Tesis sobre el tema "Membrane filters"

The mechanism of how pulsatile flow affects flux behaviour in crossflow micro-filtration was investigated. The effects of pulsatile flow were sub-divided into shear effects and backflushing effects. A servo-valve hydraulic piston pump was applied to generate pulsatile flows in the membrane module with particular waveforms. Four types of fluid pulsation with specific flow-rate and pressure waveforms were produced for experimental tests. Two parameters, /dVcf\dt/ maxand Pmin, were examined independently for their effect during pulsatile flow, which was estimated by comparing the cake resistance during steady flow and pulsatile flow at the same mean crossflow velocity, trans-membrane pressure and membrane resistance. Filtration tests for all the pulsatile flows with clean water confirmed that pulsatility only affects cake depositions. Without particles, no flux improvement was obtained. The results for the microfiltration of 0.5g/1 silica suspension showed that for pulsatile flows without backflushing (i.e. no negative transmembrane pressure peak), the fluid pulsation decreased cake resistance when the shear related parameter /dVcf\dt/max exceeded a critical value for each given waveform. When the instantaneous transmembrane pressure reached negative values, i.e. back-flushing occurred, the cake resistance was reduced for all pressure waves tested. Cake resistance was reduced more for more negative P min. With two of the waveforms tested, the cake resistance was almost completely eliminated. In contrast, the shear affected cake resistance reduction differently for each waveform. Comparing cake reduction results for different pulsatile waveforms, it was found that, for the square wave, the cake resistance reduction was higher for both shear and backflushing effect tests, while for the short spike waveform, the cake resistance reduction was lower. The flux waveforms were seen to follow the variations in transmembrane pressure. The flux response time was longer than the time required for the pressure changes, but was not dependent on the direction of the pressure change.

Thesis (M. Phil.)--Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, 2004.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 93-102). Also available in electronic version. Access restricted to campus users.

The study reported here was aimed at optimising the microfiltration (MF) membrane process applied to water reclamation. Polypropylene hollow fibre membrane (0.2 ??m) with high pressure backwahing was mainly used in this study. To obtain secondary effluent for microfiltration a biological treatment (UASB/SBR) was applied to brewery effluent. It was identified that loading at a rate below 14 kg COD/kLd will ensure the stable performance of UASB. An initial energy balance of the system (Biological and MF) shows a plant treating brewery effluent (4000 mg/L COD) could yield a net energy of 2.5 kWh/kL (yield from methane less the plant operating energy) at an optimised MF flux. For the MF of low solids feed it was found that crossflow has no benefit and that intermittent dead end filtration is less productive than dead-end cycles. It was also that found cycle time between air backwashes is strongly dependent on the imposed flux and the maximum TMP allowed. Analysis based on energy and capital cost indicates that if energy saving is the objective the unit needs to be operated at low imposed flux. However, if capital and energy costs are combined, cost efficient operation would be at about 60 to 70 L/m2.h for TMPmax of 20 kPa or above 80 L/m2.h for TMPmax of 50 kPa. For cycles with a TMPmax of 20 kPa, the specific cake resistance was constant over the range of imposed fluxes. However, for a TMPmax of 50 kPa the specific resistance was higher and increased with imposed flux, signifying compressible cake formation. Further analysis of the TMP profiles showed that the membrane resistance increased over a number of cycles and that the increase was higher at higher flux. To fully optimise the operation, it would be necessary to include these factors. Laboratory scale studies with yeast showed many similarities with secondary effluent filtration. However, some inconsistencies were observed at lower f1uxes, which need to be confirmed by further studies. Life cycle assessment of the membrane filtration process indicated that operating at low flux (10 Llm2.h) with higher TMPmax is the environmentally sound operational strategy. The analysis highlights the fact that the environmental impacts mainly come from the membrane operation (more than 85%). When alternative energy sources are considered, the least impact operational strategy shifts towards higher flux (in the vicinity of 30 l/m2.h). In-situ electrochemical cleaning using an electrolysis process indicated better flux recovery than traditional chemical cleaning. However, repeated cycles of fouling and cleaning showed electrochemically cleaned membranes have a higher fouling tendency than the chemically cleaned membrane. Initial characterisation of membrane surface properties after cleaning could not provide conclusive evidence for the cause of rapid fouling of the electrochemically cleaned membrane.

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Os efluentes do processo de industrialização do couro em curtumes apresentam, além de elevadas concentrações de matéria orgânica em termos de Demanda Química de Oxigênio (DQO) e Demanda Bioquímica de Oxigênio (DBO), altas concentrações de sólidos totais, suspensos e sulfeto, o que torna o tratamento destes efluentes problemático. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a biotratabilidade dos efluentes de curtumes por meio do tratamento por Biofiltro Aaerado Submerso (BF) após pré-tratamento por membrana de microfiltração. Os resultados mostraram que pode haver a viabilidade técnica no uso de BF para remoção de matéria orgânica e sulfeto de águas residuárias industriais de curtume, pois atingiram, respectivamente, a remoção 84% e 98 %
The effluents from leather tanning process have in addition to high concentrations of organic matter in terms of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), high concentrations of total solids, total suspended solids and sulfide, which makes problematic the treatment of these effluents. The objective of this study was to evaluate the biotreatability of tannery effluent by submerged aerated biofilter after microfiltration membrane pretreatment. The results showed that can be used in the technical feasibility of BF removal of organic sulphide and industrial raw tannery wastewater as it amounted, respectively, removal to 84% and 98%

Orientador: Tsunao Matsumoto
Banca: Liliane Lazzari Albertin
Banca: Luis Fernando Rossi Léo
Resumo: Os efluentes do processo de industrialização do couro em curtumes apresentam, além de elevadas concentrações de matéria orgânica em termos de Demanda Química de Oxigênio (DQO) e Demanda Bioquímica de Oxigênio (DBO), altas concentrações de sólidos totais, suspensos e sulfeto, o que torna o tratamento destes efluentes problemático. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi avaliar a biotratabilidade dos efluentes de curtumes por meio do tratamento por Biofiltro Aaerado Submerso (BF) após pré-tratamento por membrana de microfiltração. Os resultados mostraram que pode haver a viabilidade técnica no uso de BF para remoção de matéria orgânica e sulfeto de águas residuárias industriais de curtume, pois atingiram, respectivamente, a remoção 84% e 98 %
Abstract: The effluents from leather tanning process have in addition to high concentrations of organic matter in terms of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), high concentrations of total solids, total suspended solids and sulfide, which makes problematic the treatment of these effluents. The objective of this study was to evaluate the biotreatability of tannery effluent by submerged aerated biofilter after microfiltration membrane pretreatment. The results showed that can be used in the technical feasibility of BF removal of organic sulphide and industrial raw tannery wastewater as it amounted, respectively, removal to 84% and 98%
Mestre

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
Some digitised pages may appear illegible due to the condition of the original hard copy.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Membrane fouling is universally accepted as one of the most critical problems limiting the wider application of membranes in liquid separations. The development and utilization of a suitable non-invasive technique for the on-line monitoring of fouling in industrial and laboratory applications may enable the effectiveness of fouling remediation and cleaning strategies to be quantified. The overall objective of this research is to develop ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry (UTDR) and its use as an analytical tool for the real-time study of inorganic-, organic- and protein- fouling of various types of membranes including nylon, polysulfone (PSU) and polyethersulfone (PESU) and modules, including flatsheet and tubular types. Different separation systems including microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF), flat-sheet and tubular modules, and suitable ultrasonic probes were used in this study. Results of this study show a good correlation between the UTDR signal response and the development of a fouling layer on a membrane surface. UTDR effectively detected the appearance, growth and movement of a fouling layer echo as fouling proceeded. Cake (fouling)-layer compressibility was observed by UTDR. The structure and compaction of an asymmetric PSU membrane could be detected by UTDR. UTDR was also successfully used for monitoring membrane cleaning and evaluating the cleaning effectiveness o f various cleaning methods. UTDR results corroborated the flux measurements and SEM analyses. The ultrasonic unit is a programmed microprocessor, and can be used to compare reference and test signals to produce a differential signal (a fouling layer echo). A differential signal indicates the state and progress o f a fouling layer on the membrane surface in actual operations. Both amplitude and arrival time of differential signals as a function of operation time provide useful quantitative information, i.e. changes in thickness and density of a fouling layer, on the fouling processes. A predictive modelling program, ultrasonic reflection modelling (URM), was developed to describe the processes of ultrasonic testing related to the deposition of fouling layers on membrane surfaces. The mathematical model could substantiate changes in the densities of the fouling layer as well as the thickness. This is important as deposit resistance to flow is related to both thickness and density (compressibility). The predicted results of cake layer deposition are in good agreement with the actual UTDR measurements obtained in MF and UF. Furthermore, protein fouling was successfully detected in tubular UF by UTDR. Ultrasonic frequency spectra could be used as an additional tool for fouling detection.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Membraan-aanvuiling of -verstopping is die grootste struikelblok wat die meer algemene aanwending van membrane vir verskillende watersuiweringsprosesse beinvloed. Die ontwikkeling en gebruik van ‘n geskikte nie-inmengende tegniek vir die in-lyn meting van aanvuiling van membrane in laboratorium-en nywerheidstoepassings mag ‘n geleentheid bied vir die kwantifisering van die verwydering van aanvuiling en skoonmaakstrategiee. Die hoofdoel van hierdie studie was die ontwikkeling van ultrasoniese tydgebiedsweerkaatsing (Eng: ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry, UTDR) en die gebruik daarvan as ‘n analitiese metode vir die studie van anorganiese-, organiese- en bio-besoedeling op verskeie tips membrane, insluitend nylon, polisufoon (PSU) en polietersulfoon (PESU), in beide platvel- en buismodules. Verskeie skeidingsisteme, insluitend mikrofiltrasie (MF) en ultrafiltrasie (UF) is ontwerp en gebruik in hierdie studie. Eksperimentele resultate het goeie ooreenstemming tussen die UTDR seinrespons en die ontwikkeling van ‘n aanvuilingslaag op die membraanoppervlakte bewys. Die ultrasoniese tegniek kon die vorming, groei en beweging van ‘n bevuilingslaagterugkaartsing waarneem namate bevuiling vorder. Aanvuilingslaagsamepersing is deur UTDR waargeneem. Die struktuur en samepersing van ‘n asimmetriese PSU membraan is ook deur UTDR gesien. UTDR is verder suksesvol gebruik om die skoonmaak van membrane te monitor en om die skoonmaakgeskiktheid (cleaning effectiveness) van verskeie skoonmaakmetodes te bepaal. UTDR resultate het permeaatvloeimetings en SEM analyses bevestig. Die ultrasoniese eenheid is ‘n geprogrameerde mikroverwerker, en kan gebruik word om verwysings- en toetsseine te vergelyk, en dan ‘n differensiaalsein te gee (‘n aanvuilingslaagweerklank). ‘n Differensiaalsein dui die toestand en vordering van ‘n aanvuilingslaag op die membraanoppervlakte gedurende gebruik aan. Beide amplitude asook aankomstyd van differensiaalseine as funksies van gebruikstyd verskaf bruikbare kwantatiewe inligting, dws. Veranderings in die dikte en digtheid van ‘n aanvuilingslaag, op die aanvuilingsproses. ‘n Voorspellingsmodelleringprogram - ultrasonieseweerkaatsingsmodellering (Eng: ultrasonic reflection modeling, URM) is ontwikkel om die proses van ultrasoniese toetsing by die deponering van aanvuilingslae op membraanoppervlaktes beter te beskryf. Veranderings in die digtheid en dikte van die aanvuilingslaag teenvloei is verwant aan dikte en digtheid (saampersbaarheid). Die voorspelde resultate van aanvuilingslaagdeponering stem goed ooreen met die werklike UTDR-metings wat in MF en UF gemaak is. Bio-aanvuiling is suksesvol waargeneem deur UTDR in buisvormige UF membrane. Ultrasoniese frekwensiespektra kan dus as ‘n bykomende metode gebruik word vir die waarneming van aanvuiling op skeidingsmembrane.

Maintenance of membrane performance requires inevitable cleaning or defouling of fouled membranes. Membrane cleaning using enzymes such as proteases, lipases, α-glucosidases from a sulphidogenic bioreactor was investigated. At first, dilute and concentrated enzyme extract were prepared form the sulphidogenic pellet. Enzyme assays on 0.5 % azocaisen, 1 % triacetin and 1 mg/ml ρ-nitrophenyl-α-D-glucopyranoside were performed using the concentrated enzyme extract (0 – 200 mg/ml). For membrane fouling, an abattoir effluent was obtained from Ostritech Pty (Ltd), Grahamstown, South Africa. The effluent was characterised for presence of potential foulants such as lipids, proteins, amino acids and carbohydrates. Static fouling of polysulphone membranes (0.22 μm, 47 mm) was then performed using the abattoir effluent. Cleaning of the fouled membranes was also performed using at first the dilute and then the concentrated form (200 mg/ml) of enzyme extracts. Qualitative and quantitative biochemical analysis for proteins, lipids and carbohydrates was performed to ascertain the presence of foulants on polysulphone membranes and their removal by dilute or concentrated enzyme extracts. The ability of dilute enzyme extracts to remove proteins lipids, and carbohydrates fouling capillary UF membrane module; their ability to restore permeate fluxes and transmembrane pressure after cleaning/defouling was also investigated. Permeate volumes from this UF membrane module were analysed for protein, amino acids, lipids, and carbohydrates concentrations after fouling and defouling. Fouling was further characterized by standard blocking, cake filtration and pore blocking models using stirred UF cell and polyethersulphone membranes with MWCO of 30 000, 100 000 and 300 000. After characterization of fouling, polyethersulphone membranes with MWCO of 30 000 and 300 000 were defouled using the concentrated enzyme extract (100 mg ml). Enzyme activities at 200 mg/ml of enzyme concentration were 8.071 IU, 86.71 IU and 789.02 IU for proteases, lipases and α-glucosidases. The abattoir effluent contained 553 μg/ml of lipid, 301 μg/ml of protein, 141 μg/ml of total carbohydrate, and 0.63 μg/ml of total reducing sugars. Proteins, lipids and carbohydrates fouling polysulphone membranes after a day were removed by 23.4 %, when a dilute enzyme was used. A concentrated enzyme extract of 200 mg/ml was able to remove proteins, lipids and carbohydrates up to 5 days of fouling by 100 %, 82 %, 71 %, 68 % and 76 % respectively. Defouling of dynamically fouled capillary ultrafiltration membranes using sulphidogenic proteases was successful at pH 10, 37°C, within 1 hour. Sulphidogenic proteases activity was 2.1 U/ml and flux Recovery (FR %) was 64. Characterization of fouling revealed that proteins and lipids were major foulants while low concentration of carbohydrates fouled polyethersulphone membranes. Fouling followed standard blocking for 10 minutes in all the membranes; afterwards fouling adopted cake filtration model for membranes with 30 000 MWCO and pore blocking model for membranes with 300 000 MWCO. A concentration of 100 mg/ml of enzyme extract was able to remove fouling from membranes with MWCO of 30 000. Defouling membranes that followed pore blocking model i.e. 300 000 MWCO was not successful due to a mass transfer problem. From the results of defouling of 30 000 and 300 000 MWCO it was concluded that defouling of cake layer fouling (30 000 MWCO) was successful while defouling of pore blocking fouling was unsuccessful due to a mass transfer problem. The ratio of enzymes present in the enzyme extract when calculated based on enzymatic activity for proteases, lipases and α-glucosidases was 1.1 %, 11 % and 87.9 %. It was hypothesized that apart from proteases, lipases, α and β-glucosidases; phosphatases, sulphatases, amonipeptidases etc. from a sulphidogenic bioreactor clean or defoul cake layer fouling by organic foulants and pore blocking fouling provided the mass transfer problem is solved. However, concentration of enzymes from a sulphidogenic bioreactor has not been optimized yet. Other methods of concentrating the enzyme extract can be investigated for example use of organic solvents.

Macromolecular components, including protein and polysaccharides, are viewed as one type of major foulants in the complex feed membrane filtration systems such as membrane bioreactor (MBR). In this thesis, the mechanisms of macromolecular fouling including protein and polysaccharide in the complex feed solution are explored by using Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and alginate as model solution. During the filtration of BSA and washed yeast with 0.22 ????m PVDF membrane, it was found that the critical flux of mixture solution was controlled by washed yeast concentration while the existence of BSA significantly changed the cake reversibility of much larger particles. The fouling mechanisms of alginate, as a model polysaccharide solution, were investigated both in dead end and crossflow membrane filtration. In the dead end experiments, it was found that the cake model appears to fit the entire range of the ultrafiltration data while the consecutive standard pore blocking model and cake model are more applicable to microfiltration membranes. The alginate was featured with high specific cake resistance and low compressibility despite some variations between different membranes. The specific cake resistance ( c ) is similar to c of BSA and actual extracellular polymer substance (EPS) in MBR systems reported in the literature, and higher than that of many colloidal particles. In a system contained alginate-particles mixture, it was found that the existence of alginate dramatically increased the cake specific resistance and decreased the cake compressibility. The fouling mechanism of alginate was also studied using long term cross flow filtration under subcritical flux. A two-stage TMP profile similar to that typically observed in MBR was obtained, confirming the important role of EPS during membrane fouling in MBR. In addition to adsorption, trace deposition of alginate also contributed to the initial slow TMP increase during the subcritical filtration. TMP increase during the long-term filtration was found not only due to the increase of the amount of deposition, but also the increase of specific cake resistance. A combined standard pore blocking and cake filtration model, using a critical pore size for the transition time determination, was developed and fit the experimental results well.

Neste trabalho foram preparadas membranas de poliamida 66 (PA 66) pelo método de inversão de fases (IF) e caracterizadas com o objetivo de verificar sua possível aplicação em processos de separação. As membranas de PA 66 foram preparadas utilizando dois solventes diferentes, ácido fórmico (AF) e ácido clorídrico (HCl) e água como não-solvente. As membranas preparadas na forma de filmes (não suportadas) foram caracterizadas por Espectroscopia de Infravermelho com Transformada de Fourier (FT-IR) e calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC), onde os resultados mostraram que a estrutura química e o comportamento térmico da PA 66 não foram alterados como o uso de ácidos como solventes. Os filmes apresentaram estrutura assimétrica, com formação de camada densa na parte superior seguida de subestrutura de poros esféricos observada por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV). A espessura de camada densa variou de 10 à 25 μm, para o filme preparado em AF e HCl, respectivamente. O aumento da espessura da camada densa, ou seja, a redução de espaços vazios influenciou diretamente os resultados de percentual de água absorvida e porosidade total. A porosidade foi de 15 contra 50% para os filmes preparados em AF e HCl, respectivamente. O fluxo de vapor de água foi menor para os filmes com maior espessura de camada densa, devido ao aumento da resistência ao transporte de massa. Com o objetivo de aumentar a resistência mecânica dos filmes de poliamida, foram preparadas membranas suportadas em tecido de poliéster para posterior aplicação em processos de separação que utilizam altas pressões. As membranas suportadas foram caracterizadas pelas técnicas de BET para determinação de tamanho médio de poros, ensaios de osmose inversa (OI) e ultrafiltração (UF). Ambas as membranas preparadas em AF e HCl apresentaram valores de tamanho de poro muito próximos quando analisado por BET. O ensaio de compactação com água pura realizado a 40 bar de pressão revelou que as membranas preparadas em AF sofrem maior compactação na sua estrutura apresentando fluxo de permeado em torno de 22 Lm-2h-1 enquanto a membrana preparada em HCl apresentou fluxo de 312 Lm-2h-1. No ensaio de OI, a rejeição máxima ao cloreto de sódio foi de 7% e 4% para a membrana AF-3 e HCl-3, respectivamente. Nos ensaios de ultrafiltração (UF), realizados a 15 bar, ambas as membranas apresentaram valores de rejeição próximos a 70% para albumina de ovo e 80% para albumina bovina. Com esse resultado, podemos concluir que ambas as membranas apresentaram características de tamanho de poro e rejeição para aplicações em processos de UF.
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In the present study, polyamide 66 (PA 66) membranes were prepared by phase inversion (PI) and characterized in order to verify their potential application in separation processes. PA 66 membranes were prepared using two different solvents, formic acid (FA) and chloridric acid (HCl), and water as a non-solvent. Membranes prepared in film form (not supported) were characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the results showed that the chemical structure and thermal behavior of the PA 66 were not altered by the use of acids as solvents. The films revealed an asymmetric structure with a dense top layer and a porous sublayer featuring spherical pores observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The thickness of the dense layer varied from 10 to 25 μm in films prepared with FA and HCl, respectively. The increase in thickness of the dense layer, i.e., the reduction of empty spaces, directly influenced the results regarding water absorption percentage and total porosity. The porosity found was 15% and 50% for films prepared with FA and HCl, respectively. Water vapor flux was lower in films with a thicker dense layer as a result of a greater resistance to mass transfer. In order to increase mechanical resistance in polyamide films, supported membranes with polyester fabric were prepared for latter application in separation processes through high pressure. Supported membranes were characterized by BET techniques for the determination of pore size, reverse osmosis and ultrafiltration assays. Both membranes prepared with FA and HCl showed very similar pore sizes when analyzed by/with BET. A compression assay with pure water performed at a pressure of 40 bar revealed that membranes prepared with FA undergo greater compaction of its structure and had a permeate flux value of approximately 22 Lm-2h-1 whereas the membrane prepared with HCl had a permeate flux value of 312 Lm-2h-1. On reverse osmosis assays, the maximum rejection to sodium chloride was 7% and 4% for FA-3 and HCl-3 membranes, respectively. On ultrafiltration assays, performed at 15 bar, both membranes had rejection values close to 70% for egg albumin and 80% for bovine albumin. Based on this result, it is possible to conclude that both membranes revealed pore size and rejection characteristics for application in ultrafiltration processes.

The optimization of a reverse osmosis (RO) system includes optimization of the design of the individual membrane modules, the system structure and the operating conditions of the system. Most previous studies considered either the optimal design of individual modules only or optimization of system structure and operating conditions for fixed module dimensions. This thesis developed a method to simultaneously optimize the module dimensions, system structure and operating conditions. The method comprised rules for generating a general superstructure for an RO system given the number of modules along with rules for generating technically and mathematically feasible sub-structures. The superstructure was based on maximum connectivity between unit operations. A connectivity matrix was used to represent the superstructure. The matrix was useful for checking sub-structure's feasibility and deriving a model for the sub-structure's optimization, comprising the minimum number of variables and constraints which minimized computational time and increased accuracy. For optimization, a nonlinear objective function of the annualized profit of the RO system was formulated, consisting of the revenue obtained from permeate sales, capital costs of the unit operations and operating costs for the system. It was found that RO system optimization is a nonconvex optimization problem. The most effective optimization procedure involved a combination of evolutionary computation, which was good for locating the global optimum, and a gradient-based method, which was superior in finding the exact optimum. Small population size, adaptive mutation rate and steady state replacement were the most efficient parameter settings for the evolutionary computation. Optimal design of two-stage RO systems with and without energy recovery, bypass and recycle streams was studied. Dimensions of predicted optimal modules approached those of current commercial modules but with much shorter feed channels. The mathematical optimum also had higher operating pressures. The optimum system structure was a series arrangement with different module dimensions in each stage. A sensitivity analysis showed that trends in the optimal design were similar when unit costs changed. An investigation of the scalability of the method for a three-stage RO system revealed several weaknesses. These are probably surmountable with the addition of more RO system specific knowledge.

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES

Orientadores: Arnaldo Yosteruy Kuaye, Luiz Antonio Viotto
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia de Alimentos
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Resumo: O grande consumo de águas minerais tem alavancado muitos estudos de relação caracterização microbiológica, nas mais diversas regiões brasileiras. Trabalhos revelam que a grande maioria das águas brasileiras envasadas e águas de poços artesianos possuem contaminação microbiana, causando grande preocupação com relação à qualidade da água a ser consumida. Dentre os processos para tratamento da água mineral, a fim de atender as exigências comerciais e de legislações, está a microfiltração. O processo consiste da utilização de filtros de membranas poliméricas, nos quais os microrganismos ficam retidos (barreira mecânica). De acordo com a Resolução RDC nº 275/2005 Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (ANVISA), os microrganismos Escherichia coli e Pseudomonas aeruginosa, estão inseridos, juntamente com outras bactérias, como Enterococos, Clostridium perfringens e coliformes totais no quadro de controle microbiano de águas minerais. Devido à utilização dos filtros de membrana para controle destes microrganismos, há a necessidade da realização da sanitização desses filtros para evitar proliferação de microrganismos na superfície; prevenindo o entupimento dos poros da membrana e contaminação do processo. O sanitizante a base de ácido peracético e água quente são os principais agentes sanitizantes utilizados na indústria de água mineral para sanitização de equipamentos. Assim este trabalho objetivou avaliar a formação de biofilme microbiano de Escherichia coli e Pseudomonas aeruginosa em membranas poliméricas de poliamida e polietersulfona e a eficiência da sanitização das membranas por solução de ácido peracético a 0,1%, 0,2% e água quente a 85 ºC em dois diferentes tempos de contato, 10 minutos e 20 minutos. O teste foi realizado através do contato de cupons de 1 cm2 das membranas com o inóculo na concentração de 104 UFC/ mL, em temperaturas de 5, 25 e 35ºC e a análise dos cupons após 24h, 48h e 72h de contato. A quantidade de células aderidas de Escherichia coli para ambas as membranas foi de 4 log UFC/ cm2 para as primeiras 24h de contato, chegando até 6 log UFC/cm2 após 72h de contato para a temperatura de 35ºC. Para Pseudomonas aeruginosa, o comportamento de adesão foi similar, onde a maior quantidade chegou à 6,25 log UFC/cm2 após 72h de contato para a temperatura de 25ºC. Para avaliar a eficiência dos agentes sanitizantes, os cupons foram submetidos ao processo de adesão dos microrganismos e após 24 horas de contato na temperatura de 35ºC foram colocados em contato com a solução sanitizante à base de ácido peracético 0,1%, 0,2% e água quente à 85ºC durante 10 e 20 minutos. Os sanitizantes utilizados ofereceram grande eficiência na redução das bactérias aderidas nas membranas. A concentração do sanitizante químico mais efetivo foi 0,2% para 10 e 20 minutos de contato, onde cerca de 80% dos cupons tiveram redução de > 4 Log UFC/cm2. A água na temperatura de 85ºC em ambos os tempos de contato (10 minutos e 20 minutos) também ofereceu grande eficiência na redução logarítmica dos microrganismos, onde 100% dos cupons apresentaram redução > 4 Log UFC/cm2
Abstract: The high consumption of mineral water has leveraged many studies regarding microbiological, in several brazilian regions. Papers reveal that the vast majority of brazilian bottled waters and water from artesian wells have microbiological contamination, causing great concern about the quality of water being consumed. Among the processes for treatment of mineral water in order to meet business requirements and laws is microfiltration. The process consist in the use of polymer membrane filters, the where the microorganisms are withheld (mechanical barrier). According to Resolution RDC 275/2005 of National Agency for Sanitary Vigilance (ANVISA) microorganisms Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, are inserted, along with other bacteria such as Enterococcus, Clostridium perfringens and total coliforms under control of microbiological characteristics of mineral waters. Due to the use of membrane filters to control these microorganisms, there is the need to perform sanitization filters to prevent the proliferation of microorganisms on the surface, preventing the clogging of the pores of the membrane and process contamination. The sanitizing the basis of peracetic acid and hot water are the main agents sanitizers available in the industry of mineral water to equipments sanitize. This study aimed to evaluate the microbial biofilm formation of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in polymeric membranes of polyamide and polyethersulfone membranes and the sanitizing ef ficiencyprocess with of peracetic acid 0.1%, 0.2% and hot water at 85 °C in two different contact times, 10 minutes and 20 minutes. The test was conducted through the contact of coupons with 1 cm2 of the membranes in the inoculum with concentration of 104 CFU /mL, at temperatures of 5, 25 and 35 °C and an alysis of the coupons after 24h, 48h and 72h of contact. The amount of Escherichia coli cells attached to both membranes was 4 log CFU /cm2 for the first 24 hours of contact, reaching 6 log CFU /cm2 after 72 hours of contact to a temperature of 35 °C. For Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the adherence behavior was similar, where the largest amount reached 6.25 log CFU /cm2 after contact for 72 hours at 25 º C. To evaluate the effectiveness of sanitizing agents, the coupons were subjected to the adhesion of microorganisms and after 24 hours of contact at 35 ºC were placed in contact with the sanitizing solution based on peracetic acid 0.1%, 0.2% and hot water at 85 °C for 10 to 20 minutes. The sanitizers used offered high efficiency in reducing bacteria attached on the membranes. The concentration of chemical sanitizer most effective was 0.2% for 10 and 20 minutes of contact, where about 80% of the coupons was reduced by > 4 Log CFU/cm2. The water temperature at 85 °C in both contact times (10 and 20 minutes) also offered greater efficiency in logarithmic reduction of microorganisms, where 100% of the coupons showed a reduction > 4 Log UFC/cm2
Mestrado
Mestre em Tecnologia de Alimentos

Thesis (MTech (Engineering))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2007
The removal of the colour-eausing natural organic matter (NOM) from natural brown water (NSW) to be used for drinking purposes is of paramount importance. One of the methods available to remove NOM from NSW is the use of pressure-driven membrane separation systems. One of the limitations in efficiently applying membrane filtration in the treatment of NOM-eontaining water is membrane fouling that is caused by foulants, such as NOM, that accumulate on the membrane surface and in the membrane pores. Microfiltration (MF), as a membrane separation system, is susceptible to severe membrane fouling during membrane filtration of NSW. Fouling is characterized by a rapid decline in permeate flux and loss of productivity. Progress in developing more effective control and prevention of fouling is impeded by the absence of suitable fouling measurement and characterization techniques. An in situ method for measuring membrane fouling is necessary for detection of membrane fouling during MF of NSW at the eartiest stages so that the corrective actions can be taken before fouling is permanently adsorbed onto the membrane surface. In this study, an ultrasonic-based method was effectively used to detect and measure the growth of membrane fouling dUring MF of NSW, in situ. Fouling exp~riments results showed the formation of a new peak on the ultrasonic response echo signal due to the presence of a fouling layer on the surface of the membrane. The ultrasonic signals acquired during the in-situ detection of membrane fouling were analysed using wavelet transforms (WTs). Wavelet analysis was applied to differential signals to obtain additional information about fouling. Differential signals were calculated by subtracting the baseline measurement signals from the test signals. The presence of the fouling layer on membranes was verified by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses of the fouled membranes.

Thesis (M.S.)--West Virginia University, 2001.
Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains xii, 102 p. : ill. (some col.). Vita. Includes abstract. Includes bibliographical references (p. 80-81).

Hollow fiber membranes offer the opportunity to dramatically reduce the energy required to perform gas separations in the chemical industry. The membranes are fabricated from highly non-Newtonian precursor materials, including concentrated polymer solutions that sometimes also contain dispersed particles. These materials are susceptible to shear-induced microstructural changes during processing, which can affect the characteristics of the resulting membrane. This thesis explores several shear-related effects using materials and flow conditions that are relevant for fiber spinning. The findings are discussed as they relate to membrane processing, and also from the standpoint of enhancing our fundamental understanding of the underlying phenomena. First, the effect of shear on polymeric dope solutions was investigated. Shear-induced demixing—a phenomenon not previously studied in membrane materials—was found to occur in membrane dopes. Phase separation experiments also showed that shear-induced demixing promotes macrovoid formation. The demixing process was found to depend not only on the instantaneous shear conditions, but also on the shear history of the solution. This suggests that low-shear flow processes that occur in the upstream tubing and channels used for fiber spinning can affect macrovoid formation. The effect of viscoelastic media on dispersed particles was also explored. Shear-small-angle light scattering results showed that particles suspended in membrane dope solutions formed aggregated, vorticity-oriented structures when shear rates in the shear-thinning regime of the polymer solution were applied. Shear rates well below the shear-thinning regime did not produce any structure. In fact, the application of a Newtonian shear rate to a sample already containing the vorticity structure caused the sample to return to isotropy. Measurements using a highly elastic, constant-viscosity Boger fluid showed that strong normal forces alone are not sufficient to form the vorticity structures, but that shear thinning is also required. Lastly, a study was conducted examining cross-stream migration of particles dispersed in viscoelastic media. Fluids exhibiting varying degrees of shear thinning and normal forces were found to have different effects on the particle distribution along the shear gradient axis in Poiseuille flow. Shear thinning was found to promote migration toward the channel center, while normal stresses tended to cause migration toward the channel walls. In addition to hollow fiber spinning, many other industrially relevant applications involve polymer solutions and suspensions of particles in viscoelastic media. Often, the properties and performance of the material depend strongly on the internal microstructure. The results from the research described in this thesis can be used to guide the design of materials and processing conditions, so that the desired microstructural characteristics can be achieved.

Securing water in the right quantities at the right quality for the right price is a major issue around the world. Membranes are making an increasingly important contribution to meeting this need; however their performance is limited by fouling. This thesis reports on an investigation into the fouling of systems related to water treatment using the Direct Observation Through the Membrane (DOTM). The investigation focused on the measurement of critical flux and observation of particle behaviour under a variety of conditions and for a number of different particles. The range of meanings attributed to critical flux in the literature was analysed and several proposals made for the improved use of the concept. In particular, critical flux determination techniques were classified by whether they measure resistance changes or particle deposition; leading to the definition of Critical Resistance and Critical Deposition Fluxes. In this thesis the deposition definition is used exclusively. The effect of Reynolds number and spacer orientation on critical flux was correlated for spacer-filled channels. The heterogeneous deposition patterns observed with regions of heavy deposition next to areas of little or no deposition. This pattern was related to the local hydrodynamics of spacer cells (a few mm2 in size). The correlations developed for critical flux in spacer-filled channels were adjusted for submicron particle size and incorporated into a SpiralWound Module (SWM) leaf model and then used to simulate the fouling of SWM leaves under a range of operating conditions and operating policies. The Mass Balance technique of critical flux determination was also briefly assessed. The applicability of critical flux criteria to SWM arrays was discussed. Fouling, particle behaviour and critical flux were also investigated in air-sparged systems. The post-cleaning water flux was found to be enhanced when the membrane is fouled in the presence of bubbles. The rate of flux decline was reduced by bubbles. Critical flux increased with air flowrate, and decreased with increased liquid flowrate and concentration. Bubbles caused particles to periodically deposit on the membrane. Particles were observed to stream past the membrane under the influence of back-diffusive forces. Video clips of particulate fouling are provided.

Thesis (Masters Diploma (Technology)--Cape Technikon, Cape Town,1993
Various experimental and established membranes were tested on industrial effluents. Ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes were used in various applications. Research was done on aspects such as the cleaning of fouled membranes, production quality control and process development. Polyvinyl alcohol ultra-thin-film reverse osmosis membranes were manufactured for the desalination of brackish water to a potable standard. The membranes were manufactured in the tubular configuration. Experimental ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes were tested on cooling water blowdown on a laboratory-scale. On-site testing was done directly on the effluent at a later stage. A s!udy was also conducted to determine the effect of gel-polarization on membrane performance. The gel-layer model was used to predict the limiting flux of specific membranes. Membrane processes were also applied in the fractionation of wine-lees to provide usable by-products such as yeast cells and potassium bitartrate. Ultrafiltration membranes operated in diafiltration mode were used to "wash" the slurry at different solid concentrations. The bitartrate-rich permeate collected from ultrafiltration was then concentrated using reverse osmosis and nanofiltration to allow subsequent precipitation of the product.

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Membrane fouling is universally considered to be one of the most critical problems in the wider application of membranes in filtration separation. Fouling is caused by the deposition of particles not only on the surface of the membrane, but also inside the membrane pores, which reduces permeate flux and leads to a reduction of the efficiency and the longevity of the membrane. The backpulsing cleaning method can be used to remove deposited foulants from the surface of the membrane, without having to shut down the plant. Ultrasonic time-domain reflectometry (UTDR) is a nondestructive technique, used to detect and measure the growth of fouling layer on the membrane surface during microfiltration and ultrafiltration processes. In this study flat-sheet microfiltration (MF) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes were fouled during a cross-flow filtration processes using dextrin, yeast or alumina (feed pressure 100 kPa and feed flow rate 0.45 liter/minute), in a flat cell. Infrasound frequency backpulsing, in the permeate space, was used to clean the membranes. Backpulsing was carried out using the permeate water or soap solutions. The peak pressure amplitude of the pulses used to clean the membranes was 140 kPa, the pulsing was applied at a frequency of 6.7 Hz. The main objectives of this research were: (1) to obtain a fundamental understandimg of how foulants deposit on membrane surfaces and how the foulant deposits can be removed using the backpulsing cleaning technique during MF and UF, (2) to use the ultrasonic measurement technique for monitoring the growth and removal of the fouling layer on the membrane surface and (3) Use scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as a direct measurement technique to analyze the structure the foulant deposits on membrane surfaces before and after cleaning. Results showed that a flux value of between 55% and 98% of the clean water flux value can be achieved by backpulsing cleaning. UTDR was successfully applied to monitor membrane cleaning and provide information about the growth and removal of fouling layers on the membrane surface.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Membraanaanvuiling is wêreldwyd bekend as een van die mees kritieke probleme wat die wyer aanwending van membrane vir skeidingsprosesse benadeel. Aanvuiling word veroorsaak deur die deponering van partikels, nie net op die oppervlak van die membraan nie, maar ook binne-in die membraanporieë, wat die volgende tot gevolg het: 'n afname in vloed deur die membraan, 'n afname in die effektiwiteit van die membraan, en 'n korter membraanleeftyd. Die teenpulsskoonmaakmetode kan gebruik word om die aanvuilingslaag vanaf die membranoppervlakte te verwyder sonder dat dit nodig is om die membraantoetsapparaat af te skakel. Ultrasoniese-tydsgebied-weerkaatsing (UTW) is 'n nie-vernietigende tegniek wat gebruik kan word om die groei van 'n aanvuilingslaag op 'n membraanoppervlakte tydens mikrofiltrasie (MF) of ultrafiltrasie (UF) te identifiseer en te meet. In hierdie studie is plat-vel MF en UF membrane bevuil gedurende 'n kruisvloeifiltrasieproses deur gebruik to maak van dekstraan, gis of alumina, in 'n plat sel. Infraklank-frekwensieteenpols, in die permeaatgebied, is gebruik om die membrane skoon te maak. Hiervoor is die proseswater of 'n seepoplossing gebruik. Die maksimum drukamplitude van die pulse wat gebruik is was 140 kPa, en die puls was aangewend teen 'n frekwensie van 6.7 Hz. Die hoofdoelwite van hierdie studie was die volgende: (1) om inligting in te win oor hoe aanvuilingsmateriale op membraanoppervlaktes gedeponeer word tydens MF en UF en hoe hulle verwyder kan word deur gebruik te maak van die teenpulsskoonmaaktegniek; (2) om van die teenpulsskoonmaaktegniek gebruik te maak om die groei van die bevuilingslaag asook die verwydering daarvan op die membraanoppervlakte te monitor; en (3) om van skandeerelektronmikroskopie (SEM) as 'n direkte analitiesetegniekgebruik te maak om die struktuur van die aanvuilingsmateriaal voor en na die die skoonmaakproses te analiseer. Deur gebruik te maak van teenpulsskoonmaak kon die membraanvloed tot tussen 55–98% van die oorspronklike suiwerwatervloed verbeter word. Sodoende is ultrasoniese-tydsgebiedweerkaatsing suksesvol gebruik om die skoonmaak van membrane te monitor asook om inligting in te win i.v.m. die groei en verwydering van die aanvuilingslae op die membraanoppervlaktes.

Thesis (MScEng (Process Engineering))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Immersed membrane systems hold many operational and environmental advantages in biological treatment of wastewater. However, immersed membrane filtration have only found application in niche markets to date because of higher capital and operating costs associated with membrane fouling. But with capital costs on the decline as membranes become less expensive, immersed membrane systems are increasingly considered as an attractive alternative to conventional treatment processes. Operating costs remain high however, since energy intensive techniques such as air-sparging are required to limit membrane fouling. Improving the air-scouring efficiency of air-sparged immersed membranes can significantly reduce operating costs and unlock the immersed membrane system technology to wider application. The aim of this study was to identify factors that will improve air-scouring efficiency in order to produce guidelines that will help in the development of an immersed microfiltration membrane system with a resulting lower operating cost. Although, the research was done on a flat-sheet microfiltration membrane, the guidelines obtained can be used for the development of any immersed microfiltration membrane arrangement. An airlift reactor set-up was chosen for this study. Six system hydrodynamic factors were evaluated in a factorial design to determine their effects on the cross-flow velocity profile. They were the downcomer area to riser area ratio, top clearance distance, bottom clearance distance, aeration intensity, water depth and air sparger location. It was found that the air-scouring efficiency was increased by generating a cross-flow velocity profile with increased magnitude and uniformity, but absolute uniformity of the cross-flow velocity profile was found to be a prerequisite for optimisation of air-scouring efficiency. Downcomer area to riser area ratio was found to be 99.9% significant in determining the magnitude of the cross-flow velocity profile. Two models were developed to respectively predict the relative magnitude and uniformity of the cross-flow velocity profile. By using these two models, a methodology was developed to design an airlift reactor set-up that would produce system hydrodynamics with an improved air-scouring efficiency.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gesonke membraanstelsels beskik oor talle bedryfs- en omgewingsvoordele in biologiese behandeling van afvalwater. Maar weens die hoër kapitaal- en bedryfskostes wat gepaardgaan met membraanbevuiling, kon gesonke membraanstelsels tot op hede nog net toepassing in nismarkte vind. Maar soos kapitaalkoste daal met al hoe goedkoper membrane beskikbaar, word gesonke membraanstelsels al hoe aanlokliker as ‘n alternatief vir konvensionele behandelingsprosesse. Bedryfskostes bly egter hoog aangesien energie-intensiewe tegnieke soos lugborreling benodig word om membraanbevuiling te vertraag. Deur die effektiwiteit van die skropaksie wat lugborreling aan gesonke membrane bied te verbeter, kan ‘n beduidende besparing in bedryfskostes teweeggebring word om sodoende die uitgebreide toepassing van gesonke membraanstelsel tegnologie moontlik te maak. Hierdie studie het ten doel gehad die identifisering van faktore wat lugskropaksie effektiwiteit kan verbeter en om riglyne op te stel vir die ontwikkeling van ‘n gesonke mikrofiltrasie membraanstelsel met gevolglik laer bedryfskostes. Alhoewel hierdie navorsing ‘n plat-blad mikrofiltrasie membraan gebruik het, kan die riglyne steeds vir enige gesonke mikrofiltrasie membraanuitleg gebruik word. Daar is besluit op ‘n lugligter-reaktor opstelling vir hierdie studie. Ses stelselhidrodinamika faktore is geëvalueer in ‘n faktoriale ontwerp om hul effekte op die kruisvloei snelheidsprofiel te bepaal. Hulle was die afvloei-area tot opvloei-area verhouding, topruimte-afstand, bodemruimte-afstand, belugtingsintensiteit, waterdiepte en belugterligging. Daar is bevind dat die lugskropaksie effektiwiteit verhoog word wanneer ‘n kruisvloei snelheidsprofiel geskep word met ‘n verhoogde grootte en gelykvormigheid, maar die absolute gelykvormigheid van die kruisvloei snelheidsprofiel is gevind om ‘n voorvereiste te wees vir optimale effektiwiteit. Afvloei-area tot opvloei-area verhouding is gevind om 99.9% beduidend te wees in die bepaling van die snelheidsprofiel se grootte. Twee modelle is ontwikkel om afsonderlik die relatiewe grootte en gelykvormigheid van die kruisvloei snelheidsprofiel te voorspel. Die modelle is in ‘n metodologie vervat vir die ontwerp van ‘n lugligter opstelling met stelselhidrodinamika wat verbeterde lugskropaksie effektiwiteit sal skep.

Water supply systems aim, among other objectives, to protect public health by reducing the concentration of, and potentially eliminating, microorganisms pathogenic to human beings. Yet, because water supply systems are engineered systems facing variable conditions, such as raw water quality or treatment process performance, the quality of the drinking water produced also exhibits variability. The reliability of a treatment system is defined in this context as the probability of producing drinking water that complies with existing microbial quality standards. This thesis examines the concept of reliability for two physicochemical treatment technologies, conventional rapid granular filtration and ultrafiltration, used to remove the protozoan pathogen Cryptosporidium parvum from drinking water. First, fault tree analysis is used as a method of identifying technical hazards related to the operation of these two technologies and to propose ways of minimizing the probability of failure of the systems. This method is used to compile operators’ knowledge into a single logical diagram and allows the identification of important processes which require efficient monitoring and maintenance practices. Second, an existing quantitative microbial risk assessment model is extended to be used in a reliability analysis. The extended model is used to quantify the reliability of the ultrafiltration system, for which performance is based on full-scale operational data, and to compare it with the reliability of rapid granular filtration systems, for which performance is based on previously published data. This method allows for a sound comparison of the reliability of the two technologies. Several issues remain to be addressed regarding the approaches used to quantify the different input variables of the model. The approaches proposed herein can be applied to other water treatment technologies, to aid in prioritizing interventions to improve system reliability at the operational level, and to determine the data needs for further refinements of the estimates of important variables.

Commercial pure terephthalic acid (PTA) manufacturing generates process streams mainly containing acetic acid (HAc) and water. A large financial incentive exists to replace the costly and energy intensive distillation column used to recycle HAc-water mixtures. This work focuses on the development of pervaporation technology to separate HAc-water mixtures using a hollow fiber-based membrane unit. Currently a 250 m outer diameter Matrimid® hollow fiber is used in industry for gas separation. Due to the difference between gas and liquid separations, the fiber performance associated with high flux in pervaporation is limited by a pressure change inside the bore along the axial direction of the fiber. A mathematical model was developed to describe the bore pressure change in pervaporation in this work, which demonstrated that spinning a large bore size fiber was a good solution to minimize the bore pressure change. Spinning technology has been adapted to obtain a large bore size defect-free Matrimid® hollow fiber. In addition to a large bore size, the asymmetric fiber exhibits an intrinsically defect-free selective layer supported on an open porous substrate. This eliminates the post-treatment with a caulking layer and has a special advantage for aggressive liquid separation. A proof of concept was provided by testing both small and large bore size defect-free fibers with a model 20% wt HAc feed in a pervaporation system at 101.5oC. The membrane selectivity (~ 25) and water flux (~ 4.5 kg/m2hr) were increased by about 150% with a diameter (O.D. ~ 500 m) twice as large as the regular fiber. Further, a decrease in the HAc flux was observed with the increased bore size due to the reduction in HAc-induced plasticization. Sub-Tg thermal annealing was used to stabilize the fiber by suppressing HAc-induced plasticization. This improves the polymer discrimination of shape and size for penetrants although no chemical reaction occurs with thermal annealing. The resulting membrane selectivity was increased from 10 to about 95 using a large bore size defect-free annealed fiber with acceptable water flux (~ 1.5 kg/m2hr) for 20% wt HAc concentration feed streams. These improvements make Matrimid® hollow fiber membranes very attractive for future scale-up and commercial development.

Ceramic membrane processes are a rapidly emerging technology for water treatment, yet virtually no information on the performance and fouling mechanisms is available to the industry. Ceramic microfiltration of model feed solutions and a synthetic river water was examined, and a systematic comparison with polymeric counterpart was performed. The results suggested that the models which have been applied to polymeric membranes agreed well with the ceramic membrane filtration data. The fouling was characterized by the initial pore blocking mechanism and transition to the cake filtration mechanism at a later phase. Cake resistance was dominant and readily removable by physical cleaning. The effects of solution chemistry including ionic strength, divalent ion concentration and pH on the flux behavior were comparatively evaluated for ceramic and polymeric ultrafiltration of synthetic water containing model natural organic matter. Experimental evaluations further included resistance-in-series model analysis, organic matter fouling visualization using quantum dots, batch adsorption test, and contact angle measurement, and provided a quantitative a quantitative comparison of fouling characteristics between ceramic and polymeric membranes. The results collectively suggested that the effects of solution chemistry on the fouling behavior with ceramic membranes were mostly similar with polymeric membranes in terms of trends, while the extents varied depending on water quality parameters. Less fouling tendency and better cleaning efficiency were observed with the ceramic membranes, which was a promising finding for ceramic membrane application to surface water treatment. The study further examined a coagulation-ceramic membrane process as a robust option for surface water treatment. The performance of the hybrid system was evaluated using selected surface waters by varying coagulation conditions and types of coagulants. Results suggested that ceramic membranes experienced relatively less fouling and had better cleaning efficiency than polymeric counterpart. The results of this study provide critical information to guide the industry practitioners, consultants, and regulatory agents considering early adoption of this new technology as well as fundamental knowledge upon which further in-depth studies can be built.

A mathematical model has been developed which describes the fluid exchange from a capillary network of realistic topology, and calculates the spatial distribution of extravascular pressure. In this model, the capillaries are represented by a superposition of sources and sinks, resulting from a D'Arcy's Law description of flow in tissue of uniform fluid conductivity. The combination of this representation and Starling's Hypothesis, which relates the forces influencing transmural fluid exchange, yields an integral equation of the second kind which is solved numerically for the source strength distribution. Two important features of this approach are that: (i) it allows for interaction between the local tissue pressure field and fluid exchange (the model is called, therefore, the tissue pressure interaction model); and (ii) complex network morphologies are easily modeled. In single capillaries, this interaction, which decreases the predicted fluid exchange, increases with the magnitude of the ratio of capillary wall to extravascular fluid conductivities. For multiple capillaries, in addition to the "self" interaction of a capillary with the local extravascular pressure field, there is the possibility of interaction between capillaries ("capillary-capillary" interaction). The ratio of conductivities, and the additional factors of intercapillary distance and the number of capillaries, also affect interaction in capillary networks. Although interaction is only a weak function of intercapillary distance, it depends strongly on the number of capillaries. The major result from this work is that for the entire physiological range of conductivity ratios, interaction cannot be neglected in predicting fluid exchange. Although tissue pressure interaction affects the magnitude of fluid exchange, it does not greatly alter the pattern of extravascular flow. Therefore, previous models which neglected interaction are not invalidated by the present findings. The effect of interaction on planar capillary networks within a semi-infinite tissue space was also investigated. Flow boundary conditions were imposed at opposed planar boundaries, parallel with the capillary network. Interaction was found to decrease with decreasing distance between the boundary and plane of the capillaries. It still exerted a large effect, however, for distances greater than one-fourth the reference capillary length.

Pensando em um melhor aproveitamento para o excedente do bagaço de cana, esse trabalho tem como objetivo a obtenção de membranas de acetato de celulose composta com ligninas oxidadas, ambos isolados do bagaço da cana. Para tal, os componentes macromoleculares do bagaço foram separados, aplicando-se um pré-tratamento de explosão a vapor para retirada da parte hemicelulósica e um tratamento com hidróxido de sódio para a separação da lignina e obtenção da polpa bruta de celulose. Essa polpa foi branqueada e acetilada e, posteriormente, foram sintetizadas membranas deste acetato de celulose, incorporando-se lignina oxidada a estas membranas com o objetivo de aumentar a capacidade de retenção de metais destas membranas. Assim, pretende-se obter um produto com maior valor comercial, que tem aplicações em tratamento de água e efluentes, podendo contribuir ainda mais para a manutenção do ambiente. As membranas foram sintetizadas por inversão de fase, utilizando dois métodos distintos: I. por evaporaçãoprecipitação e, II. por imersão em banho de coagulação. O material acetilado foi analisado por IR, confirmando-se a acetilação pelo aparecimento de bandas características do acetato e analisadas quanto ao grau de substituição, caracterizando um diacetato. As membranas sintetizadas pelo método I foram analisadas por MEV, constatando-se membranas de estrutura densa para todas as composições, e mais rígidas que uma membrana preparada a partir de um triacetato comercial, de acordo com os dados da análise dinâmico-mecânica. Foram realizados ainda, testes de permeabilidade e retenção de cobre. Apesar de rígidas, resistiram a pressões de até 20 bar. A membrana aditivada com lignina oxidada por lacase foi a que apresentou melhor desempenho nesse teste, atingindo maior fluxo necessitando menor pressão. No teste de retenção de cobre, apresentaram uma capacidade média de 15%, correspondendo a 50,5 mg Cu2+/g lignina. As membranas sintetizadas pelo método II foram analisadas por MEV, constatando-se diferenças na morfologia quando a lignina é adicionada dissolvida em NaOH. As análises térmicas mostraram a Tg do material perto de 80°C, além de evidenciar uma maior estabilidade térmica do material aditivado com lignina oxidada, comparado ao material sem lignina e com lignina original. No teste de permeabilidade, realizado aqui à pressão constante de 10 bar, a membrana sintetizada apenas com o acetato de celulose de bagaço de cana não apresentou fluxo. As membranas aditivadas com lignina original e lignina oxidada apresentaram fluxo, de 3,5 e 6,1 L/h.m2 respectivamente. O fato foi atribuído à morfologia das membranas, dado que as duas últimas, que apresentaram fluxo, possuem estrutura porosa, enquanto a outra possui estrutura densa. No teste de retenção de cobre, foi possível visualizar o efeito da adição da lignina na membrana, que aumenta 3,5 vezes a capacidade de retenção de cobre e, ainda, o efeito da oxidação da lignina, que aumenta em mais 50 % essa capacidade de retenção em comparação à adição apenas da lignina original. Contudo, os resultados indicam que as membranas sintetizadas, principalmente as membranas aditivadas com lignina oxidada, são promissoras para o objetivo proposto.
Thinking of a better use for the surplus of sugarcane bagasse, this study aims to obtain membranes of cellulose acetate composite with oxidized lignins, both isolated from sugarcane bagasse. To this purpose, the macromolecular components of bagasse were separated by applying a steam explosion pre-treatment for removal of hemicellulose and a treatment with sodium hydroxide to separate the lignin and obtaining of crude cellulose pulp. This pulp was bleached and acetylated, and subsequently cellulose acetate membranes were synthesized incorporating oxidized lignin in these membranes in order to increase the metal retention capacity of them. Thus, we intend to obtain a product with higher commercial value, which has applications in water and effluent treatment, which can further contribute to the maintenance of the environment. The membranes were synthesized by phase inversion, using two different methods: I. evaporation-precipitation and II. immersion in coagulation bath. The acetylated material was analyzed by FTIR, confirming the acetylation by the appearance of bands characteristic of acetate and analyzed for degree of substitution, featuring a diacetate. The membranes synthesized by method I were analyzed by SEM, verifying dense structure for the membranes in all compositions, and more rigid than a membrane prepared from a commercial triacetate, according to the data of dynamic mechanical analysis. Tests about permeability and copper retention also were done. Although rigid, they resisted to pressures up to 20 bar. The membrane added with lignin oxidized by laccase showed the best performance in this test, reaching higher flow requiring less pressure. In the test of copper retention, they showed an average retention capacity of 15%, corresponding to 50.5 mg Cu2+/ g lignin. The membranes synthesized by method II were analyzed by SEM, noting differences in morphology when the lignin is added dissolved in NaOH. Thermal analysis showed the Tg of the material near 80 °C, besides showing a higher thermal stability of the material added with oxidized lignin compared to material without lignin and with original lignin. In the permeability test, held at constant pressure of 10 bar, the membrane synthesized with only cellulose acetate cane bagasse showed no flow. The membranes added with original lignin and oxidized lignin showed flow of 3.5 and 6.1 L/h.m2, respectively. The fact was attributed to the morphology of the membranes, since the two latter, which showed flow, have porous structure, while the other has a dense structure. In the test of copper retention, it was possible to visualize the effect of the addition of lignin in the membrane, which increases 3.5 times the cupper retention capacity and, the effect of lignin oxidation, with increases in more 50% this retention capacity in comparison to the addition of the lignin in the original form. However, the results indicate that the synthesized membranes, mainly membranes added with oxidized lignin, are promising for the proposed objective.

Thesis (MEng) -- Stellenbosch University, 2014.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: When desalinating brackish water by reverse osmosis (RO) or other techniques, high overall water recoveries are essential to minimize brine production and the associated disposal costs thereof. As the overall water recovery increases, concentrations of sparingly soluble salts (e.g. barium sulphate, calcium sulphate) reach levels above saturation, especially near the membrane surface, drastically increasing the scaling propensity. Antiscalants are typically dosed into the feed water to prevent such scaling during RO desalination. However, the carry-over of antiscalant into the concentrate stream can complicate subsequent salt precipitation processes that may be used to increase overall water recovery. These precipitation techniques are sometimes used to reduce the levels of super-saturation in the RO concentrate prior to a subsequent RO desalination step. The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility of reducing calcium sulphate scaling on RO membranes, by using periodic permeate flushing when feeding a lab-scale RO unit with a supersaturated calcium sulphate solution in the absence of anti-scalant. The overall water recovery was increased by recycling the concentrate, after an intermediate de-supersaturation step. This simulated a multiple-stage RO system, typical of processes used in high-recovery acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment plants. De-supersaturation of the concentrate intermediate was achieved with direct seeded gypsum precipitation, in the absence of any antiscalant. On the membrane surface inside the membrane unit, calcium sulphate concentrations greatly exceeded saturation levels – a combined consequence of the normal concentration process and the well-known surface-based concentration polarisation phenomenon. Therefore, periodic forward-flushing of the supersaturated solution from the membrane unit was performed with permeate. In theory, the periodic flushing removes the highly concentrated layer at the membrane surface during every flush, before scaling can occur. Various flushing regimes were evaluated to assess the effectiveness of the process. A lab-scale desalination unit with a 0.106 m2 flat sheet polyamide RO membrane was designed and constructed. The unit could operate at a feed rate of 12-14 L/h and at permeate fluxes of 12-24 LMH. Super-saturated feed solutions were prepared by mixing sodium sulphate and calcium chloride dihydrate salts with demineralised water, with an initial salinity of ± 5300 mg/L TDS, corresponding to a gypsum saturation index (SIg) of 1.2 for most experiments. The total production time, net permeate production and flux decline were used to compare the flushing efficiency in different experimental runs. Initial tests showed that scaling could be prevented (when operating the unit in full recycle mode, i.e. where both concentrate and permeate were recycled to feed), at flushing frequencies between 12 and 2.4 h-1, when the membrane feed and concentrate were slightly under-saturated (SIg = 0.9) and slightly super-saturated (SIg = 1.1) respectively. However, when switching the same system to non-flushing mode after 24 hours of operation, membrane scaling occurred within 2-3 hours, as indicated by a strong decline in flux. However, when operating the system in concentrate recycle mode (i.e. permeate is withdrawn) with super-saturated feed solutions (e.g. SIg = 1.2), and thus a notably more super-saturated solution in the membrane concentrate, scaling could not be prevented (albeit delayed for some time) with intermittent permeate flushing. A fractional 25-1 factorial design was used to determine which factors had the most significant effect on total production time and permeate production rate, testing five factors: 1) flushing frequency, 2) flushing volume, 3) permeate soak time, 4) permeate flux and 5) instantaneous recovery. The ANOVA analysis showed that total production times were, not surprisingly, primarily affected by the permeate flux, where operation at 24 LMH resulted in a lower net permeate production between 3.0 - 4.2 L, compared to 7.6 - 9.7 L at 12 LMH. Higher permeate fluxes clearly resulted in higher levels of concentration polarisation at the membrane surface, thus increasing the propensity for membrane scaling. Flushing frequency and instantaneous recovery also affected the net permeate production, where 6 h-1 and 10 % were the optimal values respectively within the range of test conditions. The lowest permeate production rate resulted in the highest net permeate volume production (i.e. also longest total production time), confirmed by a least squares regression. In summary: This study showed that periodic permeate flushing could delay the membrane scaling process. However, it failed to prevent membrane scaling completely when operating the system with supersaturated calcium sulphate solutions in the absence of antiscalants. The flushing technique effectively delayed the onset of precipitation, but scaling eventually occurred if the lab-scale RO system was operated in concentrate recycle mode with oversaturated feed solutions (SIg = 1.2). Additional experiments at different cross-flow velocities during permeate flushing, while using an optimised RO test cell flow channel design, are recommended for future studies.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende die ontsouting van brakwater deur tegnieke soos tru-osmose (TO), is ʼn maksimum herwinning van water noodsaaklik om die produksie, en die gepaardgaande kostes van verwydering, van die sout/brak neweproduk te minimeer. Soos die herwinning van water verhoog, so ook verhoog die konsentrasie van moeilik-oplosbare soute (soos bariumsulfaat, kalsiumsulfaat) in die sout konsentraat stroom, totdat die soute uiteindelik superversadiging bereik. Hierdie superversadiging gebeur veral naby die membraanoppervlak, waar dit lei tot ʼn verhoogde kans van presipitasie en skaalvorming. Om dit te voorkom word die voerwater na ʼn TO stelsel tipies gedoseer met antiskaalmiddels. Hierdie antiskaalmiddels verlaat die stelsel saam met die konsentraat, waar hulle gevolglike die presipitasie van soute bemoeilik. Presipitasie van soute uit die konsentraat kan tipies gebruik word om die vlak van superversadiging in die konsentraat te verlaag, waarna verdere TO behandeling gebruik word om selfs ʼn hoër algehele waterherwinning te bewerkstellig. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die vatbaarheid van die vermindering van kalsiumsulfaat (gips) skaalvorming in die afwesigheid van antiskaalmiddels op TO membrane te toets. Dit is bewerkstellig deur ʼn laboratoriumskaal TO eenheid te voer met ʼn superversadigde kalsiumsulfaat oplossing en die membraan periodies met skoon produkwater (permeaat) te was. Die algehele waterherwinning is verhoog deur met ʼn tussenstap die versadigingsvlak van gips in die konsentraat te verlaag, waarna dit hersirkuleer is na die voertenk. Sodoende is ʼn multi-stadium TO stelsel nageboots, soos dit tipies in hoë herwinningsaanlegte, soos met die herwinning van suur mynwater (E: acid mine drainage, AMD), gebruik word. ʼn Verlaging in superversadiging van die konsentraat in die tussenstap is behaal deur die konsentraat direk aan gipskristalle bloot te stel om presipitasie te bewerkstellig in die afwesigheid van enige antiskaalmiddels. Gedurende eksperimente het die soutkonsentrasie op die membraanoppervlak in die TO eenheid superversadigingsvlakke vêr oorskry, as gevolg van die natuurlike konsentrasie proses en die bekende konsentrasie polarisasie oppervlaksverskynsel. Om hierdie superversadiging teen te werk is periodiese saamstroom spoeling van die membraan met skoon produkwater uitgevoer. In teorie het die periodiese spoeling die hoogs gekonsentreerde oplossing van die membraan oppervlak verwyder voor skaalvorming kan plaasvind. Verskillende spoelpatrone is ondersoek om die doeltreffendheid van die spoeling te bepaal. Om die eksperimente uit te voer is ʼn laboratoriumskaal ontsoutingsaanleg met ʼn maklik verwyderbare 0.106 m2 plat-vel poli-amied TO membraan ontwerp en gebou. Die aanleg kan vloeistof voertempo’s tussen 12-24 L/h hanteer en skoon produkwater teen 12-24 LHM lewer. Die superversadigde voer oplossings, soos gebruik in die meerderheid van die eksperimentes is voorberei deur natriumsulfaat en kalsiumchloried-dihidraat soute te meng in gedemineraliseerde water, tot ʼn soutgehalte van ± 5300 mg/L TDS bereik is. Hierdie soutgehalte stem ooreen met ʼn gips versadigingsindeks (E: gypsum saturation index, SIg) van 1.2. Die skoon produkwater totale produksietyd en netto produksie, asook die membraan vloed afname, is gebruik as veranderlikes om die spoel doeltreffendheid tussen eksperimentele lopies te vergelyk. Aanvanklike toetse het getoon dat skalering voorkom is by effens onderversadigde (SIg = 0.9) en effens superversadigde (SIg = 1.1) voer oplossings met die onderskeie spoel frekwensies van 12 en 2.4 h-1, (terwyl die aanleg in algehele hersirkulasie bedryf is, m.a.w. wanneer beide die konsentraat en produkwater gedurig na die voertenk hersirkuleer word). ʼn Effens-superversadigde eksperiment is ook sonder spoeling uitgevoer vir 24 uur. In hierdie geval het skaalvorming binne twee tot drie uur gebeur, soos bevestig deur ʼn skerp afname in die membraan vloed. Skaalvorming kon nie verhoed word terwyl die aanleg bedryf word met superversadigde (SIg = 1.2) voeroplossings en slegs konsentraat hersirkulasie nie (m.a.w. skoon produkwater word opgevang), alhoewel skaalvorming vertraag kon word. Hierdie operasie het tot beduidend meer gekonsentreerde oplossings in die membraan gelei. Om te bepaal watter faktore die grootste invloed op totale produksietyd en netto produksie van skoon produkwater het, is ʼn fraksionele faktoriaalontwerp van 25-1 uitgelê wat vyf faktore toets, naamlik: 1) spoel frekwensie, 2) spoel volume, 3) skoon produkwater weektyd, 4) membraanvloed en 5) oombliklike herwinning. ʼn AVOVA analise het getoon dat totale produksietyd hoofsaaklik deur membraanvloed beïnvloed is, soos verwag kan word. Dit word gestaaf deurdat die aanleg, bedryf teen 24 LMH, slegs 3 - 4.2 L netto produkwater gelewer het, teenoor 7.6 - 9.7 L by 12 LMH. Hoër membraan vloedtempo’s het tot hoër vlakke van konsentrasie polarisasie op die membraanoppervlak gelei, wat ʼn groter neiging tot skaalvorming tot gevolg gehad het. Spoelfrekwensie en oombliklike herwinning het ʼn invloed op die netto produksie van skoon produkwater gehad, met 6 h-1 en 10 % as die onderskeie optimale waardes. ʼn Kleinstekwadraat regressie het aangedui dat die laagste produksietempo van skoon produkwater die hoogste netto produksie van skoon produkwater gelewer het, (asook die langste produksietyd). In opsomming: Hierdie studie het getoon dat gereelde spoeling met skoon produkwater die membraan skaalproses kan vertraag. Gedurende bedryf met superversadigde kalsiumsulfaat oplossings sonder enige antiskaalmiddels is daar gevind dat skaalvorming nie geheel en al vermy kon word nie. Die spoeltegniek, soos gebruik in hierdie studie, het die aanvang van skaalvorming in die laboratorium skaal TO eenheid vertraag, maar bedryf met konsentraat hersirkulasie en superversadigde oplossings (SIg = 1.2) het steeds skaal gevorm. Bykomende eksperimente teen verskeie kruisvloei snelhede gedurende die spoel stap word aanbeveel vir toekomstige studies.

Este trabalho trata da preparação de membranas suportadas em substratos com alta permeabilidade, alta porosidade e razoável resistência mecânica., pelo método da sedimentação gravitacional. Os substratos foram obtidos através da prensagem de composições contendo poli(metacrilato de metila) e ácido esteárico dissolvidos no dicloro metano e alumina APC-SG (d50 = 3 μm ) calcinada a 1600°C durante 1h. As partículas de alumina após calcinação são classificadas em peneiras da série Tyler e utilizadas aquelas cuja distribuição se encontravam na faixa granulométrica de 250 a 500 μm. Os substratos após a prensagem a 33 MPa são calcinados e sinterizados a 1600°C durante 3h e apresentam \"alta resistência mecânica\", taxa de fluxo de 404 m3/m2h , porosidade de 59 % e distribuição de poros nas faixas de 10 a 100 μm e de 0.4 a 2.0 μm. Devido a grande diferença entre os diâmetros dos poros do substrato e o tamanho das partículas de alumina AKP-50 (d50 = 0.3 μm), utilizada para a obtenção da membrana, foi necessário acrescentar uma camada intermediária de alumina APC-SG entre o substrato e a membrana para viabilizar o processo de sedimentação. A camada intermediária foi depositada por sedimentação gravitacional e sinterizada a 1500°C durante 1h. A porosidade do substrato/camada intermediária é igual a 56 %, taxa de fluxo de 10 m3/m2h e distribuição de poros estreita na faixa de 0.4 a 2 μm. As membranas foram sinterizadas a 100°C durante 0.5h e se caracterizam por possuir uma distribuição de poros estreita na faixa de 0.04 a 0.09 μm, espessura média de 57 μm e taxa de fluxo de 0.4 m3/m2h.
This work is concerned with ceramic membrane preparation supported on a ceramic substrate having high permeability, high porosity and reasonable mechanical strength. Membranes were prepared from AKP-50 alumina by the gravitational sedimentation method followed by sintering at 1000°C for 0.5 h. Membranes showed a unimodal narrow pore size distribution in the 0.04 to 0.09 range, thickness of 57 μm and 0.4 m3/m2h. flow rate. Substrates were prepared by uniaxial compression, at 33 MPa, of alumina PMMA stearic acid powder composites followed by organic burning and final sintering at 1600°C for 3h. In order to increase alumina APC-SG grain size distribution to 250- 500 μm range, alumina was previously calcined at 1600°C for 1h. Substrates show high mechanical strength, 4.0 to 2 m3/m2h flow rate, 60% porosity and pore size distribution in the range of 10-100 μm and from 0.4 to 2.0 μm. Due to the large difference between the substrate pore diameter and the AKP-50 alumina grain size distribution (d50 = 0.3 μm) used in the membrane preparation, it was necessary to add an intermediary APC-SG layer. This layer was prepared also by the gravitational sedimentation method and sintered at 1500°C for 1h. The intermediary layer/substrate showed 56% porosity, 10 m3/m2h flow rate and a narrow pore sue distribution in the 0.4-2.0 μm range.

Плазма крові тварини – багатокомпонентний біологічний матеріал, що складається з сотень біохімічних сполук, деякі з яких ще повністю не досліджено. Метою наших досліджень було розробка та визначення критичних параметрів стадії фільтрації сироватки як одного з технологічних етапів отримання депротеінізованого гемодеривату крові телят. Доведено, що застосування мембранних фільтрів з нейлону на стадії передфільтрації є недоцільним. Мембрани з матеріалу PES забезпечують процес фільтрації сироватки крові КРС, обрані фільтри сумісні з досліджуваною сировиною. Встановлено, що використання фільтрувальних мембран у послідовності PES (0,45 мкм) та PES (0, 22 мкм) не лише гарантує відповідність необхідним показникам якості та стерильності, а й підвищує швидкість фільтрації та вихід сировини, що збільшує його економічну привабливість у промислових масштабах.
Animal blood plasma is a multicomponent biological material consisting of hundreds of biochemical compounds, some of which have not yet been fully studied. The aim of our research was to develop and determine the critical parameters of the stage of serum filtration as one of the technological stages of obtaining deproteinized hemoderivative of calf blood. It is proved that the use of nylon membrane filters at the stage of prefiltration is impractical. Membranes made of PES material provide the process of filtration of bovine serum, the selected filters are compatible with the test raw material. It is established that the use of filter membranes in the sequence of PES (0.45 μm) and PES (0, 22 μm) not only guarantees compliance with the required quality and sterility, but also increases filtration rate and yield of raw materials, which increases its economic attractiveness on an industrial scale.

Sistemas de membranas filtrantes, principalmente os de osmose reversa, estão sendo cada vez mais utilizados em diversos seguimentos de empresas (farmacêutica, tratamento de água, alimentícia e química), devido à diminuição do preço dos elementos filtrantes e da alta qualidade do produto obtido. Apesar do preço dos elementos de osmose reversa terem caído nos últimos tempos, a substituição destes continua sendo o fator mais dispendioso de um sistema de osmose reversa. A autópsia de membranas é uma técnica utilizada para investigar a causa que levou à colmatação de um elemento, contribuindo no melhoramento do pré-tratamento da água de alimentação e consequentemente aumentando a vida útil dos elementos. O presente trabalho teve como objetivo incrementar a técnica de autópsia de membranas de osmose reversa através da análise da volatilização dos principais compostos inorgânicos presentes nestas membranas, modificação na metodologia de quantificação de açúcares e proteínas, comparação de diferentes técnicas de remoção do material depositado sobre as membranas e análise da distribuição de biofilmes sobre elementos colmatados de osmose reversa. A análise dos resultados mostrou que dentre os inorgânicos, ocorreu volatilização completa do cloreto de amônio e pequena variação no composto cloreto férrico; a quantificação de proteínas e açúcares, através da fortificação das amostras, apresentou valores diferentes quando comparados com os valores obtidos diretamente da curva padrão, devido à diferença de inclinação entre as retas de fortificação e padrão; os resultados também mostraram que a trituração foi mais eficiente na remoção do material aderido quando comparado com a raspagem e a sonicação e a distribuição de biofilmes se mostrou uniforme nos dois elementos analisados.
Filter membrane systems, especially reverse osmosis, are being increasingly used in various business segments (pharmaceutical, water treatment, food and chemical) due to decrease in the price of the filter elements and high quality product. Although the price of reverse osmosis elements have fallen in recent times, the replacement of the part remains more expensive a reverse osmosis system. The autopsy of membranes is a technique used to investigate the cause that led to clogging of one factor contributing to the improvement of pre-treatment of water feeding and consequently increasing the life of the elements. This study aimed to improve the technique of autopsy reverse osmosis membranes by examining the volatilization of major inorganic compounds present in these membranes, modification the methodology for quantification of sugars and proteins, comparison of different techniques for removal of material deposited on the membranes and distribution analysis of biofilms on elements obscured reverse osmosis. The results showed that among the Inorganic volatilization was full of ammonium chloride and small variation in the compound ferric chloride, the quantification of proteins and sugars, by fortifying the samples showed different values when compared with values obtained directly the standard curve due to the difference in slope between the lines of and fortification standard, the results also showed that the blending was more efficient in removing adhered material when compared with the scraping and sonication and distribution of biofilms showed uniform the two elements analyzed.

Capes
A eutrofização atinge diversos reservatórios de abastecimento de água, causando problemas principalmente da ordem operacional e comprometimento da qualidade da água para a população. Algumas tecnologias de tratamento de água passam por um processo de aperfeiçoamento e outras surgem para melhorar a eficiência do tratamento. Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar a remoção de cianobactérias e cianotoxinas por meio de coagulação com Moringa oleifera, seguida de microfiltração e nanofiltração. Sendo assim a primeira etapa do trabalho foi o cultivo em laboratório da cianobactéria Microcystis aeruginosa e a determinação de curvas de crescimento deste microrganismo. Na seqüência foram realizados ensaios para verificar a as melhores condições de coagulação/floculação/sedimentação com a solução coagulante de M. oleifera (1%), como respostas foram utilizadas a remoção de células da M. aeruginosa e a redução da turbidez. Foram avaliadas as seguintes variáveis: tempo de coagulação; velocidade rápida, tempo de floculação, velocidade lenta, tempo de sedimentação, turbidez inicial, quantidade de solução coagulante. Em seguida o processo de coagulação/floculação/sedimentação foi associado à microfiltração, nesta etapa foi realizada com água do cultivo e água da Represa do Passaúna –PR contaminada com o cultivo da M. aeruginosa. Por fim, devido à M. aeruginosa cultivada ser tóxica e produtora de microcistina avaliou-se a coagulação/floculação/sedimentação associada à nanofiltração. Os resultados indicam que as melhores condições de coagulação e floculação foram com 2 minutos de coagulação a 80 rpm, e 18 minutos para floculação a 13 rpm tendo uma remoção de células de 95,6 % e uma redução da turbidez de 97,5%. Verificou-se que 60 minutos de sedimentação já foi suficiente para remoções acima de 90% da cianobactéria, e 95% de redução da turbidez. Com relação à quantidade de solução coagulante observou-se um aumento na eficiência dos processos com o aumento da quantidade da solução coagulante, porém em 70 mg essa remoção já não tem grandes variações. A associação da coagulação/floculação/sedimentação com a microfiltração foi positiva, pois após 60 minutos a turbidez chegou a 0 uT e a ausência de células de M. aeruginosa. A retenção da microcistina com a nanofiltração apresentou uma retenção de 87,3% no início, porém com o decorrer do tempo este valor apresentou uma queda para 58,0%. Em resumo, pode-se considerar a associação da o uso da M. oleifera como coagulante com a microfiltração como uma boa alternativa para redução de turbidez e remoção de cianobactérias, assim como o uso da nanofiltração para remoção de microcistina.
The eutrophication affects many reservoirs of water, causing problems, specially the commitment of operational and water quality for the population. Some water treatment technologies go through a process of improvement and others appear to improve treatment efficiency. This work aimed to evaluate the removal of cyanobacterial and cyanotoxins through coagulation with Moringa oleifera, followed by microfiltration and nanofiltration. Thus the first stage of work was growing in the laboratory of the cyanobacterial Microcystis aeruginosa and determination of growth curves of this microorganism. Following tests were conducted to verify the optimal conditions for coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation with coagulant solution of M. oleifera (1%) were used in response to removal of cells from M. aeruginosa and reduced turbidity. The following variables were evaluated: coagulation time, fast speed, time of flocculation, slow speed, time of sedimentation, turbidity initial amount of the coagulant solution. Then the process of coagulation/flocculation/ sedimentation was associated with microfiltration this step was carried out with water end crop water of Passaúna –PR contaminated with the cultivation of M. aeruginosa. Finally, due to M. aeruginosa grown to be toxic microcystin producing and evaluate produce the coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation associated with nanofiltration. The results indicate that optimum conditions for coagulation and flocculation were clotting with 2 minutes at 80 rpm, and 18 minutes for flocculation at 13 rpm with a removal of cells and a 95,6% reduction in turbidity of 97,5%. It was found that 60 minutes was enough sediment removal for over 90% of the cyanobacterial, and 95% reduction in turbidity. With respect to the amount of coagulant solution was observed an increase in process efficiency by increasing the amount of coagulant solution, but at 70 mg such removal no longer has large variations. The association of coagulation /flocculation/sedimentation with microfiltration was positive, because after 60 minutes reached the turbidity 0 uT and the absence of cells of M. aeruginosa. The retention of microcystin with nanofiltration showed a retention of 87,3% at the beginning, but with the passage of time this value showed a decrease to 58,0%. In summary, one can consider adding the use of M. oleifera as a coagulant with microfiltration as a good alternative to reduce turbidity and removal of cyanobacterial, as well as the use of nanofiltration removal of microcystin.

In axial electrofiltration, a DC electric field is imposed between a rotating inner cylinder and a stationary outer cylinder giving rise to four mechanisms which act to minimize solute accumulation at the filter surface: turbulence, centrifugal force, electrophoresis and shear stress which removes solute aggregates.
Four dynamic membranes, Zr(IV) oxide, calcium oleate, poly-2-vinylpyridine and cadmium sulfide, were used to filter bovine serum albumin (BSA) in a disodium phosphate solution at pH = 8 and Prussian blue in distilled water. Prussian blue is a particle of 0.01(mu)m diameter with a zeta potential of -41mV while BSA is a macromolecule of 69,000 molecular weight, a Stokes-Einstein radius of 0.0038(mu)m and a zeta potential of -23.3mV at pH = 8. For BSA, the flux declined with time while the rejection increased. Filtrate fluxes increased with rotation rate and electric field and declined with concentration for both feeds. The flux declined beyond N = 2000rpm and was constant above C(,0) = 5.0wt%. For Prussian blue, the rejection was greater than 90% at all levels of E, N and C(,0). For BSA, the rejection increased with rotation rate and declined with concentration. The BSA rejection declined above N = 2000rpm and was constant beyond C(,0) = 0.5wt%.
A mathematical model was derived to predict the time variation of filtrate flux and a rejection model was used to predict the effect of surface concentration on BSA rejection.

The performance of a combined biological aerated filter (BAF) and an ultrafiltration (UF) system for the treatment of real and synthetic greywater, settled sewage, rainwater and borehole water has been assessed at both full-scale (at the Millennium Dome Water Recycling plant) and bench-scale. Irreversible membrane fouling was explained at bench-scale in terms of a simple but novel model whereby a proportion of the membrane area is progressively blocked, in proportion to the square root of the transmembrane pressure. This model provides a link between irreversible fouling and reversible cake filtration theory, as the predicted reduction in effective filtration area leads to increased solids loading on the unblocked area. In addition, the bulk properties (specific cake resistance and compressibility) of the filter cakes formed from biologically-treated real grey water and sewage were found to be indistinguishable. A statistical analysis of the results of longer term irreversible fouling trials at bench- scale led to numerical relationships between fouling rate and process conditions. These relationships facilitated the development of a process optimisation model, with the dual-aim of maximising output and minimising chemical consumption. At full-scale, a statistical technique was developed for calculating the relative fouling propensity of three water sources (real grey water, rainwater and borehole water) that were combined in the feed to a UP membrane. The technique was based on the relative volumes of the three sources and the mean operating trans membrane pressure. In addition, the impact of mechanical reliability on the financial viability of the full- scale plant was investigated. A Net Present Value analysis revealed that the break- even price (BEP) of the recycled water was reduced from £ 1.611m3 to £ 1.40/m 3 through increasing availability from 73.8% to 91.2%, and this can be achieved by investing in a targeted critical spares facility.

Cette thèse développe des approches pour le diagnostic et le pronostic de systèmes dynamiques incertains en utilisant la technique de modélisation Bond Graph (BG). Tout d'abord, une représentation par intervalles des incertitudes paramétriques et de mesures est intégrée à un modèle BG-LFT (Linear Fractional Transformation). Une méthode de détection robuste de défaut est développée en utilisant les règles de l'arithmétique d'intervalle pour la génération de seuils robustes et adaptatifs sur les résidus nominaux. La méthode est validée en temps réel sur un système de générateur de vapeur.Deuxièmement, une nouvelle méthodologie de pronostic hybride est développée en utilisant les Relations de Redondance Analytique déduites d'un modèle BG et les Filtres Particulaires. Une estimation de l'état courant du paramètre candidat pour le pronostic est obtenue en termes probabilistes. La prédiction de la durée de vie résiduelle est atteinte en termes probabilistes. Les incertitudes associées aux mesures bruitées, les conditions environnementales, etc. sont gérées efficacement. La méthode est validée en temps réel sur un système mécatronique incertain.Enfin, la méthodologie de pronostic développée est mise en œuvre et validée pour le suivi efficace de la santé d'un sous-système électrochimique d’une pile à combustible à membrane échangeuse de protons (PEMFC) industrielle à l’aide de données de dégradation réelles
This thesis develops the approaches for diagnostics and prognostics of uncertain dynamic systems in Bond Graph (BG) modeling framework. Firstly, properties of Interval Arithmetic (IA) and BG in Linear Fractional Transformation, are integrated for representation of parametric and measurement uncertainties on an uncertain BG model. Robust fault detection methodology is developed by utilizing the rules of IA for the generation of adaptive interval valued thresholds over the nominal residuals. The method is validated in real time on an uncertain and highly complex steam generator system.Secondly, a novel hybrid prognostic methodology is developed using BG derived Analytical Redundancy Relationships and Particle Filtering algorithms. Estimations of the current state of health of a system parameter and the associated hidden parameters are achieved in probabilistic terms. Prediction of the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of the system parameter is also achieved in probabilistic terms. The associated uncertainties arising out of noisy measurements, environmental conditions etc. are effectively managed to produce a reliable prediction of RUL with suitable confidence bounds. The method is validated in real time on an uncertain mechatronic system.Thirdly, the prognostic methodology is validated and implemented on the electrical electro-chemical subsystem of an industrial Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. A BG of the latter is utilized which is suited for diagnostics and prognostics. The hybrid prognostic methodology is validated, involving real degradation data sets

Master of Science
Department of Architectural Engineering and Construction Science
Julia A. Keen
Nanofibers are classified as fibers less than 1 micrometer in diameter. These fibers can be layered to form nanofibrous membranes, and these membranes offer great potential in the filtration industry. The membranes' smaller fiber diameters and pore sizes permit such filters to filter out more and smaller particulate. Additionally, antimicrobial agents can be incorporated into the membrane to inhibit fungal and bacterial growth on the membrane’s surface. This report evaluates nanofibrous membranes with antimicrobial agents and their potential in two specific locations: cleanrooms and protective environment rooms, where bacterial and fungal growth would have a detrimental effect on the process or occupant of the space.

Dissertation (Ph.D.)--Stellenbosch University, 2002.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The deposition of platinum catalyst on cation-exchange membranes was achieved by a counter diffusion deposition method known as the Takenaka- Torikai method. The morphology of the platinum catalyst on the membranes were controlled by varying the conditions of the platinum deposition process, such as, temperature, type of reducing agent and concentration of the platinic acid solution. The effect of the sonication of platinic acid solution and the pre-treatment of membranes on the morphology of a platinum catalyst was also investigated. Platinum loading on cation-exchange membranes was determined by UV spectrophotometric and gravimetric analyses. Suitable conditions for the quantitative determination of the platinum loading on membranes by UV spectrophotometric analysis was established through the development of a protocol. Membranes were characterised using different techniques such as, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Infrared spectrometry (IR), Dielectric analysis (DEA) and Brunauer Emmett Teller adsorption (BET). The roughness profile of a platinum catalyst embedded on a membrane was explored by various statistical methods. The statistical analysis of various data sets for a surface of a platinum-containing membrane was investigated using the Hurst exponent. The effect of surface modification of membranes on the deposition process, as well as the morphology of the platinum catalyst, was investigated. Membranes were modified with ethylene diamine (EDA) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide surfactant. Modification of membranes with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide surfactant resulted in a unique textured platinum catalyst. The electrochemical "switching" phenomenon was investigated for EDAmodified membranes and EDA-modified membranes embedded with platinum catalyst. The "switching" phenomenon was observed in i-V cyclic curves, which were obtained by galvanodynamie measurements. The application of electro catalytic membrane systems in the anodic oxidation of water was investigated by electrochemical techniques such as galvanostatic and cyclic voltammetric measurements.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die deponering van 'n platinum katalis op katioon-uitruil membrane is suksesvol gedoen d.m.v. die Takenaka-Torikai metode. Die morfologie van die platinum katalis op die membrane is gekontrolleer deur variasie van die kondisies van die platinum deponeringsproses, bv. temperatuur, tipe reduseermiddel gebruik en konsentrasie van die platiensuuroplossing, asook die ultrasonifikasie van die platiensuuroplossing en voorafbehandeling van die membrane. UV spektrofotometriese asook gravimetriese analitiese metodes is gebruik om die platinumlading op katioon-uitruil membrane te bepaal. Geskikte kondisies vir die kwantitatiewe bepaling van die platinumlading op membrane d.m.v. UV spektrofotometriese analise is ontwikkel deur die skep van 'n protokol. Membrane is gekarakteriseer d.m.v. die volgende tegnieke: Atoomkrag Mikroskopie, Skanderingselektron Mikroskopie, Infrarooi Spektrometrie, di-elektriese analise en Brunauer Emmett Teller adsorpsie. Die skurtheidsprofiel van 'n platinum katalis op 'n membraan is ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van verskeie statistiese metodes. Statistiese analises van verskeie data stelsels van 'n platinum-bevattende membraan is ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van die Hurst eksponent. \ Die effek van oppervlakmodifikasie op membrane sowel as die deponeringsproses en morfologie van die platinum katalis is ondersoek deur die modifikasie van membrane met etileen diamien (EDA) en setieltrimetielammonium bromied as versepingsmiddel Die elektrochemiese omswaai van EDA-gemodifiseerde membrane sowel as gemodifiseerde platinum bevattende membrane is ondersoek d.m.v. galvanodinamiese metings. Die gebruik van elektro-katalitiese membraansisteme in die anodiese oksidasie van water is ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van elektrochemiese tegnieke, bv. galvanostatiese en sikliese voltammetriese metings.

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Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos
The interest of studies on the development of techniques for removal of particles in the nanosized scale was promoted by concern about air quality and human health, in addition to restrictions on the control of ultrafine particles, wich are more intransigent by environmental laws. Additionally, the increasing application of nanoparticles in various areas of science and technology has stimulated the development of studies on the subject. Amongst the several equipments capable to operate with efficiency on the particle removal, the fibrous filters are distinguished. Such filters are, in principle, capable to act in sub-micrometer scale, but there is little information about its performance in the nano-sized scale. In this work the performance of a polyester filter, of a HEPA cellulose filter, of a quartz microfiber filter and also of cylindrical filtering membrane, provided by Pam-Membranas Seletivas Ltda, were evaluated. The experimental system was able to simulate a contamination of nanometric particles in a stream of ultrapure air, with the aim of investigating the efficiency of filter media in the removal of nanoparticles. The test aerosol was constituted by NaCl polydisperse nanoparticles, ranging from 6.15 to 245.1 nm. The performance of the filter was evaluated through the analysis of the efficiency of removal of nanoparticles, for the counting of particles before and after to cross the filtering media, using the electric mobility technique. This procedure was performed using the TSI Scannig Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS), model 3936, which provides the particles concentration, in size range. The results, in general, have showed that the filter media loses efficiency with the increasing filtration velocity and increasing particle size, in the ranged studied, indicating the typical behavior of difusional mechanism. The filtering membranes have showed better performance in the removal of particles unlike the others filters analysed there was no tendency to increase the penetration of particles with increasing the velocity of filtration or particle diameter.
O interesse de estudos acerca do desenvolvimento de técnicas de remoção de materiais particulados na escala nanométrica foi impulsionado pela preocupação com a qualidade do ar e da saúde humana, somada às restrições do controle de particulados ultrafinos, cada vez mais intolerantes pelas leis ambientais. Adicionalmente, a crescente aplicação de partículas nanométricas em diversas áreas da ciência e tecnologia estimulou o aprofundamento de estudos sobre o assunto. Dentre os vários equipamentos capazes de operar com eficiência na remoção de partículas ultrafinas, destacam-se os filtros fibrosos. Tais filtros são, em princípio, capazes de atuar em escala submicrométrica, mas as informações referentes ao seu desempenho em escala nanométrica ainda são pouco conhecidas. No presente trabalho avaliou-se o desempenho de filtros de poliéster, de celulose HEPA, de microfibras de quartzo e, também, de membranas filtrantes cilíndricas, fornecidas pela empresa Pam-Membranas Seletivas Ltda. O sistema experimental disponível era capaz de simular uma contaminação de partículas nanométricas em uma corrente de ar ultrapuro, a fim de que, posteriormente, fosse possível investigar a eficiência dos meios filtrantes na operação de remoção das mesmas. O aerossol de teste era constituído por nanopartículas polidispersas de NaCl, produzidas na faixa de diâmetros de 6,15 a 245,1 nm. O desempenho do filtro foi avaliado através da análise da eficiência de remoção das partículas nanométricas, pela contagem das partículas antes e após a passagem pelo meio filtrante, utilizando a técnica de mobilidade elétrica. Tal procedimento foi realizado por meio de um equipamento da TSI, o Scannig Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS), modelo 3936, que fornece o número de partículas por faixa de tamanho. Os resultados, em geral, mostraram que a eficiência dos meios filtrantes diminui com o aumento da velocidade de filtração e com aumento do diâmetro, na faixa em estudo, indicando o comportamento típico do mecanismo difusional. As membranas apresentaram um melhor desempenho na remoção das partículas, visto que, diferentemente dos demais meios filtrantes analisados, não se observou tendência para o aumento da penetração de partículas, com o aumento da velocidade de filtração ou diâmetros das partículas, sendo que, em relação à faixa de tamanho, a penetração ocorreu de forma aleatória.

In questa tesi vengono descritti due impianti di filtrazione tangenziale con membrane ceramiche statiche e dinamiche, in grado di filtrare prodotti con un’elevata percentuale di solidi sospesi. Quest’ultimi sono stati confrontati con il tradizionale impianto di filtrazione rotativa sottovuoto presso la Cantina Forlì Predappio durante l’annata 2017. I modelli di filtro tangenziale sono stati testati utilizzando i prodotti comunemente lavorati con i filtri a tamburo, ovvero mosto termomacerato e fondi di chiarifica per decantazione statica provenienti da vino rosso. Il confronto con il tradizionale impianto di filtrazione è stato effettuato valutando i risultati delle analisi chimico-fisiche sui due prodotti, e successivamente è stato affrontato dal punto di vista operativo ed economico. I risultati hanno mostrato una maggiore efficienza dei filtri tangenziali, nonostante la bassa produttività oraria, sia in termini analitici che economici, riuscendo ad abbattere i costi d’esercizio e rispettando la qualità dei prodotti.

Orientador: Leila Peres
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Quimica
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Resumo: Na indústria de papel e celulose os processos de separação por membranas, como a ultrafiltração (UF) e a nanofiltração (NF), são utilizados para a recuperação de diversas espécies presentes nos resíduos da digestão da madeira que são atrativos para outras aplicações, tais como a lignina e açúcares, e em especial os lignossulfonatos, auxiliando também na recirculação de água do processo e na redução do teor poluente do efluente. Devido à sua gama de aplicações, existe hoje um mercado próprio de industrialização de lignossulfonatos obtidos a partir de subprodutos da indústria de papel, contexto em que se insere o interesse deste trabalho que teve como objetivo o estudo da recuperação por nanofiltração, no retentado, da fração de lignossulfonatos de baixa massa molar (<5000 g/mol) que não é recuperada pelo processo prévio de ultrafiltração do efluente de indústria de papel com processo sulfito, empregando membranas poliméricas comerciais NF e NF270, fornecidas pela Filmtec, Dow Liquid Separations, EUA. Os experimentos e as análises foram realizados de acordo com um planejamento experimental fatorial 2² (duas variáveis, dois níveis), em duplicata, onde as variáveis de processo estudadas foram: tipo de membrana e a pressão. As variáveis de resposta estudadas foram: fluxo de permeado, retenção baseada nos sólidos totais e na absorbância UV-VIS, massa molar média, condutividade e pH. A temperatura utilizada foi de 45°C e a placa suporte com 43,7% de área perfurada. O planejamento experimental possibilitou a determinação de modelos matemáticos para a previsão do fluxo de permeado de água pura e fluxo de permeado de amostra de lignossulfonato em função das variáveis estudadas, e para estes parâmetros os melhores resultados foram alcançados com as variáveis em nível superior: membrana NF270 e pressão 24 bar. A avaliação da retenção de lignossulfonatos, tanto através da análise de sólidos totais (diminuição de até 51,79% no teor de sólidos totais), bem como através da leitura de absorbância UV 280 nm (diminuição de até 84,26%, na absorbância), apresentou os melhores resultados com as variáveis em nível inferior: membrana NF e pressão 18 bar, como era esperado. Na análise da massa molar média de lignossulfonatos, realizada por Cromatografia de Permeação em Gel (GPC), o processo de nanofiltração apresentou capacidade de fracionamento, com Massa Molar Ponderal Média ( w M ) de 1994 g/mol para a alimentação, 2327 g/mol para o retentado e 1043 g/mol para o permeado. Para o estudo do conteúdo iônico (condutividade e pH) os resultados não apresentaram significância estatística. Estudo preliminar também foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar a influência da área perfurada da placa-suporte da membrana no fluxo de permeado e permeabilidade hidráulica, utilizando-se três diferentes tipos de placa metálica como suporte para as membranas, todas com área total filtrante de membrana de 15,90 cm², mas com diferentes áreas perfuradas em relação à área total filtrante: 25,3%, 36,5% e 43,7% de área perfurada, respectivamente. Este estudo apresentou melhores resultados de fluxo para a maior área perfurada, indicando que para comparações entre valores de fluxo de permeado obtidos em células de fluxo perpendicular, é fundamental a informação da área perfurada da placa-suporte
Abstract: Membrane separation processes like ultrafiltration (UF) and nanofiltration (NF) are used in the pulp and paper industry to the recovery of several species present in the wood digest waste that are interesting to other applications as lignin, sugars and specially lignosulfonates, improving the recirculation of the water in the pulping process and the reduction of the pollutants in the waste water as well. Due to their wide range of applications, there is presently a specific market for lignosulfonates obtained from paper industry as byproducts, context where this study is inserted. The main objective is to recover by nanofiltration (NF) the low molecular weight lignosulfonates fraction (<5000 g/mol) from the permeate produced in a previous current ultrafiltration process of the paper industry effluent with sulphite process, using polymeric membranes NF and NF270, supplied by Filmtec, Dow Liquid Separations, USA. The assays and the analysis where conducted according to a 22 full factorial design (two variables, two levels), where the studied independent variables were: type of membrane and pressure. The studied dependent variables were: permeate flux, retention based on total solids and on UV-VIS absorbance, average molecular weight, conductivity and pH. The temperature used was 45°C and the perforated area of the support plate was 43.7%. The used full factorial design enabled the determination of mathematical models to predict the permeate flux of pure water and of lignosulfonate samples as a function of the studied variables. The best results to these parameters were achieved with the variables at the superior level values: membrane NF270 and pressure of 24 bar. The evaluation of the lignosulfonates retention using the total solids data (decrease of up to 51.79% in total solids in the permeate) or using the UV 280 nm absorbance data (decrease of up to 84.26% in absorbance in the permeate), as expected presented the best results with the variables at the inferior level values: membrane NF and pressure of 18 bar. In the analysis of the averaged molecular weight of lignosulfonates obtained by Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC), the nanofiltration process presented fractioning capacity with Averaged Molecular Weight ( w M ) of 1994 g/mol to the sample, 2327 g/mol to the concentrated and 1043 g/mol to the permeated. The results have not presented statistical significance to the ionic content (conductivity and pH). Preliminary study were also conducted to estimate the influence of perforated area (%) of metallic plates used to support the membranes in the permeate flux and hydraulic permeability, using three different types of metallic support plates, each one with a total filtration membrane area of 15.90 cm2, but with different perforated areas (%) related to the total filtration area: 25.3%, 36.5% and 43.7%. This study presented better water permeate flux results to the biggest perforated area, indicating that when comparing permeate flux values obtained in perpendicular flux cells, the information of the perforated area (%) of the support plate is important
Doutorado
Ciencia e Tecnologia de Materiais
Doutor em Engenharia Química