Tesis sobre el tema "Olive A"

A multidisciplinary research methodology based on the combination of literature review and spatial analysis is presented as a contribution to the historical ecology of olive trees in Sicily (Italy). The thesis crosscuts time and space at different scales for a new epistemological approach to allow the olive trees to “talk”. Structured around the identification of breaking points and nodes of connection, the social and ecological history of the olive trees in the island are explored. While recognising the full agency of trees in the spatial and temporal evolving dynamics of the landscape, the vital importance of their inner connections with other elements of the ecosystems is stressed in the analysis; as also the importance of Traditional Ecological Knowledge. The thesis is concluded with the hypothesis that the olive trees of Sicily could be seen as biocultural refugia, physical places which preserve both agricultural biodiversity and traditional ecological knowledge.

In this paper I discuss the relation between Olive Schreiner's social context and the form of her fictional writing. It is not intended as an interpretation of her work but rather represents a preliminary sketch of the social and political discourses which structured her environment. I suggest that for Olive Schreiner writing is not a means of representing a given reality. Instead writing itself is a constitutive act through which she attempts to articulate a subject which expresses the conflicts and contradictions of its social and political location. In the first section of the paper, I discuss Olive Schreiner's position as a woman in relation to the literary canon. I argue that the social discourses of femininity in the late nineteenth century attempted to exclude women from the realm of cultural and intellectual production. Looking at the work of Herbert Spencer, the influential social philosopher who used scientific principles as the basis for his ideas about social order, I analyse the way in which Olive Schreiner rewrites his theory in order to make a space for women as cultural producers. In the second section I look at the dominant forms of the novel available to Olive Schreiner. The dominant mode of representation for metropolitan writers was the realist novel and women writers such as George Eliot found it an extremely effective way of articulating their experiences. The other significant form of writing for Olive Schreiner was the colonial adventure story, the most popular way, in the nineteenth century, of representing the colonial space. I suggest that Olive Schreiner's rejection of both these forms and her choice of the allegorical mode, can be understood in terms of the specificity of her position as a colonial woman writer. In the third section, I focus more closely on one of Olive Schreiner's texts, The Story of an African Farm in an attempt to illustrate how allegory allows Olive Schreiner to reorder the unstable colonial space. Both realism and the adventure novel, I argue, assume a coherent and unified self. The colonial context, I suggest problematises this sense of self as individualist agent and in the figure of Lyndall I see the limits of the reflective self as a means of interacting with the colonial situation. Bibliography: pages 68-69.

Olive mill wastewater sludge (OMWS) is the solid residue that remains in the evaporation ponds after evaporation of the majority of water in the olive mill wastewater (OMW). OMWS is a major environmental pollutant in the olive oil producing regions. Approximately 41.16 wt. % of the OMWS was soluble in hexanes (HSF). The fatty acids in this fraction consist mainly of oleic and palmitic acid. Catalytic pyrolysis of the OMWS over red mud and HZSM-5 has been demonstrated to be an effective technology for converting this waste material into fuel. Red mud-catalyzed pyrolysis gave higher organics yields than the HZSM-5 catalysis. The viscosity as well as the oxygen content of the catalytic pyrolysis oils were significantly lower than those of the non-catalytic oil. The reaction pathways of red mud and HZSM-5 were different. The catalytic pyrolysis of the HSF gave an acidic oil with low viscosity and high energy content, and was nitrogen and sulfur free, whereas the catalytic pyrolysis of the solid residue after hexanes extraction (SR) gave an oil with higher viscosity, close to neutral pH, lower energy content, and had high nitrogen content and traces of sulfur.

Due to the negative environmental impact of the Olive Mill Wastewaters (OMW), research is done in order to treat and valorize them. In this work, different OMW from different Italian regions (Liguria and Puglia) and harvests (from 2012 to 2014) were tested in order to recover polyphenols (PCs), molecules with a high added value because of their beneficial properties. The solid phase used for PCs recovery was the resin Amberlite XAD16; the desorption solvent was acidified ethanol. An HPLC method for total PCs content quantification was developed using a C18 column. A new, repeatable and reliable column packing method was developed. The packing quality was evaluated with step-change fluid dynamic analysis tests using NaCl 0.04M as tracer. Also, to avoid clogging problems in the packed columns an OMW pre-treatment was designed, capable to remove 98% of the solids. Several breakthrough tests were performed to evaluate the influence of linear velocity and column length (0.52m and 2.0m). A repeatability test was performed in order to evaluate the stability of the process. The process was modeled using a plug flow with axial dispersion model with solid-liquid mass transfer; implemented in COMSOL3.5a. The desorption curves were obtained with subsequent solvent regeneration. Antioxidant activity tests were performed with the desorption product using the ABTS method. On the basis of economic considerations, two new ion-exchange resins were tested (IRA958Cl and IRA 67Cl). IRA958Cl showed the best performance. Two breakthrough tests at different linear velocities were conducted with this resin. In order to recover specific high added value molecules (tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol) from the actual OMW, experiments were performed in collaboration with the Fachhoschule Nordwestschweiz (FHNW) using a Cyclodextrin-based polyurethane polymer, synthetized by the FHNW research group. Then, in order to increase the purity of tyrosol in the desorption fractions several organic solvents were tested.

Due to the negative environmental impact of the Olive Mill Wastewaters (OMW), research is done in order to treat and valorize them. In this work, different OMW from different Italian regions (Liguria and Puglia) and harvests (from 2012 to 2014) were tested in order to recover polyphenols (PCs), molecules with a high added value because of their beneficial properties. The solid phase used for PCs recovery was the resin Amberlite XAD16; the desorption solvent was acidified ethanol. An HPLC method for total PCs content quantification was developed using a C18 column. A new, repeatable and reliable column packing method was developed. The packing quality was evaluated with step-change fluid dynamic analysis tests using NaCl 0.04M as tracer. Also, to avoid clogging problems in the packed columns an OMW pre-treatment was designed, capable to remove 98% of the solids. Several breakthrough tests were performed to evaluate the influence of linear velocity and column length (0.52m and 2.0m). A repeatability test was performed in order to evaluate the stability of the process. The process was modeled using a plug flow with axial dispersion model with solid-liquid mass transfer; implemented in COMSOL3.5a. The desorption curves were obtained with subsequent solvent regeneration. Antioxidant activity tests were performed with the desorption product using the ABTS method. On the basis of economic considerations, two new ion-exchange resins were tested (IRA958Cl and IRA 67Cl). IRA958Cl showed the best performance. Two breakthrough tests at different linear velocities were conducted with this resin. In order to recover specific high added value molecules (tyrosol and hydroxytyrosol) from the actual OMW, experiments were performed in collaboration with the Fachhoschule Nordwestschweiz (FHNW) using a Cyclodextrin-based polyurethane polymer, synthetized by the FHNW research group. Then, in order to increase the purity of tyrosol in the desorption fractions several organic solvents were tested.

La culture de l’olivier et la production d’huile, du Néolithique à l’Empire romain : le cas particulier de la péninsule Ibérique. Ce titre met en lumière les deux axes principaux de cette recherche doctorale. La première concerne la domestication de la plante à partir des zones refuges de l’oléastre en Méditerranée ; la deuxième, l’apparition des différentes technologies de production oléicole, leur évolution, ainsi que les héritages observés entre les différents peuples du Bassin entre le Néolithique et l’Empire romain. Toutes ces problématiques sont analysées à partir du cas précis de la péninsule Ibérique, extrémité occidentale de la Méditerranée, lieu d’échanges et d’influences d’origine orientale – phéniciennes et grecques, principalement. Grâce à l’étude de la domestication et des premières implantations de l’olivier il a pu être mis en évidence la nécessité d’associer l’archéobotanique – identification d’endocarpes, du charbon de bois et du pollen – à la génétique. Cette dernière a récemment permis de démontrer l’autochtonie de la plante en Méditerranée occidentale depuis les dernières glaciations, contestant ainsi les théories diffusionnistes d’une origine phénicienne – exclusivement orientale – de l’espèce et de l’oléiculture. La deuxième partie consacrée à l’étude de la technologie oléicole péninsulaire, démontre l’importance d’une machinerie de type artisanal et local, contemporaine d’une mécanique de type « préindustrielle » d’origine orientale. Les deux groupes typologiques se complètent et s’influencent jusqu’à l’arrivée de l’industrie oléicole romaine
The culture of olive tree and the production of olive oil from the Neolithic Era to the Roman Empire: the case of the Iberian Peninsula. The title highlights the two main research lines of this doctoral thesis. On the one hand, the domestication of the olive plant from the refuge areas of oleaster in the Mediterranean Sea; on the second hand, the emergence of different technologies of oil production, evolution and legacy observed between the different cultures of the Mediterranean from the Neolithic Era to the Roman Empire. All these issues are studied within the specific context of the Iberian Peninsula, western end of the Mediterranean world and place of exchanges and influences of from Eastern cultures - namely Phoenician and Greek. Through the study of domestication and first implantations of the olive tree emerged the need of involving scientific research from archaeobotany - identification of endocarps, wood charcoal and pollen - to genetics. The latter has recently demonstrated the indigeneity of the plant in West Mediterranean since the last glaciations, thus disputing the “diffusionist” theories of a Phoenician origin - exclusively Eastern - of the varieties of olive and their production. The second part of the research, dedicated to the study the Peninsular technology of olive oil, demonstrates the importance of craft and local machinery, as well as contemporary ‘preindustrial’ types of Eastern origin. Both typological groups complement and influence each other until the introduction of Roman olive industry

Doutoramento em Biologia
A artropodofauna indigena deve ter um papel relevante na protecção das culturas como limitador natural das populações de espécies fitófagas. O seu conhecimento específico e as suas relações nos ecossistemas agrários são fundamentais no âmbito de uma agricultura sustentável. Neste trabalho pretendeu-se estudar a relação trófica entre predadores, nomeadamente coccinelídeos, e cochonilha-negra, Saissetia oleae, uma importante praga da oliveira na região de Trás-os-Montes, bem como saber quais os efeitos ao nível da planta desta praga através da investigação paralela em campo e em laboratório. O trabalho foi realizado em dois olivais orientados sob dois regimes de protecção da cultura para averiguar diferenças ao nível da abundância e diversidade de artrópodes. As diferenças de abundância e diversidade encontradas estão relacionadas com o tipo de sistema de protecção da cultura utilizados nos dois olivais em estudo. Quatro espécies de coccinelídeos, Chilocorus bipustulatus, Scymnus (Scymnus) interruptus, Scymnus (Pullus) subvillosus and Scymnus (Mimopullus) mediterraneus, mostraram ser as espécies mais comuns no olival transmontano e também possíveis candidatos a agentes de controlo natural contra a cochonilha-negra no olival devido quer à sua abundância quer à percentagem de respostas positivas obtidas nos testes ELISA. Assim, foram dados passos importantes no sentido de perceber quais as principais espécies predadoras de cochonilhanegra e ao mesmo tempo alertar para a importância que o sistema de protecção da cultura tem na artropodofauna predadora do olival, com especial relevância para os coccinelídeos.
The indigenous arthropod fauna, as natural control agents of phytophagous species, can have a relevant function in plant protection. Their specific knowledge and their relationships in the agro-ecosystems are in the scope of a sustainable agriculture. This work pretended to study the trophic relationship between predators, with a special emphasis of coccinellids, and the blackscale, Saissetia oleae, an important pest of the olive tree in the Trás-os-Montes region as well as to know the effects of this pest to the olive tree, by integrating both field and laboratory research. The field work was conducted in two olive groves with different agricultural systems in order to investigate the effect of the management regimes in the abundance and diversity of arthropods. Differences found for abundance and diversity were related with the agricultural management regime in the olive groves. Four coccinellid species, Chilocorus bipustulatus, Scymnus (Scymnus) interruptus, Scymnus (Pullus) subvillosus and Scymnus (Mimopullus) mediterraneus, showed to be the most common species in the olive grove of Trás-os-Montes region either due to their abundance or the percentage of positive responses obtained in the ELISA tests, being also potential candidates of natural control agents against the black-scale. Important steps were made in the direction of understanding which are the principal species of predators of the black-scale and, at the same time, to alert for the extreme importance of the effect of the management regime to the predator arthropod fauna of the olive grove, with special relevance for the coccinellids.

Los triterpenos pentacíclicos y polifenoles son compuestos bioactivos con propiedades saludables que se encuentran en plantas medicinales y comestibles, incluyendo Olea europaea L. En la tesis presentada se ha llevado a cabo un desarrollo de nuevos métodos para el análisis de estos compuestos en aceitunas de mesa, aceite de oliva virgen extra (AOVE), así como en el plasma y el contenido de colon después de la ingesta de estos alimentos. Además, también se ha investigado los efectos antitumorales in vivo del consumo de aceitunas de mesa sobre las lesiones preneoplásicas de colon. En primer lugar, se estableció un método para determinar los polifenoles en las aceitunas de mesa mediante extracción líquida y posterior análisis por LC-ESI-MS/MS. La validación mostró unos resultados satisfactorios de linealidad, sensibilidad, exactitud, precisión y recuperación. En segundo lugar, la extracción se validó para la determinación simultánea de triterpenos pentacíclicos y polifenoles a partir de la misma muestra de aceitunas previamente al análisis por LC-APCI-MS para triterpenos pentacíclicos y LC-ESI-MS/MS para polifenoles. El procedimiento sirvió para analizar tres variedades, encontrándose valores de triterpenos pentacíclicos más elevados en las aceitunas de mesa Marfil (3,62 ± 0,29 g/kg), seguido de las Arbequina (3,28 ± 0,07 g/kg) y Empeltre (2,77 ± 0,20 g/kg). El triterpeno pentacíclico más abundante fue el ácido maslínico (62-77%) y posteriormente el ácido oleanólico (23-38%) y eritrodiol (< 0,3%). En cuanto a los polifenoles, se detectaron dieciséis con concentraciones ligeramente más altas en Arbequina (1,04 ± 0,03 g/kg) con respecto a Marfil (0,87 ± 0,08 g/kg) y Empeltre (0,83 ± 0,05g/kg). El hidroxitirosol fue el mayoritario (~45%), seguido por verbascósido (28%) y luteolina (9%) tanto en Arbequina como en Empeltre. Aunque Marfil tiene porcentajes similares de hidroxitirosol y luteolina, se encontró un perfil diferente para otros polifenoles como verbascósido, que presentó un 0,10% y, tirosol un 23%. En tercer lugar, se investigaron las concentraciones plasmáticas de compuestos bioactivos después de la administración de AOVE de Arbequina a ratas Sprague-Dawley. El AOVE contiene 4 triterpenos pentacíclicos (149 ± 30 mg/kg) y 13 polifenoles (16,8 ± 0,3 mg/kg). Las concentraciones plasmáticas obtenidas después de la extracción líquida y el análisis LC-QTRAP-MS, revelaron la presencia de 1 triterpeno pentacíclico y 7 polifenoles. Todos los analitos alcanzaron su máxima concentración (Cmax) a los 15 minutos (tmax), disminuyeron de forma constante a lo largo del tiempo y aún se detectaron a los 120 min. Finalmente, se investigó el efecto de las aceitunas de mesa (3,85 g/kg) en las primeras etapas de la carcinogénesis de colon inducido por 1,2- dimetilhidrazina en ratas Sprague-Dawley. La administración de aceitunas Arbequina durante 49- días redujo los focos de criptas aberrantes y los focos con depleción de mucina en el colon total por un 54,1% y 35,7%, respectivamente. Concluyendo, las aceitunas de mesa contienen compuestos bioactivos en cantidades altas que, junto con las bajas concentraciones medidas en el plasma y la disminución de las lesiones preneoplásicas en el colon, sugeriría que su consumo regular, en el contexto de un estilo de vida saludable, podría contribuir a la prevención de enfermedades crónicas.
Pentacyclic triterpenes and polyphenols are bioactive compounds with health-protecting activities found in different medicinal and edible plants, among which stands out Olea europaea L. This thesis develops new methods for their analysis in table olives, extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) as well as in plasma and colon content after the intake of these foods. Moreover, the in vivo antitumoral effects of table olives was investigated on colonic pre-neoplastic lesions. Firstly, a new method to determine polyphenols in table olives by liquid extraction and LC-ESI-MS/MS was established. Validation showed satisfactory linearity, sensibility, accuracy, precision and recoveries. Secondly, the extraction was also validated for the determination of pentacyclic triterpenes concurrently with polyphenols from the same olives prior to LC-APCI-MS for pentacyclic triterpenes and LC-ESI- MS/MS for polyphenols. The analysis of three varieties yielded the greatest values of pentacyclic triterpenes in Marfil (3.62 ± 0.29 g/kg), followed by Arbequina (3.28 ± 0.07 g/kg) and Empeltre (2.77 ± 0.20 g/kg) table olives. The most abundant pentacyclic triterpene was maslinic acid (62- 77%), ensued by oleanolic acid (23-38%) and erythrodiol (< 0.3%). Sixteen polyphenols were detected with concentrations slightly higher in Arbequina (1.04 ± 0.03 g/kg) with respect to Marfil (0.87 ± 0.08 g/kg) and Empeltre (0.83 ± 0.05 g/kg). Hydroxytyrosol was the predominant (~45%), succeeded by verbascoside (28%) and luteolin (9%) in Arbequina and Empeltre. Although Marfil hold similar percentages of hydroxytyrosol and luteolin, a different profile was found for other polyphenols with verbascoside showing a 0.10% and tyrosol reaching a 23%. Thirdly, the plasmatic concentrations of bioactive compounds after the administration of Arbequina EVOO to Sprague- Dawley rats was investigated. EVOO contained 4 pentacyclic triterpenes (149 ± 30 mg/kg) and 13 polyphenols (16.8 ± 0.3 mg/kg). Plasmatic concentrations obtained after liquid extraction and LC- QTRAP-MS analysis revealed the presence of 1 pentacyclic triterpene and 7 polyphenols. All analytes showed maximum concentration (Cmax) at 15 minutes (tmax) followed by a steady decrease and still were detected at 120 min. Finally, the effect of table olives (3.85 g/kg) in early stages of colon carcinogenesis induced by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine in Sprague-Dawley rats was investigated. The administration of Arbequina olives for 49-days reduced aberrant crypt foci and mucin depleted foci in total colon in a 54.1% and 35.7%, respectively. In conclusion, table olives contain bioactive compounds in high amounts that together with their low plasmatic concentrations and the decrease of preneoplastic lesions suggests that a regular consumption of this food in the context of a healthy lifestyle, could contribute to the prevention of chronic diseases.

Thesis (MTech (Food Technology))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018.
Lipase-catalysed chemical transformations are today routinely considered by synthetic organic chemists as economical and competitive “green chemistry” alternatives. Although lipases can effortlessly be produced on a large-scale by fermentation, their industrial application was, until recently, limited to the detergent, oleo-chemistry and dairy industry. However, during the last few decades, the biotechnological application of lipases has expanded significantly, becoming indispensable in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals, pesticides, single cell protein production, biosensor preparations and waste management. Similarly, lipases have become a vital ingredient in the contemporary food processing industry with applications ranging from fruit juice production to baked foods, vegetable fermentations and dairy enrichment. Furthermore, lipases are routinely used as flavour development agents in cheese, butter and margarine products. Lipases are also applied in the leather industry for processing hides and skins and for treatment of activated sludge and other aerobic waste product treatments where its action enhances oxygen transfer. While lipases currently account for less than 21 % of the enzyme market, a growing interest in lipases is reflected by the publication of an average of 1000 research papers per year and the growing number of available lipases since the 1980s. There is a sustained interest to bioprospect for novel lipase enzymes from available unexplored biodiversity. This study aimed to screen for lipase-producing microorganisms resident in olive wastewater biofilms. Lipase activity of positive isolates was subsequently also quantitatively determined to select for the highest producers of true lipases. A Geotrichum candidum isolate from olive mill wastewater biofilms was selected for subsequent studies based on its superior lipase production phenotype. Using a yeast mediated ligation approach the G. candidum GCL1 lipase gene was cloned and heterologously expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae as an enzyme production host. The recombinant lipase was purified and analysed in terms of substrate specificity, pH optima, temperature optima and stability as well as organic solvent tolerance. The G. candidum gcl1 lipase presented enhanced thermo- and organic solvent-stability that are highly sought after traits for industrial application.

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UNISINOS - Universidade do Vale do Rio dos Sinos
A crescente demanda de produtos derivados da oliva tem despertado o interesse das indústrias que vêem neste segmento a possibilidade de aprimoramento dos aspectos nutricionais e sensoriais para melhor atendimento das demandas existentes no mercado. O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver um azeite de oliva aromatizado a partir do tomilho (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae) liofilizado, que atenda aos requisitos sensoriais desejados por pessoas críticas que buscam maiores informações por aquilo que consomem, que desejam diversificar os produtos existentes no mercado e prezem por manter uma alimentação saudável (sem a presença de ingredientes artificiais na formulação) e saborosa. O desenvolvimento ocorreu a partir de formulações encontradas em literatura, aplicadas em escala piloto. O produto foi analisado físico-quimicamente e também através de um perfil cromatográfico, que possibilitaram a comprovação da manutenção da qualidade do azeites, mesmo após a aromatização, todas as análises de controle de qualidade aplicadas mostraram que os parâmetros dos azeites se mantem nos níveis exigidos pelo Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento (MAPA) (BRASIL, 2012), para azeites de oliva extra virgem. Nenhuma diferença significativa foi demonstrada entre os azeites aromatizados, em temperatura ambiente e aquecido a 60oC, desta forma, para o tomilho liofilizado, não mostrou-se eficiente aquecer o azeite para obter melhorias na extração de compostos da erva para azeite, nem para características físico-químicas no geral, assim como, não notou-se nenhum prejuízo para o azeite o aquecimento nesta temperatura, no tempo de sete dias.
The growing request for olive products are now attracting interest from industries that see in this segment the possibility of improving nutritional and sensorial aspects to better meet the market’s demands. The aim of this work was to develop an olive oil flavored with lyophilized thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae), which meets the sensory requirements desired by critical consumers who seek for more information about what they consume, that wish to diversify the existing products in the market and who are most attached to maintaining a healthy and tasty diet (without the presence of artificial ingredients in the formulation). The development took place from formulations found in literature, applied in pilot scale. The product was analyzed physically chemically and also through a chromatographic profile, which allowed the confirmation of the oils high quality maintenance. Even after the aromatization, all applied quality control analyzes showed that the parameters required by the Ministério da Agricultura, Pecuária e Abastecimento (MAPA) (BRAZIL, 2012) are maintained at the extra virgin olive oils levels. No significant difference was demonstrated between flavored oils at room temperature and heated to 60°C. Therefore, for lyophilized thyme heat the oil has not been efficient either to obtain improvements in the extraction of herb’s compounds for olive oil, or for physical-chemicals characteristics in general, as well as, it was not noticed any damage in heating the oil at this temperature.

This thesis describes the growth of European olive (Olea europaea L.) at three different trial sites located near Laverton, in the north-eastern Goldfields region of Western Australia. The local region comprises part ofthe rangelands area of Australia and has a semi-arid climate. The initial reason for planting olives was indirectly related to the rapid decrease in the local population and the economic downturn that resulted within that community during the late 1990's. This prompted an investigation into other possibilities for economic diversity for remote communities such as Laverton, which are located in the rangelands area of Australia. In Australia, much of the southern and eastern areas of the country have similar climate to traditional olive growing areas in Europe. [n the rangelands however, the environment is different to most other areas in the world where olive trees are grown and there is a notable absence of a commercial olive industry. Whilst locally, individual trees were also observed to be growing well and fruiting abundantly, it is not known whether it is possible to grow olive trees successfully on a commercial scale. Two preliminary trials were established in an ad-hoc manner, to examine whether olive trees could be grown successfully in the rangelands environment. Eighty-eight trees of 5 different cultivars were planted on a shallow, clay soil profile at the first trial site. Ninety-eight trees of 11 different cultivar were planted on a deep sand soil profile at the second site. Higher mortality rate occurred at the first site, with most tree deaths being recorded in the first two years. Peak growth of branch tips occurred during the spring-summer seasons at both sites. Differences in trial design and timing of planting prevented statistical comparison of growth performance between sites however.
A third olive trial, consisting of 3 olive groves was established according to randomised design. In the north and middle groves, 54 trees of 3 different cultivar were planted on a deep alluvial soil profile. In the south grove, 53 trees of 3 different cultivar were planted on a shallow clay soil profile. High mortality rates were recorded at all 3 groves during the first year, as a result of high salinity levels in irrigation water during the establishment period. Overall, most tree mortality was recorded at the south grove. Significantly higher growth performance occurred within the deeper alluvial soil profile at the north and middle groves, compared to the shallow clay soil profile in the south grove. Negligible olive fruit production occurred at the first site. At the second site, small quantities of olive fruit were produced during some seasons only. No olive fruit production occurred at any grove at the randomized site. Successful fruit formation appears directly related to tree health, as a function of water supply. Ripening of olive fruit occurred earlier than at other more temperate olive growing areas of Australia. Similar major and trace element deficiencies occurred at all sites, interpreted to be a function of universal alkaline ground-water conditions.
This study failed to confirm conclusively, whether European olive could be grown successfully in the semi-arid climate, typical of much of the rangelands area of Australia. As a result of the study however, successful growth in this environment is confirmed to be highly dependent on three factors. Firstly, availability of reliable irrigation waters of sufficient quality. Secondly, choice of suitable soil types. Thirdly, selection of suitable cultivars. Quality of olive oil produced from fruit appears to be influenced by local climatic factors The study also highlighted the issues of land tenure, current management attitudes and level of support within the local community as having a direct and significant impact on the trial.

Extra-virgin olive oil is a very appreciated vegetable fat used mainly for food purposes due to its pleasant flavour and taste and to the demonstrated and well-known health promoting effects, which include anti-inflammatory and antioxidant functions and protection against cardiovascular diseases. Olive oil quality depends on many factors, among which environmental (climate and soil), genetic (variety), agronomic and technological factors play important roles. Among the agronomic factors, the maintenance and use of healthy fruits, and, most of all, the choice of the best ripening stage of olive fruits represent the factors having a prominent role in determining olive oil quality. The ideal cultivation area for olive tree is the Mediterranean region, which usually has mild winters and long dry summers. Despite these climatic limitations, olive trees grown in marginal areas such as Northern Italy are known to yield extra-virgin olive oils with a pleasant flavour and an overall high quality profile. However, the often unfavourable climatic conditions in this area make necessary optimising the choice of the best harvesting period and setting up technological factors in order to improve oil quality. Many different approaches have been suggested so far for the definition of a simple and reliable way to assess the right harvesting time and to maximise oil quality. More in detail, physiological and biochemical changes that occur throughout olive ripening have been taken into account, such as loss of firmness, skin colour changes, pigment content or ratio, sugar content, oil accumulation, decrease in phenolics and some others. Results were however often conflicting due to the great variability among cultivars, growing areas, and technological aspects. It is therefore necessary to study all these factors in every specific growing area. In this dissertation different approaches have been chosen to characterise a cultivar grown locally in Veneto, i.e. cv. Grignano, yielding a unique oil with lemon peel aromatic notes and to evaluate factors involved in the definition of oil quality also in comparison with Frantoio, a common Italian variety. First of all, a study on anoxic oil extraction has been performed in order to understand the influence of the absence of oxygen, which can oxidise olive oil components but is also a required reagent for the biosynthesis of flavour compounds, on the global volatile profile of oils extracted from olives harvested at four consecutive ripening stages across véraison. The analysis of the volatile components of oils has been performed by means of PTR-MS (Proton Transfer Reaction-Mass Spectrometry), a spectrometric technique that allows an evaluation of the global volatile fingerprint of samples without any preparatory step. This “real-time” evaluation of the spectral signature of extra-virgin olive oils from cv. Grignano coupled with unsupervised multivariate analyses, i.e. principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering, allowed to explore the complex spectra by means of the construction of a heat map. Results showed that the ripening stage has a predominant effect on the definition of the global volatile profile compared to anoxic extraction, and that the progression of ripening is characterised by the biosynthesis of specific groups of volatiles that seem to be “expressed” only transiently. Moreover, the progression of fruit ripening causes a saturation effect in the volatile profile. Consequently, given that ripening is predominant over technological factors, an in depth study regarding olive ripening in Veneto region has been carried out focusing on fruit firmness, oil accumulation, chlorophyll a content, colorimetric analyses (calculating colour indices), and gene expression profiles. Results demonstrated that in Grignano and Frantoio cvs. ripening-related events were different, since Grignano showed an earlier and faster ripening course, both in loss of firmness and in oil accumulation. These findings suggest that monitoring cv. Grignano ripening stages is more difficult, since changes in ripening-related physiological parameters occur very quickly. Moreover, differences among two consecutive harvest seasons were observed resulting in a complex reading of the overall ripening profile. Statistical analyses have been performed, and principal component analysis established that cultivar Frantoio shows a greater variability in oil accumulation data, confirming that cv. Grignano ripening course is somehow more compact. One of the colour indices calculated in this study, namely CI, was suitable to distinguish drupe samples picked at different ripening stages. Then, to investigate on the peculiar flavour features of Grignano oil, a study on the terpenic metabolism in olive has been carried out isolating and characterising for the first time three enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of terpenes (terpene synthases) in this species. To this end, a thorough search for putative terpene synthases in a published olive EST (expressed sequence tag) database was performed. Fragments have been then amplified and the full length genes have been used to deduce the amino acidic sequence to be heterologously expressed in E. coli. Expressed proteins have been checked for enzymatic activity and one of them turned out to be an active geraniol synthase, whilst the other two terpene synthases seemed inactive, a phenomenon not unusual in terpene metabolism. qPCR demonstrated that the three isolated terpene synthase genes have a ripening-dependent trend in transcript accumulation, suggesting a role in flavour development. Finally, gene expression analyses performed in the previous works emphasised the absence of validated reference genes suitable for gene expression studies in olive. Therefore, an extensive search for candidate reference genes to be used for olive gene expression studies has been performed using the above-mentioned EST database and retrieving studies regarding validated reference genes in other plant species. 13 candidate genes were identified for Olea europaea, which were tested both in olive drupes and leaves for their transcriptional stability. Stability analyses performed with genormPLUS and NormFinder software packages showed that 12 over the 13 genes in this work represented actually good reference genes and that, among these genes, the optimum number that must be used for good data normalisation was two. The best two reference genes identified in the study, specifically suitable for normalisation of gene expression data in fruit samples at different developmental stages, were GAPDH2 and PP2A1.
L’olio extravergine di oliva è un olio vegetale molto apprezzato utilizzato principalmente per scopi alimentari a causa del profilo aromatico piacevole e a effetti salutistici noti e dimostrati, che includono proprietà antinfiammatorie e antiossidanti e una protezione nei confronti di alcune malattie cardiovascolari. La qualità dell’olio di oliva dipende da molti fattori, e tra questi fattori ambientali (clima e suolo), genetici (cultivar), agronomici e tecnologici hanno un ruolo importante. Tra i fattori agronomici, la gestione e l’uso di frutti sani e, soprattutto, la scelta dello stadio di maturazione adatto dei frutti rappresentano le variabili che hanno un ruolo fondamentale nella determinazione della qualità globale dell’olio di oliva. Le zone adatte per la coltivazione dell’olivo sono le regioni mediterranee, che sono caratterizzate solitamente da inverni miti ed estati lunghe e secche. Nonostante queste limitazioni climatiche, olivi cresciuti in zone marginali come l’Italia settentrionale conferiscono oli extravergini con profili aromatici gradevoli e di alta qualità. Le condizioni climatiche spesso avverse in queste aree rendono però necessarie un’ottimizzazione della scelta del miglior periodo di raccolta e l’implementazione di processi tecnologici allo scopo di migliorare la qualità dell’olio. Molti approcci diversi sono stati proposti finora per la definizione di un modo semplice e affidabile per valutare il periodo di raccolta corretto e massimizzare la qualità dell’olio estratto. Più in dettaglio, i cambiamenti fisiologici e biochimici che si verificano durante la maturazione dell’oliva sono stati presi in considerazione, come ad esempio la perdita di consistenza, cambiamenti del colore superficiale delle drupe, contenuto di pigmenti o loro rapporti, contenuto in zuccheri, inolizione, diminuzione di componenti fenoliche e altri. I risultati si sono dimostrati però molto spesso discordanti, a causa della grande variabilità presente tra diverse cultivar, aree di coltivazione e aspetti tecnologici. Si rende perciò necessario uno studio di questi fattori in ogni singola area di coltivazione. In questa tesi diversi approcci sono stati adottati per la caratterizzazione di una varietà coltivata localmente in Veneto, la cultivar Grignano, da cui si estrae un olio dal profilo sensoriale unico con note di buccia di limone, e per la valutazione di fattori coinvolti nella determinazione della qualità dell’olio anche attraverso un confronto con la cultivar Frantoio, una varietà diffusa comunemente in tutta Italia. Inizialmente è stato condotto uno studio che prevedeva l’estrazione di olio in atmosfera priva di ossigeno, che può essere responsabile dell’ossidazione di componenti dell’olio ma è anche un reagente richiesto nella biosintesi di composti aromatici, per valutare l’effetto dell’estrazione in atmosfera controllata sul profilo volatile globale di oli ottenuti da olive raccolte in quattro stadi consecutivi di maturazione a cavallo dell’invaiatura. L’analisi delle componenti volatili è stata condotta mediante PTR-MS (spettrometria di massa con reazione di trasferimento di protoni), una tecnica di spettrometria che permette una valutazione del fingerprint globale dei volatili senza fasi preliminari o trattamento dei campioni. Questa valutazione “real-time” dei profili spettrali di oli extravergini da cultivar Grignano unita a analisi multivariata dei dati, mediante analisi delle componenti principali e clustering gerarchico, ha permesso di proiettare i complessi spettri ottenuti tramite l’analisi spettrometrica in una heat map. I risultati hanno dimostrato che lo stadio di maturazione ha un effetto predominante sulla definizione del profilo volatile rispetto all’estrazione in atmosfera controllata, e che il progredire della maturazione è caratterizzato dalla biosintesi di specifici gruppi di molecole volatili che sembrano quindi “espresse” in modo transiente. Inoltre, è stato osservato un effetto saturazione nel profilo volatile con il progredire della maturazione. Conseguentemente, dato che lo stadio di maturazione ha un effetto prevalente rispetto ai fattori tecnologici studiati, uno studio approfondito della fisiologia della maturazione in Veneto è stato condotto ponendo particolare attenzione a perdita di consistenza, inolizione, contenuto in clorofilla a, dati colorimetrici (calcolo di indici di colore) e dati di espressione genica. I risultati hanno dimostrato che gli eventi collegati alla maturazione sono differenti nelle cultivar Grignano e Frantoio, dato che Grignano manifesta una dinamica di maturazione più precoce e rapida, sia considerando la perdita di consistenza che l’accumulo di olio nella drupa. Questi risultati suggeriscono come monitorare la maturazione in Grignano sia più difficile, dato che i cambiamenti nei parametri di maturazione si verificano molto velocemente. Inoltre, sono state osservate differenze importanti nei parametri elencati in due stagioni successive, da cui consegue una notevole difficoltà nella comprensione del profilo globale di maturazione. Sono state condotte analisi statistiche sui campioni descritti e l’analisi delle componenti principali ha stabilito che la cultivar Frantoio mostra maggiore variabilità nei dati di inolizione, confermando che il decorso di maturazione della cultivar Grignano è in qualche modo più compatto. Tra gli indici di colore calcolati nello studio, uno, cioè CI, sembra appropriato per distinguere campioni raccolti in diversi stadi di maturazione. Successivamente, per approfondire le caratteristiche aromatiche tipiche della cultivar Grignano, è stato condotto uno studio riguardante il metabolismo terpenico in olivo, con l’isolamento e la caratterizzazione di tre enzimi responsabili della biosintesi di terpeni (terpene sintasi) per la prima volta in questa specie. A questo scopo è stata condotta una ricerca approfondita di putative terpene sintasi in un database di EST (expressed sequence tag) di olivo recentemente pubblicato. I frammenti selezionati sono stati amplificati permettendo di ottenere i geni full length, le cui sequenze sono state utilizzate per dedurre le sequenze aminoacidiche che sono state espresse in E. coli. Le proteine espresse sono state sottoposte a saggi enzimatici per determinarne l’attività e una di queste si è dimostrata una geraniolo sintasi attiva, mentre le altre due proteine non hanno dato prodotti anche se la presenza di terpene sintasi inattive non è così infrequente. Analisi qPCR hanno dimostrato come le tre terpene sintasi isolate abbiano un andamento legato alla maturazione nell’espressione genica, ed è possibile perciò un loro ruolo nella determinazione del profilo aromatico. Infine, l’utilizzo della qPCR come analisi di espressione genica nei lavori precedenti ha evidenziato come geni reference validati e adatti per studi di espressione genica in olivo non siano disponibili in letteratura. Una ricerca di geni reference candidati per questo scopo è stata quindi condotta utilizzando il database di EST citato sopra e cercando in letteratura studi riguardanti la validazione di geni reference in altre specie vegetali. Sono stati quindi identificati 13 geni candidati in Olea europaea, la cui stabilità dei trascritti è stata testata sia in drupe che in foglie di olivo. Analisi di stabilità condotte mediante gli strumenti genormPLUS e NormFinder hanno dimostrato che 12 tra questi geni sono effettivamente geni reference funzionali e utilizzabili per studi di espressione genica in olivo e che, tra questi, il numero di geni ottimale da utilizzare per una buona normalizzazione dei dati corrisponde a due. I migliori geni reference identificati in questo studio, adatti per analisi di espressione genica in frutti a diversi stadi di sviluppo, sono stati GAPDH2 e PP2A1.

Orientador: Carlos Alberto Rodrigues Anjos
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos
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Resumo: O consumo de azeite de oliva no Brasil apresentou um crescimento de 70% na última década. As gôndolas dos supermercados foram tomadas por uma diversidade de azeites de oliva acondicionados em vários tipos de embalagens. Esses produtos são todos importados, sendo que uma parte é fracionada e envasada no Brasil, visto que não existe produção em escala comercial no país. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a estabilidade do azeite de oliva extra virgem em diferentes sistemas de embalagem. As amostras de azeite de oliva extra virgem foram fracionadas e acondicionadas em embalagens de polietileno tereftalato (PET) nas cores cristal (transparente) e âmbar; em latas de folha-de-flandres; e em garrafas de vidro transparente. Um lote destas embalagens foi inertizado com nitrogênio gasoso. O envase e o fechamento foram feitos de forma manual. As amostras foram estocadas à temperatura ambiente (25±2°C) e em duas condições: mantidas em caixas de papelão ao abrigo da luz e expostas à luz (2900 lux) por 12 horas/dia por um período de seis meses. Para determinação da estabilidade do azeite foram realizadas análises físico-químicas de ácidos graxos livres, índice de peróxidos, extinção específica a 230 e 270 nm, teor de clorofila e cor L*C*h, no momento inicial e a cada 30 dias. Já as análises de umidade, compostos fenólicos totais, teor de tocoferóis e cor Lovibond foram feitas em intervalos de 90 dias. Observou-se que no período de 6 meses de estocagem, os resultados mais expressivos ocorreram devido à foto-oxidação, com degradação significativa nos compostos a-tocoferol, clorofila e significativa alteração da cor. Os efeitos da auto-oxidação foram observados pelo ligeiro aumento do valor de K232 e do índice de peróxido. Quando armazenados no escuro durante 6 meses, os quatro tipos de embalagem foram eficazes em manter a estabilidade oxidativa do azeite. Quando exposto à luz, o azeite das embalagens de PET e vidro transparentes apresentou expressiva degradação. Na embalagem de PET âmbar a degradação foi mais lenta, porém significativa. A inertização com nitrogênio não teve efeito sobre a estabilidade do azeite nos diferentes tipos de embalagens. Assim, diante dos resultados obtidos no experimento e sabendo que o azeite de oliva é exposto à luz nos pontos de venda e durante o consumo doméstico, o uso de embalagens transparentes não é recomendado para azeites de oliva extra virgem. Quanto à embalagem de PET âmbar, faz-se necessário melhorar seus parâmetros de barreira à luz, como a pigmentação e a espessura da parede
Abstract: Brazilian consumption of olive oil presented a growth about 70% in the last decade. Market shelves has been filled by a diversity of olive oil conditioned in a variety of packages. ln the Brazilian marketing all of the olive oil are imported and part of them are parceled and packed in Brazil, since in the country there is no production in commercial scale. The objective of this work is to evaluate the stability of virgin olive oil in different packaging systems. The olive oil was fractioned and packed in transparent and amber polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles, transparent glass bottles and tinplates cans. Half of the package received a nitrogen flow. The filling and closing were done manually. The samples were stored during six months at room temperature (25±2°C) and in two conditions: in cardboard boxes without exposition to light and with light exposition (2900 lux) for 12 hours/day. The quality parameters to determination of the oil stability were analyzed monthly: free fatty acid, peroxide value, specific extinction at 230 and 270 nm, chlorophyll content and color L*C*h. The moisture, total phenolics, a-tocopherol content and Lovibond color were evaluated every ninety days. It was observed that within 6 months of storage, the most significant results were due to photo-oxidation, causing significant degradation on the contents of a-tocopherol and chlorophyll and changes in the color. The effects of auto-oxidation were observed by the slight increase in K232 and peroxide value. It was realized that when stored in the dark for six months, the packages studied were effective in maintaining the oil stability. The most significant changes occur in the olive oil exposed to light in transparent PET and glass bottles. The inerting with nitrogen had no effect on the stability of olive oil. Thus, considering the results obtained in the experiment and knowing the fact that olive oil is exposed to light at points of sale and during the domestic consumption, the transparent packages are not recommended for extra virgin olive oil. Relating to the amber PET bottles exposed to light, the effect of the oxidation was slower, but significant. Therefore, it's necessary to improve its light barrier like the thickness and the pigmentation
Mestrado
Tecnologia de Alimentos
Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Orientador: Juliana Alves Macedo
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos
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Resumo: O azeite de oliva virgem extra é considerado um alimento funcional com importantes propriedades biológicas relacionadas à elevada concentração de ácido graxo monoinsaturado. Estudos recentes indicam que os componentes minoritários na composição do azeite têm sido muito associados com benefícios à saúde, muito além do conteúdo de ácido oleico, destacando-se os compostos fenólicos, principalmente hidroxitirosol e tirosol. A região na qual as oliveiras são cultivadas pode ter influência direta na composição do azeite, principalmente no que se refere aos compostos minoritários. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar se o potencial antioxidante dos azeites de oliva produzidos no Brasil (ArbequinaRS, ArbequinaMG e Maria da Fé) se assemelha ao dos azeites europeus (ArbequinaMed e Gallo®) tradicionais no mercado brasileiro. O perfil de ácidos graxos mostrou que a amostra Maria da Fé assemelha-se à amostra referência Gallo®, apresentando as maiores concentrações de ácido oleico. O teor de tocoferóis foi maior nas amostras ArbequinaRS e Maria da Fé. Quanto à determinação de fenólicos totais, pelo método de Folin-Ciocalteu, destacaram-se a ArbequinaRS e ArbequinaMed. Esta também apresentou maior concentração de hidroxitirosol, enquanto que, a referência Gallo® apresentou maior teor de tirosol. A capacidade antioxidante foi avaliada por métodos de sequestro de radicais, ORAC e DPPH, este permitiu identificar diferença estatística entre as amostras testadas. Dentre as amostras de variedade Arbequina, destaca-se o azeite produzido na região Sul do Brasil, equiparando-se estatisticamente ao comercial de origem mediterrânea; foi observada uma correlação positiva entre conteúdo de fenólicos totais e a capacidade antioxidante pelo método de sequestro de radical DPPH. O método ORAC não mostrou diferença estatística significativa entre as amostras. A atividade biológica foi avaliada através da mensuração da atividade de enzimas endógenas, catalase e superóxido dismutase, do arsenal antioxidante de hepatócitos humanos. Após o ensaio MTT de viabilidade celular foram definidas duas concentrações de estudo para os testes enzimáticos: 0,5 e 2mg/mL. De forma geral, nos ensaios de ativação do sistema celular endógeno antioxidante de hepatócitos, dentre os azeites testados os de maior potencial biológico foram os brasileiros, com importante destaque para a variedade Arbequina produzida no Rio Grande do Sul, ArbequinaRS
Abstract: The extra virgin olive oil is considered a functional food with important biological properties related to the high concentration of monounsaturated fatty acid. Recent studies indicate that minor components in olive oil composition have been very associated with health benefits, far beyond the content of oleic acid, highlighting the phenolic compounds, especially hydroxytyrosol and tyrosol. The region where the olive trees are grown may have direct influence on oil composition, especially with regard to minority compounds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antioxidant potential of olive oils produced in Brazil (ArbequinaRS, ArbequinaMG and Maria da Fé) is similar to European oil (ArbequinaMed and Gallo®) traditional in the Brazilian market. The fatty acid profile showed that the sample Maria da Fé resembles the reference sample Gallo®, with the highest concentrations of oleic acid. The tocopherols content was higher in ArbequinaRS and Maria da Fé samples. The determination of total phenolic by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, the highlights were the ArbequinaRS and ArbequinaMed. This also showed a higher concentration of hydroxytyrosol, while the Gallo® reference showed greater tyrosol content. The antioxidant capacity was evaluated by sequestration methods of radicals, ORAC and DPPH, this allowed us to identify significant differences between the samples tested. Among the samples of Arbequina variety, stand out from the oil produced in southern Brazil, equating statistically the trade of Mediterranean origin; was observed a positive correlation between total phenolic content and antioxidant activity by DPPH radical sequestration method. The ORAC method was not significantly different between the samples. The biological activity was evaluated by measuring the activity of endogenous enzymes of the antioxidant arsenal of human hepatocytes: superoxide dismutase and catalase. After the MTT assay cell viability was defined two concentrations to study enzyme tests 0,5 and 2 mg/mL. In general, the antioxidant endogenous cellular system hepatocyte activation assays, among the oils tested the highest biological potential were Brazilians, with major emphasis on the Arbequina variety produced in Rio Grande do Sul, ArbequinaRS
Mestrado
Nutrição Experimental e Aplicada à Tecnologia de Alimentos
Mestra em Alimentos e Nutrição