sub-population structure and potential isolation of sub-populations. I detected three genetic clusters across the landscape consistent with three demographic tiger sub-populations occurring in Chitwan-Parsa, Bardia, and Suklaphanta protected areas. I detected 10 migrants across all study sites confirming there is still some dispersal mediated gene flow across the landscape. I found evidence of a bottleneck signature, especially around the lowland forests in the Terai, likely caused by large scale landuse change in last two centuries, which could explain the low levels of genetic variation detected at the sub-population level. These findings are highly relevant to tiger conservation indicating that efforts to protect source sites and to improve connectivity are needed to augment gene flow and genetic diversity across the landscape. Finally, I compared the abundance and density of tigers obtained using two non-invasive sampling techniques: camera-trapping and fecal DNA sampling. For cameras: I pooled the 2009 camera-trap data from the core tiger population across the lowland areas of Chitwan National Park. I sampled 359 km2 of the core area with 187 camera-trap locations spending 2,821 trap-nights of effort. I obtained 264 identifiable photographs and identified a total of 41 individual tigers. For genetics, I sampled 325 km2 of the core area along three spatial routes, walking a total of 1,173 km, collecting a total of 420 tiger fecal samples in 2011. I identified 36 tigers using the assay of 8 multilocus genotypes and captured them 42 times. I analyzed both data types separately for estimating density and jointly in an integrated model using both traditional, and spatial, capture-recapture frameworks. Using Program MARK and the model averaged results, my abundance estimates were 46 (SE 1.86) and 44 (SE 9.83) individuals from camera and genetic data, respectively. Density estimates (tigers per 100 km2) via traditional buffer strip methods using half of the Mean Maximum Distance Moved (½ MMDM) as the buffer surrounding survey grids, were 4.01 (SE 0.64) for camera data and 3.49 (SE 1.04) for genetic data. Spatially explicit capture recapture models resulted in lower density estimates both in the likelihood based program DENSITY at 2.55 (SE 0.59) for camera-trap data and 2.57 (SE 0.88) for genetic data, while the Bayesian based program SPACECAP estimates were 2.44 (SE 0.30) for camera-trap data and 2.23 (SE 0.46) for genetic data. Using a spatially explicit, integrated model that combines data from both cameras and genetics, density estimates were 1.47 (SD 0.20) tigers per 100 km2 for camera-trap data and 1.89 (SD 0.36) tigers per 100 km2 for genetic data. I found that the addition of camera-trap data improved precision in genetic capture-recapture estimates, but not visa-versa, likely due to low numbers of recaptures in the genetic data. While a non-invasive genetic approach can be used as a stand-alone capture-recapture method, it may be necessary to increase sample size to obtain more recaptures. Camera-trap data may provide a more precise estimates, but genetic data returns more information on other aspect of genetic health and connectivity. Combining data sets in an integrated modeling framework, aiding in pinpointing strengths and weaknesses in data sets, thus ultimately improving modeling inference.
Ph. D.

The conservation of leopards in the Eastern Cape Province requires a holistic approach that considers both predator-human interactions as well as the biology of the carnivore. Numerous studies have been conducted on leopards within protected areas; however more information regarding the species is needed outside these areas to facilitate effective management of predators. The spatial ecology of the leopard (Panthera pardus) were studied in the Baviaanskloof and GAENP in the Eastern Cape. The Baviaanskloof is an extensive area of mountainous terrain (approximately 2665km²) which has a mosaic of land uses, and leopards move from conservation areas to farmland where they come into contact and conflict with farmers. This study examined the spatial ecology of leopards living on farmlands adjacent to protected land. The space utilization and activity patterns of six leopards were analysed. These animals were caught and released on farmlands in the Baviaanskloof (n=4) or translocated (n=2) when not possible to release on site. The animals were caught by means of fall-door, walk-in traps and fitted with Vectronic GPS collars that facilitated the collection of high quality GPS fixes from each animal. Data was collected using VHF and UHF telemetry to download data. An understanding of spatial requirements in areas with different land use, and the extent of overlap of space use with other leopards allow, for the first time in the region, the calculation of possible maximum population size. Analysis of range size was carried out using two methods: minimum convex polygon, and Kernel Utilization Distribution. Finally, a key predictor of space use is prey availability. I assessed the prey base using a grid of camera traps. The studied leopards revealed large range utilization with minimal overlap. The activity patterns suggest there is no preference between diurnal and nocturnal activity patterns and the population density was estimated between 0.3 - 1.3 leopards per 100km². Large home range sizes and low population densities suggest that leopards require large areas of suitable habitat, and that conservation efforts need to be extended beyond protected areas to ensure the long-term viability of leopard populations in such areas.

付記する学位プログラム名: 霊長類学・ワイルドライフサイエンス・リーディング大学院
Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(理学)
甲第22280号
理博第4594号
新制||理||1659(附属図書館)
京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻
(主査)准教授 中村 美知夫, 教授 中川 尚史, 教授 高橋 淑子
学位規則第4条第1項該当

The European leopards and Cuon alpinus from the Late Pleistocene site of Equi (Tuscany) have been here studied and described underling the exceptional conservation of these rare carnivorans. Moreover, the historical collection discovered between 1911 and 1917 have been reorganized in order to verify the faunal assemblage throughout the stratigraphic record and the frequencies the species in the different layers. I also studied the Middle Pleistocene fossils of lynxes discovered in the site of Valdemino and determined as Lynx spelaeus, and the taxonomical determination of Late Pleistocen European lion.

Although the opportunistic feeding habits of leopards were evident in this study, scat analysis showed that ungulates were by far the predominant food, with impala being the most frequent item. The fact that cattle calves were only taken up to ± 100 days old, emphasize the relevance of a proper stock management program to prevent stock losses. In addition, where such measures were impractical, temporary physical barriers such as electric fencing showed potential for application. Modification on different capture techniques were investigated not only to capture leopards for radio collaring but also for the elimination of problem leopards. The effective home range size of a resident male and female leopard in the Naboomspruit area were calculated at 303 km2 and 157 km2 respectively. A density of one leopard per 53 km2 are suggested for the Naboosmpruit study area. Both leopards were predominantly nocturnal with some crepuscular activity. Translocation experiments revealed different results. The conducting of translocations in farming areas, where problem leopards are involved are however not suggested. Leopard density and distribution patterns showed that numbers are relative safe, and that populations are currently to a large extent linked, which makes natural gene flow a possibility. Although suitable areas for leopards thus exist, these may not be available as homogenous units in the future, due to increasing human pressure.
Dissertation (MSc (Zoology))--University of Pretoria, 2006.
Zoology and Entomology
unrestricted

Leopards Panthera pardus are highly adaptable large felids that persist in un-protected areas throughout South Africa. However, leopards are frequently involved in conflict with land users and subsequently killed in retaliatory incidents. Efforts to foster tolerance for leopard conservation largely rely on trophy hunting and ecotourism. However there is growing concern that trophy hunting may lead to population declines. Combining this with shortages of demographic data generates serious conservation challenges for wildlife managers. In this thesis, I evaluated the viability of the South African leopard population using simulation models and empirically collected data. I further evaluated the response of people engaged in retaliatory killing of leopards and leopard trophy hunters to varying leopard abundance. A habitat suitability model suggested that current suitable leopard habitat is fragmented and that the majority exists on non-protected areas. The national protected area system was largely ineffective in capturing suitable leopard habitat. Stochastic population models suggested unsustainable harvest levels at the current levels of retaliatory killing. Furthermore, simulations with only non-harvest related anthropogenic mortality also produced high probabilities of decline, indicating that non-harvest related anthropogenic mortality, such as retaliatory killings, can significantly impact the sustainability of harvest and the viability of the South African leopard population. Likewise survival analysis indicated that leopard survival in non-protected areas was significantly lower than in protected areas, and that humans were responsible for the majority of leopard deaths in non-protected areas. Finally retaliatory killing occurred at a higher rate of killing at low leopard abundances compared to hunting. Therefore retaliatory killing of leopards are more likely to be detrimental to leopard populations than trophy hunting. My findings strongly suggest that non-protected areas are important for leopard conservation, but that conflict in these areas currently may limit their conservation potential. I therefore suggest that the control of retaliatory killing of leopards may be more effective in promoting leopard persistence than restricting trophy harvest. Furthermore, conservation actions that aim to foster increased participation by the private sector, representing non-protected areas, in large carnivore conservation initiatives may be particularly beneficial to the long term conservation of leopards.
Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2013.
gm2013
Animal and Wildlife Sciences
restricted

Leopard Panthera pardus are an economically valuable asset and when used in sustainable consumptive use programs can provide tangible benefits to communities to improve human livelihoods and the conservation of the species. Sport hunting is increasingly proposed as a tool to generate funds to support the conservation of leopard and other large carnivores. However, to assess the value of sport hunting as a conservation tool it is critical to understand its economic impact and ensure that the off-takes are sustainable. In this study I assessed the conservation status of leopard and the ecological sustainability of legal and illegal off-take in Niassa National Reserve (NNR) the largest protected area, 42,000 km2, in Mozambique, which is inhabited by 35,000 people. I also investigated whether the revenues from leopard sport hunting off-set the costs of depredation on livestock in local communities and individual benefits from poaching by local hunters. To perform this study, I interviewed hunting operators and villagers, collected camera trapping data, and analyzed long-term leopard sport hunting data. Leopard had high value for sport hunters, however, the economic benefits from the legal hunting did not off-set the costs from livestock depredation and did not compete with benefits from the illegal hunting which accrued to individuals at the household level. Leopard population densities in Niassa Reserve were comparable with the study sites in central and southern Africa. The numbers of leopard legally hunted in NNR appear to be ecologically sustainable, however a high percentage of the leopard taken as trophies were under the recommended age of seven years. The illegal off-take was unsustainable and resulting in high turnover and combined with the operators’ off-take is likely to be negatively affecting leopard populations. For the future ecological and economic sustainability of leopard quotas, I recommend improvements in the distribution of economic benefits and creating economic incentives to encourage villagers not to engage in the illegal hunting and quantification and inclusion of the illegal off-take in the annual quotas. My study also indicates the need to zone community and wildlife areas in NNR to reduce the anthropogenic effects on leopard and other carnivore populations.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

M.Sc. (Zoology)
The reproductive biology of the South African leopard, Panthera pardus has not been studied in detail. In South Africa little is known about the population numbers of leopards due to their solitary and nocturnal nature and currently the conservation and management of leopard populations relies mainly on the contributions of non-governmental organisations, academic institutions and private individuals. The aim of this study was to provide baseline information for the development of in-situ and ex-situ reproductive conservation methods for the leopard. In order to meet this aim, the following objectives were established: 1) determine the degree of relatedness of the leopards sampled, 2) establish baseline parameter values of a whole blood count and describe the ultrastructure of the blood cells, 3) obtain semen by means of electroejaculation and determine the efficiency of a previously described cryopreservation protocol for leopard spermatozoa, 4) describe the morphology and ultrastructure of the leopard spermatozoa using florescence and electron microscopy, 5) describe the histology and ultrastructure of the leopard testes and the events of spermatogenesis using light and electron microscopy. Between January 2011 and February 2013, blood and semen samples were obtained from eleven leopards after being sedated with a combination of Medetomidine and Ketamine. The DNA was extracted from the blood (ARC Genetics Department) and analysed (Onderstepoort Veterinary Genetics Laboratory). The blood was also used for the analysis of the baseline blood parameter values (Lancet Laboratories). Whole blood was fixed in 2.5% phosphate buffered gluteraldehyde and prepared for transmission and scanning electron microscopy to describe the ultrastructure of the cells. Techniques to examine sperm morphology included florescence and electron xviii microscopy. The semen was fixed in 2.5% gluteraldehyde and phosphate buffer for the ultrastructural assessment. Testes samples obtained from a leopard that died during transportation were fixed in Bouin’s fixative and a phosphate buffered 2.5% gluteraldehyde solution for light and electron microscopy respectively. The testes samples were prepared using standard techniques and stained with Hemotoxylin and Eosin for light microscopy and uranyl acetate and lead citrate for electron microscopy. The DNA analysis revealed that two pairs of leopards were related on a half-sibling level. The mean parameter values of the whole blood count of P. pardus were similar to the values recorded for Asian leopards, P. pardus African lions, Panthera leo and bobcats, Lynx rufus and fell within the normal ranges for the domestic cat, Felis catus. The ultrastructural assessment of the blood cells was comparable with those that have been described for the Asian leopard as well as most other mammalian species. A small volume of semen (≤0.5 ml) could be obtained from five out of nine male leopards that were sampled. The morphology and ultrastructure of the leopard spermatozoa conforms to the generalised structure of spermatozoa of most mammalian species. A large number of morphologically abnormal spermatozoa were noted. This has also been reported for many feline species, including the Indian leopards. Spermatozoa abnormalities identified included coiled tails, cytoplasmic droplets and knobbed acrosomes. The cryopreservation of the spermatozoa yielded a maximum post-thaw progressive motility of 24.4%. The histology and ultrastructural events of spermatogenesis in the leopard testes were compared to that of the domestic cat and some differences were observed between the domestic cat testes and leopard testes. The results of this study provide baseline information on the genetic diversity and reproductive biology of the leopards in South Africa. This can be used in the development of assisted reproductive techniques that may one day aid in conservation strategies for the leopards.

Nos últimos anos a estrutura e o funcionamento dos ecossistemas têm-se alterado a uma velocidade alarmante, em grande parte devido à extinção de inúmeras espécies. Portanto, cabe-nos a todos, enquanto sociedade, tomar medidas que visem o controlo desta situação, uma vez que é o Homem o maior responsável por esta crise. No que respeita à conservação de espécies animais, os zoos e os médicos veterinários são hoje ferramentas indispensáveis e têm vindo a adotar novas funções no seguimento da problemática da extinção. A conservação é um tema complexo e extenso e como tal, seria extremamente díficil de explorar integralmente neste trabalho, pelo que o tema abordado incidirá principalmente na conservação ex situ e em particular na reprodução em cativeiro de animais selvagens. Serão abordadas várias perspectivas, desde a implementação dos programas de reprodução e gestão das populações mantidas em cativeiro, quer em termos demográficos quer em termos genéticos, até ao objetivo final desta medida de conservação, que será a reintrodução de espécies no ambiente selvagem. Neste trabalho são ainda abordados, de forma específica, aspetos relacionados com a reprodução de duas espécies de felinos selvagens: Leopardo de Amur (Panthera pardus orientalis) e Leão Asiático (Panthera leo persica), classificadas como Criticamente Ameaçada (CR) e Em Perigo (EN), respetivamente, pela Lista de Espécies Ameaçadas da União Internacional para a conservação da Natureza (IUCN Red List).
In recent years, the structure and functioning of ecosystems have been changing at an alarming rate, largely due to the extinction of countless species. Therefore, it is up to all of us, as a society, to take measures to control this situation, particularly as man being the main responsible for this crisis. Regarding the conservation of animal species, zoos and veterinarians are now indispensable tools, which have adoped new functions following the extinction problem. Since conservation is a complex and extensive theme, it would be extremely difficult to fully explore it in this work. Therefore, the main focus will be ex situ conservation, in particular the captive breeding of wild animals. Several perspectives will be address, from the implementation of breeding programs, management of populations kept in captivity, both demographically, and genetically, to the ultimate goal of this conservation measure, which is the reintroduction of species in the wild. In this study, specific aspects related to the reproduction of two species of wild felids will be addressed: the Amur Leopard (Panthera pardus orientalis) and the Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica), classified as Critically Endangered (CR) and Endangered (EN) respectively, by the List of Threatened Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN Red List).

The conservation of large carnivores is dependent on comprehensive research programs within and surrounding protected areas. In many locations, protected areas are not large enough to support viable large carnivore populations, and thus it is essential to understand the ecology of predators outside of protected areas. On the commercial farms of northcentral Namibia, farmers have systematically removed the largest predators in order to protect their livestock. Leopards are the largest remaining carnivore, aided by their adaptable and secretive nature. In order to properly manage regional leopards, there were several questions about their population size, feeding ecology and movements that needed to be addressed. Leopard population estimates were generated through camera-trapping surveys within and surrounding the Waterberg Plateau Park. These surveys suggest that leopard population density is significantly higher outside of the park, most likely due to environmental factors within the park that limit potential prey. Leopards were shown to primarily feed on wild ungulates, preferring kudu over livestock which they appear to avoid even when livestock densities are higher than individual wild ungulate species. Leopard home ranges and movements were investigated on commercial farmlands where they were not shown to move between the farms and the park. Home range estimates were similar to previous studies for similar environments with marginal resources. Beyond the ecological studies, the attitudes and perceptions of farmers were incorporated into the study in order to assess local predator management with particular emphasis on leopards. Farmers used a variety of livestock husbandry techniques, with varying success. Although there were no clear techniques to reduce conflict, farmers were able to substantially reduce losses by using at least one technique to protect their stock against predators. Farmers listed depredation as the source of highest livestock loss, and leopards the species which caused the most conflict by occurrence. Farmers removed approximately 11 leopards per year in the region which is equal to a 14% off-take for the local population. Farmer tolerance was assessed by the % calf loss that farmers were willing to lose to predators annually. Tolerance rates were then compared to annual livestock loss. Leopards, being a charismatic animal for tourists and trophy hunters, were evaluated for potential financial benefits for farmers to mitigate losses. Region-wide management strategies are discussed.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, 2018
The increasing extent of human-altered landscapes and associated human activities is projected to cause irreparable damage to biodiversity and ecosystem function by the end of the century. The conservation of species requires understanding the abilities and limitations of species persistence in modified landscapes and how this affects species population dynamics and connectivity between populations. The persistence of species in the face of altered habitat depends, in part, on the capacity of habitat patches to promote occupancy, and the ability of individuals to reach these patches and ensure fitness within them by balancing resources and threats despite the altered nature of the habitat. The distribution of animal populations across the landscape is the result of decisions individuals make in selecting and avoiding environmental characteristics over time. Carnivores interact strongly with other species and thereby have the ability to structure communities and ecosystems, often making them a focal species for conservation planning. Leopards (Panthera pardus) are the last freeroaming large carnivores in South Africa and, while they are considered highly adaptable to environmental changes, most leopard habitat exists outside protected areas, where they are increasingly threatened by habitat fragmentation and human-caused mortality. Their important ecological role and vulnerability to humans have raised concerns regarding the likelihood of carnivores to survive in human-altered landscapes. This thesis examines the behaviour of leopards in their environment, and how these behaviours influence leopard distribution, population structure and connectivity. This study found that conspecifics, sex-related differences and anthropogenic landscape features effect how leopards distribute themselves in the landscape, influence movement patterns, and shape their population structure. Sexes employed different strategies in selecting habitat and movement patterns, likely because of different reproductive- and conspecific avoidance strategies. Often habitat prediction modelling for solitary carnivores does not incorporate sex, and conspecifics’ locations and this research found these variables are important in leopard habitat selection and movement patterns. Male and female leopards, respectively, spent 70% iv and 40% of the time moving in long, straight movement patterns (inter patch behaviour). Inter patch behaviour is indicative of low resource areas, fragmented habitat, or areas with higher intraspecific avoidance and is employed to move quickly between habitat patches. Connectivity between habitat patches was reduced by human-associated features such as roads, and promoted by mountainous areas, rivers and protected areas, the latter being less affected by human-associated features. Despite the high occupancy of inter patch behaviour displayed by males, the leopard population in the region are genetically sub-structured into three subpopulations. While this population broadly conforms to a metapopulation model, gene flow between the three identified subpopulations shows low to moderate gene flow and requires management to ensure continued connectivity between these populations. These findings can contribute to improving leopard management policy at a landscape level to ensure this flagship species survives in heterogeneous environments.
XL2019