Literatura académica sobre el tema "National Greenback"

In the aftermath of the global financial crisis of 2008-09, leading Central Banks (like the Federal Reserve, Bank of England, European Central Bank and the Bank of Japan) have introduced a multiplicity of untraditional monetary policy measures, so as to stimulate the economies and curb the severity of inflation at the international level. Quantitative Easing may be defined as a policy measure that results in an expansion of the Central Bank’s balance sheet, with an augmentation in the level of the bank’s money in the economy (Bernanke and Reinhart, 2004). Analysts claim that the strengthening of the dollar, which is being supported by the US Fed Reserve's constant rate hikes to counter rapidly rising inflation, is the principal reason behind the depreciation of the Indian rupee. Moreover, other aspects including the withdrawal of foreign institutional investors also affected the rupee strength and macroeconomic dynamics. According to the IMF, the strength of the dollar causing serious problems such as tightening financial conditions and raising the price of imported goods and services in many emerging economies such as India. Furthermore, an instant hike in oil prices driven by the war between Russia and Ukraine also weakened the rupee and consequently India's current account deficit reaching an absolute record high in the third quarter of the year 2022. No doubt, in comparison to US dollars, the value of the Indian Rupee has deteriorated in international markets. But at the same time, there are other currencies where the rupee still holds the top spot when evaluated against other currencies throughout the world. Notwithstanding all the challenges, our union finance minister Nirmala Sitharaman reportedly announced that the Indian rupee is considerably better positioned than other international currencies against the greenback. Moreover, these days, India has consistently been working toward making the Indian rupee an international currency and Indian government has progressed significantly towards assigning this status to Indian rupee. In the opinion of certain economists, despite the split, our national currency is still in a stronger position than other currencies when analysed against the US dollar.

During the first two decades following statehood in 1859, the Oregon Supreme Court heard a great many disputes about personnel or activities of the new state government. Were Oregon blacks entitled to vote after national ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment, even though Oregon itself voted not to ratify? Did the federal legal tender acts require Oregon to accept payment of its own taxes in depreciated greenbacks? Could a landowner's eminent domain recovery be reduced by an improvementrelated increase in the value of remaining land?

FIDIC (Fédération Internationale des Ingénieurs - Conseils) is an International body whose membership consists of National Associations of Consulting Engineers. It has in publication different suites of contracts used for international engineering projects, viz; FIDIC REDBOOK (Construction), FIDIC YELLOW BOOK (Plant& DB), SILVER BOOK (Turnkey/EPC) and FIDIC GREENBOOK (Short Form Contract). Generally, the FIDIC contract contains 20 Clauses but seventeen (17) of which have common clause names and the suitability of this FIDIC Suite is a measure of ‘Risk distribution’. Whereas there is an obvious similarity with regards to the number of clauses contained in each of the FIDIC Suites, but this paper limits attention only to General Provisions, Force Majeure, Claims, Disputes and Arbitration.

Standard English need not be a matter of prescriptivism or any attempt to ‘create’ a particular standard, but, rather, can be a matter of observation of actual linguistic behaviour. For Hudson (2000), standard English is the kind of English which is written in published work, which is spoken in situations where published writing is most influential – especially in university level education and so in post-university professions – and which is spoken ‘natively’ at home by the ‘professional class’, i.e. people who are most influenced by published writing. In the papers in Bex and Watts (eds, 1999), it is recurrently claimed that, when speaking English, what the ‘social group with highest degree of power, wealth or prestige’ or more neutrally ‘educated people’ or ‘socially admired people’ speak is the variety known as ‘standard English’. However, ‘standard English’ may also mean that shared aspect of English which makes global communication possible. This latter perspective allows for two meanings of ‘standard’: it may refer both to an idealised set of shared features, and also to different sets of national features, reflecting different demographic and political histories and language influences. The methodology adopted in the International Corpus of English (henceforth ICE – cf. Greenbaum, 1996) enables us to observe and investigate each set of features, showing what everybody shares and also what makes each national variety of English different.

AbstractThe SERENDIP program is an ongoing search for narrow band radio signals from extraterrestrial civilizations. Each generation SERENDIP instrument has on average been about 35 times more powerful than its predecessor. In this paper we discuss the hardware design of the latest generation instrument, SERENDIP IV, which will be deployed in early 1997 for a 21 cm sky survey at the National Astronomy and Ionospheric Center’s 305 meter radio telescope in Arecibo, Puerto Rico. SERENDIP IV is a 167 million channel spectrum analyzer, covering a 100 Mhz bandwidth, with 0.6 Hz resolution and a 1.7 second integration time. SERENDIP IV’s modular design incorporates a bank of digital mixers and filters to separate the 100 MHz band into forty 2.5 MHz sub-bands. Each 2.5 MHz sub-band is further broken down into 0.6 Hz bins by means of a four million point fast Fourier transform. The resulting power spectra are analyzed by 40 high speed processors. Narrow band signals having power significantly above background noise levels are recorded along with telescope coordinates, time, and frequency. The data are sent in real time to Berkeley for analysis. SERENDIP IV hardware is also utilized by the Ohio State University SETI program and pulsar programs at Nancay Observatory (France), the US Naval Research Lab, the Effelsberg telescope (Germany), NRAO’s Greenbank Observatory and NAIC’s Arecibo Observatory.

Domesticated and wild animal populations are important resources in evaluating human health risks. Animals not only share man's environment, but some of them are also part of the human food chain. Three examples of monitoring the health of animal populations and using these data in evaluating human health risk were reviewed. A study of horses, cattle and wildlife in a Missouri lead mining and smelting area revealed that horses were sensitive indicators of environmental lead contamination; they developed clinical signs of lead poisoning and died, while other animal species in the same area did not exhibit signs of illness. Although they did not appear ill, cattle in the same area had liver and kidney lead concentrations that were higher than tolerance levels established in England, Wales and Canada. Wildlife such as bullfrogs, muskrats, and greenbacked herons collected downstream from an old lead mining area had significantly higher lead and cadmium levels than either upstream samples or comparable downstream samples collected at a new lead mining area. Some of these data were used in a court trial which resulted in the lead company buying the farmland so that humans and domestic animals would not be exposed. Another study of municipal sludge application on Ohio farms did not reveal excess illness rates for either livestock or humans living on farms receiving the sludge, as compared with those on control farms. However, cattle were more sensitive than humans as early indicators of low level exposure to toxic heavy metals such as cadmium and lead. Also, calves on sludge-receiving farms accumulated cadmium and lead in their kidneys. The National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS), currently in a pilot stage in eight states, is another example of the use of animal populations to evaluate human health risk. Information from NAHMS about zoonotic infections, use of drugs in food producing animals and diseases common to both animals and man, provide a better understanding of human disease. Population-based animal studies are desirable adjuncts to laboratory animal studies in assessing human health risk due to environmental exposure.

Dear Readers, As we begin a new year full of potential and opportunity, we wish each of you much joy and success. As we embark on this journey, we al-so celebrate a significant milestone – the fifteenth anniversary of the European Journal of Geography. Over the past decade and a half, our journal has become a beacon of excellence in the field of geography and the social sciences. This journey has been characterised by unwavering commitment and tireless dedication, a collective endeavour led by the dedicated members of our editorial team and the European Association of Geographers (EUROGEO). Their diligence and passion have been instrumental in making our journal the respected publication it is today. Looking back on our shared history, we are proud to have published over 310 articles dealing with key topics in geography, planning and development. These scholarly contributions have not only explored and analysed important topics, but have also introduced new ideas (Kout-sopoulos, 2022; Manetos et al., 2022), methods (Cramer-Greenbaum, 2023; Krevs et al., 2023; Morawski & Wolff-Seidel, 2023) and data (Hojati & Mokarram, 2016) that will inspire future generations of geographers to transcend conventional disciplinary boundaries. The richness of our content encompasses numerous facets and includes the fields of geography education (Fraile-Jurado & Periáñez-Cuevas, 2023; Humble, 2023; Martínez-Hernández et al., 2023; Mašterová, 2023; Puertas-Aguilar et al., 2023), physical geography (Sánchez-Martínez & Cabrera, 2015), sustainability (Leininger-Frézal et al., 2023; Mally, 2021), tourism (Bandt et al., 2022; Jovanovic et al., 2022), geoin-formatics (Batsaris et al., 2023; Vestena et al., 2023), spatial analysis (Agourogiannis et al., 2021; Bartzokas-Tsiompras & Photis, 2020b; Wieland, 2022), remote sensing (Younes et al., 2023), maps (Nedkov et al., 2018; Papaioannou et al., 2020), geoinformation (Bartha & Kocsis, 2011; Bart-zokas-Tsiompras, 2022), economic (Doukissas et al., 2020; Mikhaylova, 2018), social (Mei & Liempt, 2022; Roșu et al., 2015), political (Kevicky, 2023; Tsitsaraki & Petracou, 2023) and cultural (Gusman & Otero-Varela, 2023) geography, geopolitics (Morgado, 2023) as well as environmental (Burić et al., 2023; Prodanova & Varadzhakova, 2022), urban (Chondrogianni & Stephanedes, 2021; Lagarias et al., 2022) and transport (Garrido, 2013; Kellerman, 2023; Koktavá & Horák, 2023) geography/planning (González, 2017). Each article, a testament to the diversity and depth of knowledge within our community, has played a crucial role in energising discourse in our academic environment. Several EJG articles addressed current global crises and challenges such as climate change, COVID-19, wars and economic recession. They show how important geography is when it comes to finding solutions and new insights to the many problems that threaten our world. This interconnected approach underlines the journal's commitment to engaging with both the specialised academic discourse and the broader global challenges of our time. Authors, editors, board members, reviewers and readers are the lifeblood of this academic platform, and we recognise and appreciate your invaluable role in the success of the European Journal of Geography. Your commitment has fuelled our growth and you are an essential part of our legacy. We take our fifteenth anniversary as an opportunity to invite and encourage you to contribute to the continued success of the journal by submitting new and original geographical research articles. Here's to another year of scholarly work, meaningful collaborations and the continued advancement of geographical knowledge. We would also like to take a moment to recognise the incredible efforts of 95 professors and researchers who served as reviewers for the European Journal of Geography in 2023. Their expertise and dedication have been invaluable in maintaining the quality of our publications. In addition, the journal features 18 distinguished editorial board members from 12 countries, including renowned experts (60% men, 40% women) from various geographical research fields (This year we welcome 10 esteemed new members to our Editorial Board). In particular, we would like to express our sincere thanks to the following editorial board members for their help and support: 1. Alvanides Seraphim, Northumbria University, UK 2. ‪Bednarz W. Sarah, Texas A&M University, USA‬‬ 3. Capello Roberta, Politecnico di Milano, Italy 4. Cretan Remus, West University of Timisoara, Romania 5. De Miguel Gonzalez Rafael, University of Zaragoza, Spain 6. Eeva-Kaisa Prokkola, University of Oulu, Finland 7. Jerry T. Mitchell, University of South Carolina, USA 8. Kavroudakis Dimitris, University of the Aegean, Greece 9. Kiss Éva, CSFK Geographical Institute, Hungary 10. Knecht Petr, Masaryk University, Czech Republic 11. Kounadi Ourania, University of Vienna, Austria 12. Kolvoord Bob, James Madison University, USA 13. Leininger-Frezal Caroline, Université de Paris, France 14. Margaritis Efstathios, University of Southampton, UK 15. Specht Doug, University of Westminster, UK 16. Strobl Josef, University of Salzburg, Austria 17. Theobald Rebecca, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, USA 18. Yilmaz Ari, Bandirma Onyedi Eylul University, Turkey In 2023, we received a total of 116 submissions. Of these, 24 outstanding papers were published online (acceptance rate 21% - 2023), while 92, although commendable, did not make it to publication. Remarkably, these submissions included the contributions of 63 authors from 20 countries. The average review speed of the articles is about 7-9 weeks for the first round and about 4-6 weeks for the second round. The reviewers came from 31 countries, which shows a global co-operation: UK, USA, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Greece, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Ireland, Spain, Netherlands, Japan, Hungary, Iceland, Croatia, Czech Republic, Finland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey, Romania and others. Thank you for your continued support and your contributions to this journal. Look forward to an exciting journey of discovery and innova-tion in the pages of the European Journal of Geography. Join us as we continue to shape the ever-evolving canvas of geographical exploration and knowledge. List of Reviewers 2023: 1. Alessandro Del Ponte, University of Alabama, USA 2. Ali Enes Dingil, Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Repuplic 3. Alvanides Seraphim, Northumbria University, UK 4. András J. Molnár, Christian-Albrecht University of Kiel, Germany 5. Anja du Plessis, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa 6. Anqi Huang, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, China 7. Apostolia Galani, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece 8. Ari Yilmaz, Bandirma Onyedi Eylül Üniversitesi, Turkey 9. Audur Palsdottir , University of Iceland, Iceland 10. Barbara Szejgiec-Kolenda, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland 11. Beth Schlemper, The University of Toledo, USA 12. Blaž Repe, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 13. Bob Kolvoord, James Madison University, USA 14. Carina Peter, Philipps-University Marburg, Germany 15. Carlos Lopez Escolano, University of Zaragoza, Spain 16. Caroline Leininger, Université de Paris, France 17. Charalampos Tsavdaroglou, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands 18. Christian Weismayer, Modul University Vienna GmbH, Austria 19. Darra Athanasia, National Technical University of Athens, Greece 20. Denise Blanchard, Texas State University, USA 21. Dimitris Kavroudakis, University of the Aegea, Greece 22. Don MacKeen, City of Glasgow College, UK 23. Doug Specht, University of Westminster, UK 24. Dragan Burić, University of Montenegro, Montenegro 25. Eeva-Kaisa Prokkola , University of Oulu, Finland 26. Efstathios Margaritis, University of Southampton, UK 27. Emmanuel Eze, University of Nigeria, Nigeria 28. Eva Psatha, University of Thessaly, Greece 29. Evangelos Rasvanis, University of Thessaly, Greece 30. Femke van Esch, Utrecht University, The Netherlands 31. František Petrovič, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia 32. George Revill, The Open University, UK 33. Géza Tóth, University of Miskolc, Hungary 34. Grayson R. Morgan, University of South Carolina, USA 35. Hristina Prodanova, National Institute of Geophysics, Geodesy and Geography - Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria 36. Huda Jamal Jumaah, Northern Technical University, Iraq 37. İlkay Südas, Ege University, Turkey 38. Ilse van liempt, Utrecht University, The Netherlands 39. Isabel María Gómez-Trigueros, University of Alicante, Spain 40. Italo Sousa de Sena, University College Dublin, Ireland 41. Iva Miranda Pires, NOVA University Lisbon, Portugal 42. Iwona Anna Jażdżewska, University of Lodz, Poland 43. Jaime Diaz Pacheco, Universidad de La Laguna, Spain 44. Jan Christoph Schubert, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany 45. Jens Dangschat , TU Wien, Austria 46. Jernej Zupančič, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 47. Jerry T. Mitchell, University of South Carolina, USA 48. Joan Rossello, Universitat de les Illes Balears, Spain 49. Joseph J. Kerski, ESRI, USA 50. Karina Standal, CICERO Center for International Climate Research, Oslo, Norway 51. Karl Donert, EUROGEO, Belgium 52. Koshiro Suzuki , University of Toyama, Japan 53. Kristine Juul, University of Roskilde , Denmark 54. Lauren Hammond, University College London, UK 55. Mahmood Shoorcheh, University of Isfahan, Iran 56. Maria Angeles Rodriguez-Domenech, Universidad Castilla La Mancha, Spain 57. María Lois , Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain 58. María-Luisa de Lázaro-Torres , Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain 59. Marko Krevs, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia 60. Marta Gallardo, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Spain 61. Md Galal Uddin, University of Galway, Ireland 62. Md. Kausar Alam, Brac University, Bangladesh 63. Michaela Spurná, Masaryk University, Czech Repuplic 64. Miha Pavšek, Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia 65. Muhammad Haroon Stanikzai , Kandahar University, Afghanistan 66. Neli Heidari, University of Hamburg, Germany 67. Nicholas Wise, Arizona State University, USA 68. Nikola Šimunić, Institute of Social Sciences Ivo Pilar, Croatia 69. Nikolaos Karachalis , University of the Aegean, Greece 70. Nuno Morgado, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary 71. Pablo Fraile-Jurado, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain 72. Panagiotis G. Tzouras, National Technical University of Athens, Greece 73. Peter T. Dunn, University of Washington, USA 74. Petr Knecht, Masaryk University, Czech Repuplic 75. Polyxeni Kechagia, University of Thessaly, Greece 76. Qi Zhou, China University of Geosciences, China 77. Rafael de Miguel González, University of Zaragoza, Spain 78. Rebecca Theobald, University of Colorado, USA 79. Remus Cretan, West University of Timisoara, Romania 80. Roberto Falanga, University of Lisbon, Institute of Social Sciences, Portugal 81. Saheed Adekunle Raji, University of Lagos, Nigeria 82. Sandra Sprenger, University of Hamburg, Germany 83. Sarah Bednarz, Texas A&M University, USA 84. Sebastien Bourdin, EM Normandie Bussiness School, France 85. Serafin Pazos-Vidal , European Association for Innovation in Local Development, Belgium 86. Susannah Cramer-Greenbaum, University of Warwick, UK, UK 87. Teemu Makkonen, University of Eastern Finland, Finland 88. Teresa Sadoń-Osowiecka, University of Gdansk, Poland 89. Theano S. Terkenli , University of the Aegean, Greece 90. Theodore Metaxas , University of Thessaly, Greece 91. Uwe Krause, Fontys School of the Arts, The Netherlands 92. Valériane Mistiaen , Université libre de Bruxelles, Belgium 93. Vesna Skrbinjek, International School for Social and Business Studies, Slovenia 94. Vincent Nzabarinda, Institute of Ecology and Geography, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China 95. Zsolt Tibor Kosztyán, University of Pannonia, Hungary

A World Among these Islands: Essays on Literature, Race, and National Identity in Antillean America, by Roberto Márquez (reviewed by Peter Hulme) Caribbean Reasonings: The Thought of New World, The Quest for Decolonisation, edited by Brian Meeks & Norman Girvan (reviewed by Cary Fraser) Elusive Origins: The Enlightenment in the Modern Caribbean Historical Imagination, by Paul B. Miller (reviewed by Kerstin Oloff) Caribbean Perspectives on Modernity: Returning Medusa’s Gaze, by Maria Cristina Fumagalli (reviewed by Maureen Shay) Who Abolished Slavery: Slave Revolts and Abolitionism: A Debate with João Pedro Marques, edited by Seymour Drescher & Pieter C. Emmer, and Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic, edited by Derek R . Peterson (reviewed by Claudius Fergus) The Mediterranean Apprenticeship of British Slavery, by Gustav Ungerer (reviewed by James Walvin) Children in Slavery through the Ages, edited by Gwyn Campbell, Suzanne Miers & Joseph C. Miller (reviewed by Indrani Chatterjee) The Invisible Hook: The Hidden Economics of Pirates, by Peter T. Leeson (reviewed by Kris Lane) Theorizing a Colonial Caribbean-Atlantic Imaginary: Sugar and Obeah, by Keith Sandiford (reviewed by Elaine Savory) Created in the West Indies: Caribbean Perspectives on V.S. Naipaul, edited by Jennifer Rahim & Barbara Lalla (reviewed by Supriya M. Nair) Thiefing Sugar: Eroticism between Women in Caribbean Literature, by Omise’eke Natasha Tinsley (reviewed by Lyndon K. Gill) Haiti Unbound: A Spiralist Challenge to the Postcolonial Canon, by Kaiama L. Glover (reviewed by Asselin Charles) Divergent Dictions: Contemporary Dominican Literature, by Néstor E. Rodríguez (reviewed by Dawn F. Stinchcomb) The Caribbean Short Story: Critical Perspectives, edited by Lucy Evans, Mark McWatt & Emma Smith (reviewed by Leah Rosenberg) Society of the Dead: Quita Manaquita and Palo Praise in Cuba, by Todd Ramón Ochoa (reviewed by Brian Brazeal) El Lector: A History of the Cigar Factory Reader, by Araceli Tinajero (reviewed by Juan José Baldrich) Blazing Cane: Sugar Communities, Class, and State Formation in Cuba, 1868-1959, by Gillian McGillivray (reviewed by Consuelo Naranjo Orovio) The Purposes of Paradise: U.S. Tourism and Empire in Cuba and Hawai’i, by Christine Skwiot (reviewed by Amalia L. Cabezas) A History of the Cuban Revolution, by Aviva Chomsky (reviewed by Michelle Chase) The Cubalogues: Beat Writers in Revolutionary Havana, by Todd F. Tietchen (reviewed by Stephen Fay) The Devil in the Details: Cuban Antislavery Narrative in the Postmodern Age, by Claudette M. Williams (reviewed by Gera Burton) Screening Cuba: Film Criticism as Political Performance during the Cold War, by Hector Amaya (reviewed by Ann Marie Stock) Perceptions of Cuba: Canadian and American Policies in Comparative Perspective, by Lana Wylie (reviewed by Julia Sagebien) Forging Diaspora: Afro-Cubans and African Americans in a World of Empire and Jim Crow, by Frank Andre Guridy (reviewed by Susan Greenbaum) The Irish in the Atlantic World, edited by David T. Gleeson (reviewed by Donald Harman Akenson) The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean, edited by Walton Look Lai & Tan Chee-Beng (reviewed by John Kuo Wei Tchen) The Island of One People: An Account of the History of the Jews of Jamaica, by Marilyn Delevante & Anthony Alberga (reviewed by Barry Stiefel) Creole Jews: Negotiating Community in Colonial Suriname, by Wieke Vink (reviewed by Aviva Ben-Ur) Only West Indians: Creole Nationalism in the British West Indies, by F.S.J. Ledgister (reviewed by Jerome Teelucksingh) Cultural DNA: Gender at the Root of Everyday Life in Rural Jamaica, by Diana J. Fox (reviewed by Jean Besson) Women in Grenadian History, 1783-1983, by Nicole Laurine Phillip (reviewed by Bernard Moitt) British-Controlled Trinidad and Venezuela: A History of Economic Interests and Subversions, 1830-1962, by Kelvin Singh (reviewed by Stephen G. Rabe) Export/Import Trends and Economic Development in Trinidad, 1919-1939, by Doddridge H.N. Alleyne (reviewed by Rita Pemberton) Post-Colonial Trinidad: An Ethnographic Journal, by Colin Clarke & Gillian Clarke (reviewed by Patricia van Leeuwaarde Moonsammy) Poverty in Haiti: Essays on Underdevelopment and Post Disaster Prospects, by Mats Lundahl (reviewed by Robert Fatton Jr.) From Douglass to Duvalier: U.S. African Americans, Haiti, and Pan Americanism, 1870-1964, by Millery Polyné (reviewed by Brenda Gayle Plummer) Haiti Rising: Haitian History, Culture and the Earthquake of 2010, edited by Martin Munro (reviewed by Jonna Knappenberger) Faith Makes Us Live: Surviving and Thriving in the Haitian Diaspora, by Margarita A. Mooney (reviewed by Rose-Marie Chierici) This Spot of Ground: Spiritual Baptists in Toronto, by Carol B. Duncan (reviewed by James Houk) Interroger les morts: Essai sur le dynamique politique des Noirs marrons ndjuka du Surinam et de la Guyane, by Jean-Yves Parris (reviewed by H.U.E. Thoden van Velzen & W. van Wetering)

Abstract This article seeks to reveal the links between Henry C. Carey's monetary theory in the greenback debate and the sectionalist issue within the US Reconstruction period. Sectionalism refers to the economic, political, and cultural differences between the North and South that led to the Civil War and persisted during Reconstruction. It is well known that Carey perceived those differences before the war and proposed, on grounds of his economic development theory, to alleviate sectionalism through a protective tariff. What is hardly known is that Carey continued to engage with the sectionalist issue in its new form during the Reconstruction period and tried to offer a solution to it via protectionism and greenbacks. He showed how greenbacks could put in motion a virtuous cycle of economic development and tied his solution to sectionalism to national independence.

Providing a unique perspective on economic history and policy, this book shows how a daring method once recommended by top economists could be adapted to help America pay for the things it needs. Written in a crisp, fast-paced style, this groundbreaking work presents an in-depth account of monetary theory and practice as the basis for its suggestion of a new system of money creation. First, the economic history of the United States is explored, with special emphasis on the years from the Civil War to the Great Depression. The proposal that follows, based on a long-lost method of money creation, is related to that context, as well as to America's current situation, both economic and political. Readers will learn how banks have created most of America's money supply since the nation's founding, but also about experiments with an alternative system in which the government plays that role. The crux of the book is an examination of the way in which the two systems could be harmonized to pay for public necessities without increasing taxes or national debt. The proposed new system of money creation would incorporate two complementary money streams—the existing banking system run by the Federal Reserve and a new stream of money created by Congress. By integrating the "Greenback" method with the fiscal and monetary status quo, the author argues, the United States could spend its way back to greatness.

This chapter narrates the James R. Chalmers's defeat for governor. It was the year 1885 in which the general election in the state of Mississippi was held for the election of governor and other state officers, district and county officials. The state was hopelessly Democratic. In view of unfavorable political conditions, many Republicans doubted the wisdom of putting a ticket in the field in opposition to the Democratic machine, but after consultation, and since the organization called Greenbackers had made some headway, it was decided to put a ticket in the field if fusion between Republicans and Greenbackers could be agreed upon, which was found to be possible. General Chalmers, who had publicly identified himself with the Republican party, was willing to accept the Republican nomination for governor, if his nomination would be endorsed by the Greenback party. After his humiliating defeat for governor, Chalmers retired to private life where he remained until the meeting of the National Republican Convention in Chicago in 1888, when he made another effort to bring himself into public notice.

This chapter examines the dual monetary system that existed in the hundred years after 1832, a period characterized by basic compromise. The compromise which followed the demise of the Second Bank of the United States had some negative consequences. Recurrently, and reflecting the euphoria stimulated by other causes, banks were created and loans were made with abandon. People then started coming to the banks for their money. These were the panics. The chapter considers the turbulent years after 1832, focusing on the emergence of free banking, the resulting bank failures and greenbacks, agitation for more greenbacks, the pressure for the coinage of cheap silver, and the recurrent panics—all of which combined to make the financial system of the United States, according to Andrew Carnegie, “the worst in the civilized world.” The passage of the National Bank Act (1863) establishing a new system of national banks is also discussed.

This chapter examines the controversies surrounding money and banking in the early years of the new American Republic. It shows how the U.S. Constitution restricted the right of coinage to the federal government and forbade both the states and the national government to issue paper money. It then coinsiders the issuance of Treasury notes by Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin in the 1812–1814 war, while Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury under the Lincoln administration, asked Congress to authorize repeated issues of greenbacks. The chapter also considers Alexander Hamilton's application for a central bank that would become the Bank of the United States, which competed with other banks. Finally, it discusses the establishment of the Second Bank of the United States and the struggle between President Andrew Jackson and Nicholas Biddle, president of the Bank of the United States.

Abstract Amid widening social upheaveal in the 1880s, the United States Senate launched the first comprehensive investigation of the “relations between labor and capital.” The senators were not alone in their assessment of the forces threatening to rupture the nation. They joined newspaper editors, ministers, local politicians, and other members of the elite in making “class conflict” part of the American political vocabulary as never before. And with good reason. From the turbulent railroad strike of 1877 to the Pullman strike of 1894, from the Greenba.ck-Labor party of the late 1870s to the Knights of Labor tickets that vied for power in scores of cities and towns during the 1880s, the social and political thrust of the Gilded Age met staunch popular challenges.

Abstract The International Corpus of English is at present envisaged to comprise eighteen national or regional corpora compiled in countries where English is spoken as a first language or as a second official language (Greenbaum, 1992). While each com ponent corpus can exist independently as a valuable resource for investigations into individual national or regional varieties, the value of the corpora is enhanced by their compatibility with each other. They have been compiled according to a common design, using the same criteria for text selection and the same time-frame. This level of standardization ensures that the corpora can be used for direct comparative studies of varieties of English throughout the world. The design of the corpus emerged after extensive discussions among participants in the project, which centred on the range of text categories to be included and on the textual and social variables to be taken into account in the selection and documentation of samples (Leitner, 1992; Peters, 1991; Schmied, 1990).

Abstract In 1941 Fruton and co-workers [1377] proposed a classification of the proteolytic enzymes of animal tissues in which they included an enzyme that hydrolysed Bz-Arg-NH2, a synthetic substrate of trypsin. At that time, this thiol-dependent enzyme was termed cathepsin II, but the nomenclature was further revised by Tallan et al. in 1952 [1401], who renamed cathepsin II as cathepsin B. Further characterization was done by Greenbaum and Fruton [1379]. Otto and co-workers, however, showed that two enzymes had contributed to the activity assigned to 'cathepsin B' in earlier work. Thus, gel filtration of enzymes from rat liver lysosomes separated components of 25 kDa and 52 kDa, both of which hydrolysed Bz-Arg-NH2. The 25 kDa endopeptidase was briefly known as cathepsin B' and cathepsin B1, but in reviewing this work in 1971, Otto [1272] termed the enzyme cathepsin BJ. The second enzyme (cathepsin B2) was a carboxypeptidase, and when this was renamed 'lysosomal cysteine-type carboxypeptidase' (EC 3.4.18.1), the original name of cathepsin B could be used once more for the endopeptidase. In 1972, the nomenclature committee of Inter national Union of Biochemistry (IUB) recommended the name cathepsin B, with the EC number 3.4.22.1. Cathepsin B appears to be ubiquitous in mammals, having been detected in nearly all organs and tissues. Also enzymes with similar properties occur in many lower organisms.

Abstract ICE (the International Corpus of English) is an ambitious project, drawing on researchers located in over twenty countries. Its principal aim is to provide the resources for comparative studies of the English used in countries where it is either a majority first language (for example, Canada and Australia) or an official additional language (for example, India and Nigeria). In both language situations, English serves as a means of communication between those who live in these countries. The resources that ICE is providing for comparative studies are computer corpora, collections of samples of written and spoken English from each of the countries that are participating in the project. For most of the countries, the ICE project is stimulating the first systematic study of the English used in their country. published the original proposal for ICE in 1988 (Greenbaum, 1988a) after preliminary discussions on the scope of the project. Since its inception I have been co-ordinating the project, and the Survey of English Usage (of which I am Director) has been providing guidance to participating research teams and dealing with their queries. The Survey has distributed manuals on the compilation and annotation of the ICE corpora and has created much of the software for these purposes. We have sent out newsletters and accompanying discussion documents. Most of the ICE participants have visited the Survey to view our work on ICE-GB (the British ICE corpus) and to discuss work on their corpora. Since many of them attend annual conferences of ICAME (the International Computer Archive of Modem English), the conferences provide an opportunity for meetings to report progress. ICE-GB was the first ICE component to be started. At the time of writing, commitments have been received from researchers for eighteen national or regional corpora.

Abstract New Zealand linguists have been involved over the last eight years in planning and collecting data for a number of different written and spoken corpora of New Zealand English. These include the Wellington Corpus of New Zealand English (WCNZE) with its one million word written and one million word spoken components, and the New Zealand contributions to the International Corpus of English (ICE) Project, which involved a total of one million words composed of representative extracts of written and spoken New Zealand English. This paper describes some of the methodological problems encountered in collecting material for a spoken corpus of New Zealand English, including the issue of who counts as a speaker of New Zealand English, the problems of collecting data in particular categories, and the procedures put in place to process collected data. The idea of collecting a Corpus of New Zealand English had been discussed by New Zealand linguists since the mid-1980s. A number of New Zealand linguists had been using corpora in their research into vocabulary (Kennedy, 1991; Bauer and Nation, 1993), and the expression of speech functions such as quantity (Kennedy, 1987), causation (Kennedy and Fang, 1992) and certainty (Holmes, 1982, 1983). They were very aware of the valuable resources which had been made available by the Brown Corpus of American English in the early 1960s, the LOB Corpus of British written English in 1987, and the LUND Corpus of British spoken English in 1980. In 1987, after much debate about design and methodology, linguists at Victoria University began collecting data for the Wellington Corpus of Written and Spoken New Zealand English. Hence, when Sidney Greenbaum proposed that an International Corpus of English should be gathered (1988), it seemed sensible to ensure that New Zealand linguists also collected material suitable for inclusion in that corpus.

Twenty-four artworks by major Latin American artists, from the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, the National Museum of Women in the Arts, the Art Museum of the Americas, the Samuel M. Greenbaum 1989 Trust, and the IDB Collection.