Artículos de revistas: "Incomes"

1

Gangl, Markus. "Income Inequality, Permanent Incomes, and Income Dynamics". Work and Occupations 32, n.º 2 (mayo de 2005): 140–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0730888404274354.

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2

Saiful Nathan, Siti Badariah y M. Mohd Rosli. "Distributional effects of non-farm incomes in a Malaysian rice bowl". International Journal of Social Economics 43, n.º 2 (8 de febrero de 2016): 205–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijse-09-2013-0200.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify the structure of household income and examine the effects of non-farm incomes on the income distribution of farm households in a relatively developed rural area of the Malaysian rice bowl. Design/methodology/approach – The non-farm incomes were disaggregated into different components to determine the contribution of each income source to total household income and overall inequality. The income distribution and decomposition was examined using the Gini decomposition method. Findings – It was found that almost 71 percent of the households in the sample had at least one source of non-farm income. On average, non-farm incomes contributed about 33 percent to total household income. Non-farm wage employment was the dominant source of non-farm income, accounting for almost 26 percent of overall household income. The farm incomes, especially the paddy incomes were found to be the inequality-decreasing income source. The study also confirmed the proposition that the non-farm incomes were the inequality-increasing income source as they contributed up to 35 percent of the overall income inequality. Originality/value – Previous studies have found that non-farm incomes have different effects on income inequality of rural communities, especially those in the rice granary areas situated in less developed states of Malaysia, where poverty is still a problem. This study is significant because it identifies the effect of certain incomes on the overall income inequality among farm households in the granary areas located in a relatively developed rural area. The studied areas are characterized by an intensive paddy production and a rapid development in business and industrial activities, and hence, providing non-farm employment opportunities to the rural farmers. Therefore, this study shows the income structure and how farm and non-farm incomes affect the overall income distribution of the paddy farmers.

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3

Rossignolo, Dario. "El Impuesto sobre la Renta Personal y los altos ingresos en América Latina". Revista Hacienda Pública Espñola 214, n.º 4 (septiembre de 2015): 115–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.7866/hpe-rpe.15.3.5.

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4

蔡宗佩, 蔡宗佩. "各類所得的推計標準，公平嗎？". 月旦會計實務研究 52, n.º 52 (abril de 2022): 072–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.53106/252260962022040052008.

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5

Chapargina, A. N. "STUDY OF POPULATION INCOMES IN THE MURMANSK REGION: TRENDS AND DETERMINANTS". Север и рынок: формирование экономического порядка 69, n.º 3/2020 (27 de noviembre de 2020): 157–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.37614/2220-802x.2.2020.69.011.

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Incomes are an indicator of the population living standard and a source for meeting various needs. The article is devoted to analysis of population incomes in one of the Arctic regions of Russia —the Murmansk region. For the region, the problem of increasing population incomes is especially acute due to harsh natural and climatic conditions and high living cost. The paper aims to analyze, systematize and evaluate the specifics of the formation, levels and dynamics, as well as differentiation of population incomes in the Murmanskregion in 2000–2019, to identify trends in incomes, as well as determinants influencing incomes formation in this Arctic region. The study was based on the methods of analysis and synthesis of statistical information, grouping, generalization and comparison. The analysis of relevant statistical data made it possible to reveal and compare trends in population incomes both in the Russian Federation and in the Murmansk region over the last two decades. For the country as a whole the main trends include slowing down growth rates of average per capita income, the persisting high level of income differentiation, decrease in share of income received from entrepreneurship and property. The main trends in changing population incomes in the Murmansk region are identified and compared with the Russian ones. It is found that main trends in this region in the studied period are a slowdown in the growth rate of per capita income of the population with lower rates of income growth compared to the national average, decreasein real incomes, a downward trend in the purchasing power of incomes, decrease in poverty and smoothing the degree of population stratification. Also the determinants influencing formation of population incomes in the Murmansk region as an Arctic region are identified. First of all these are the effect of regional coefficients and northern allowances and the specific structure of the population's needs. Measures aimed at increasing population incomes and directions for building up a state policy regulatingpopulation incomes in the Murmansk region as an Arctic region are formulated. The practical significance of the work is that the results of the study can be used by the regional authorities for developing and correcting the socio-economic policy.

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6

Sarkar, Somwrita, Peter Phibbs, Roderick Simpson y Sachin Wasnik. "The scaling of income distribution in Australia: Possible relationships between urban allometry, city size, and economic inequality". Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science 45, n.º 4 (15 de noviembre de 2016): 603–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265813516676488.

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Developing a scientific understanding of cities in a fast urbanizing world is essential for planning sustainable urban systems. Recently, it was shown that income and wealth creation follow increasing returns, scaling superlinearly with city size. We study scaling of per capita incomes for separate census defined income categories against population size for the whole of Australia. Across several urban area definitions, we find that lowest incomes grow just linearly or sublinearly (β = 0.94 to 1.00), whereas highest incomes grow superlinearly (β = 1.00 to 1.21), with total income just superlinear (β = 1.03 to 1.05). These findings show that as long as total or aggregate income scaling is considered, the earlier finding is supported: the bigger the city, the richer the city, although the scaling exponents for Australia are lower than those previously reported for other countries. But, we find an emergent scaling behavior with regard to variation in income distribution that sheds light on socio-economic inequality: the larger the population size and densities of a city, while lower incomes grow proportionately or less than proportionately, higher incomes grow more quickly, suggesting a disproportionate agglomeration of incomes in the highest income categories in big cities. Because there are many more people on lower incomes that scale sublinearly as compared to the highest that scale superlinearly, these findings suggest an empirical observation on inequality: the larger the population, the greater the income agglomeration in the highest income categories. The implications of these findings are qualitatively discussed for various income categories, with respect to living costs and access to opportunities and services that big cities provide.

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7

Střeleček, František y Radek Zdeněk. "Incomes of rural and non-rural households in the Czech Republic". Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis 59, n.º 4 (2011): 319–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.11118/actaun201159040319.

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The paper compares incomes of Czech rural and non-rural households and identifies households persisting below the poverty threshold. The data were taken from the statistic research Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (SILC) of 2005 and 2008. Households were classified according to the municipality size (2000 inhabitants). Household incomes were assessed according to net annual income per consumption unit, living minimum and subjective minimum income. Positive skewness and high kurtosis is a typical feature of household incomes; a similarity with log-normal distribution can be presumed. The difference between rural and non-rural household incomes was significant (p < 0.05 in 2005; p < 0.001 in 2008). The development of incomes in both areas is assessed with the shift-share analysis regarding the national, industry mix and regional component.

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8

GARRETT, THOMAS A. y DAVID C. WHEELOCK. "Why Did Income Growth Vary Across States During the Great Depression?" Journal of Economic History 66, n.º 2 (junio de 2006): 456–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050706000192.

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This note investigates the sources of variation in the growth of per capita personal incomes across U.S. states during the Great Depression. States entering the economic contraction with relatively low per capita incomes tended to suffer larger percentage declines in per capita income than did high income states. By contrast, low-income states tended to experience larger percentage gains during the recovery. Hence, state per capita incomes diverged during the contraction phase and converged during the recovery phase.

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9

Roope, Laurence S. J. "First estimates of inequality benchmark incomes for a range of countries". PLOS ONE 16, n.º 3 (17 de marzo de 2021): e0248178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248178.

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It is known that virtually all inequality measures imply the existence of a ‘benchmark income’, above which adding incremental income increases inequality, and below which it decreases inequality. Benchmark incomes can be interpreted as social reference levels that identify the richest individual for whom it would be just to subsidize their income. Despite the intuitive appeal of benchmark incomes, there have been hardly any empirical applications to date. This paper provides the first estimates of benchmark incomes for a range of contrasting countries and different inequality measures. All benchmark incomes lie far above official national poverty lines. The results suggest that economic growth together with falling inequality need not necessarily be poverty reducing.

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10

Michalos, Alex C. "Discrepancies between perceived income needs and actual incomes". Social Indicators Research 21, n.º 3 (junio de 1989): 293–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00303788.

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11

Kubicová, Ľ. y Z. Kádeková. "Comparison of the income development and the food demand elasticities of the private households in Slovakia". Agricultural Economics (Zemědělská ekonomika) 57, No. 8 (23 de agosto de 2011): 404–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.17221/36/2010-agricecon.

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The paper deals with assessing the development of monetary incomes and expenditures of the Slovak households for food using the classification of households by income quartiles and by consumer spending. The analysis confirms the significant differences and unbalanced income distribution. Households in the fourth income quartile dispose of 2.8 times higher incomes than the families in the first quartile. There have been analyzed the food groups that in terms of expenditures represent the part in the food basket higher than 6%. The results confirm that income differentiation of households is also reflected in their different behavior in the food market. The demand changes most sensitive to income changes are those of the households with the lowest incomes. Demand for vegetables, potatoes and tuberous plants shows the highest value of the income elasticity, and in the households with the lowest incomes, the demand for potatoes and vegetables is elastic (E<sub>I</sub> = 1.165).

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12

Gaubert, Cecile, Patrick Kline, Damián Vergara y Danny Yagan. "Trends in US Spatial Inequality: Concentrating Affluence and a Democratization of Poverty". AEA Papers and Proceedings 111 (1 de mayo de 2021): 520–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20211075.

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We use Bureau of Economic Analysis, census, and Current Population Survey data to study trends in income inequality across US states and counties from 1960-2019. Both states and counties have diverged in terms of per capita pretax incomes since the late1990s, with transfers serving to dampen this divergence. County incomes have been diverging since the late 1970s. These trends in mean income mask opposing patterns among top-and bottom-income quantiles. Top incomes have diverged markedly across states since the late 1970s. In contrast, bottom-income quantiles and poverty rates have converged across areas in recent decades.

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13

Almås, Ingvild. "International Income Inequality: Measuring PPP Bias by Estimating Engel Curves for Food". American Economic Review 102, n.º 2 (1 de abril de 2012): 1093–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/aer.102.2.1093.

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Purchasing power–adjusted incomes applied in cross-country comparisons are measured with bias. This paper estimates the purchasing power parity (PPP) bias in Penn World Table incomes and provides corrected incomes. The bias is substantial and systematic: the poorer a country, the more its income tends to be overestimated. Consequently, international income inequality is substantially underestimated. The methodological contribution is to exploit the analogies between PPP bias and the bias in consumer price index (CPI) numbers. The PPP bias and subsequent corrected incomes are measured by estimating Engel curves for food, an established method of measuring CPI bias. JEL: C43, D31, E31, O11, O12

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14

Shao, Liang Frank y Melanie Krause. "Rising mean incomes for whom?" PLOS ONE 15, n.º 12 (16 de diciembre de 2020): e0242803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242803.

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Not everybody is benefiting equally from rising mean incomes. We discuss the mean-income population share (MPS), the population percentage of earners below mean income, whose evolution can capture how representative rising mean values are for middle income households. Tracking MPS and its associated income share MIS over time indicates to what extent economic growth is inclusive of both the middle and the bottom of the income distribution. We characterize MPS and MIS analytically under different growth scenarios and compare their parametric estimation using micro-level and grouped income data. Our empirical application with panel data of 16 high- and middle-income countries shows that in the last decades rising mean incomes have mostly not favored middle income households in relative perspective, while the overall welfare effects of the changes in MPS and the correlation structure with the Gini coefficient are mixed.

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15

Atkinson, Anthony B., Thomas Piketty y Emmanuel Saez. "Top Incomes in the Long Run of History". Journal of Economic Literature 49, n.º 1 (1 de marzo de 2011): 3–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.49.1.3.

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A recent literature has constructed top income shares time series over the long run for more than twenty countries using income tax statistics. Top incomes represent a small share of the population but a very significant share of total income and total taxes paid. Hence, aggregate economic growth per capita and Gini inequality indexes are sensitive to excluding or including top incomes. We discuss the estimation methods and issues that arise when constructing top income share series, including income definition and comparability over time and across countries, tax avoidance, and tax evasion. We provide a summary of the key empirical findings. Most countries experience a dramatic drop in top income shares in the first part of the twentieth century in general due to shocks to top capital incomes during the wars and depression shocks. Top income shares do not recover in the immediate postwar decades. However, over the last thirty years, top income shares have increased substantially in English speaking countries and in India and China but not in continental European countries or Japan. This increase is due in part to an unprecedented surge in top wage incomes. As a result, wage income comprises a larger fraction of top incomes than in the past. Finally, we discuss the theoretical and empirical models that have been proposed to account for the facts and the main questions that remain open. (JEL D31, D63, H26, N30)

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16

Bjälkebring, Pär y Ellen Peters. "Money matters (especially if you are good at math): Numeracy, verbal intelligence, education, and income in satisfaction judgments". PLOS ONE 16, n.º 11 (24 de noviembre de 2021): e0259331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259331.

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Objective numeracy, the ability to understand and use mathematical concepts, has been related to superior decisions and life outcomes. Unknown is whether it relates to greater satisfaction in life. We investigated numeracy’s relations with income satisfaction and overall life satisfaction in a diverse sample of 5,525 American adults. First, more numerate individuals had higher incomes; for every one point higher on the eight-item numeracy test, individuals reported $4,062 more in annual income, controlling for education and verbal intelligence. Combined, numeracy, education, and verbal intelligence explained 25% of the variance in income while Big-5 personality traits explained less than 4%. Further, the higher incomes associated with greater numeracy were related to more positive life evaluations (income and life satisfaction). Second, extant research also has indicated that the highly numerate compare numbers more than the less numerate. Consistent with numeracy-related income comparisons, numeracy moderated the relation between income and life evaluations, meaning that the same income was valued differently by those better and worse at math. Specifically, among those with lower incomes, the highly numerate were less satisfied than the less numerate; this effect reversed among those with higher incomes as if the highly numerate were aware of and made comparisons to others’ incomes. Further, no clear income satiation point was seen among those highest in numeracy, and satiation among the least numerate appeared to occur at a point below $50,000. Third, both education and verbal intelligence related to income evaluations in similar ways, and numeracy’s relations held when controlling for these other relations. Although causal claims cannot be made from cross-sectional data, these novel results indicate that numeracy may be an important factor underlying life evaluations and especially for evaluations concerning numbers such as incomes. Finally, this study adds to our understanding of education and intelligence effects in life satisfaction and happiness.

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17

Nivorozhkina, L. I. "Hidden Incomes of Russian Households: Who Do They Have?" IZVESTIYA VUZOV SEVERO-KAVKAZSKII REGION SOCIAL SCIENCE, n.º 3 (207) (19 de octubre de 2020): 91–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.18522/2687-0770-2020-3-91-98.

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The article presents quantitative characteristics of the prevalence and volumes of hidden household incomes. An econometric estimate of the prevalence of hidden incomes was carried out on the panel data of the “Russian Monitoring of the Economic Situation and Health of the Population of the Higher School of Economics” (periods from 2000 to 2017), the size of the hidden income component was obtained on the basis of the Pissarides-Weber model. Estimates of the share of hidden income households and an estimate of the share of hidden incomes revealed two different trends: their predominant distribution among residents of villages and urban-type settlements and the larger size of these incomes among households of regional centers.

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18

Perlo, Victor. "Losses of U.S. Workers in 1992". International Journal of Health Services 24, n.º 4 (octubre de 1994): 793–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2190/hwg8-vt2v-wpcg-nagr.

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The 1992 Census Bureau Annual Reports on incomes and poverty reveal startling increases in the numbers of people living in poverty and reductions in median family incomes and per capita incomes. The losses of African-Americans and Hispanics were the most severe. The economic “recovery” of 1992 was limited to profits of the capitalist class: the incomes of the top 5 percent rose from 1991 to 1992; the remaining 95 percent experienced declines in real income.

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19

Yarema, Yaroslav. "The mechanism of personal income taxation and its prospects in Ukraine". Zeszyty Naukowe Wyższej Szkoły Bankowej w Poznaniu 92, n.º 1 (31 de marzo de 2021): 33–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0014.9158.

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The article analyses the current mechanism of personal income taxation in Ukraine, examining the impact of its individual elements on total revenues from personal income tax. The analysis of revenue contributions from personal income taxation to the consolidated state budget and local budgets indicates that the personal income tax remains the most important sources of revenue. In the structure of personal income tax revenues, wages are the main source of taxable income. The author analyses the mechanism of taxation for natural persons (businessmen) and tax receipts flowing to local budgets from incomes from business activity and highlights its shortcomings. In this context, he proposes introducing progressive tax rates, which will make it possible to shift the tax burden from individuals with low incomes to those who earn higher incomes.

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20

Kessler, Sid. "Incomes Policy". British Journal of Industrial Relations 32, n.º 2 (junio de 1994): 181–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8543.1994.tb01040.x.

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21

Indychenko, Yu V. "RESEARCH OF THE INTERRELATION OF CONSUMER REVENUES, EXPENDITURES AND SAVINGS OF THE POPULATION IN RUSSIAN CONDITIONS". Vestnik Universiteta, n.º 4 (27 de mayo de 2019): 100–105. http://dx.doi.org/10.26425/1816-4277-2019-4-100-105.

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The purpose of the study is to identify the relationship of income, expenditure and savings of the population. The article reveals conceptual approaches to the «incomes of the population» category, classifies expenses, formulates the author’s definitions of incomes, expenses and savings of the population, presents a study of the dynamics of the studied indicators, reveals the dependence of incomes and expenses, as well as expenses and savings among themselves. It has been noted that the level of income, expenditure and savings is influenced by such indicators as inflation, consumer prices for goods and paid services.

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22

Buch, Claudia M. "Has Labor Income Become More Volatile? Evidence from International Industry-Level Data". German Economic Review 14, n.º 4 (1 de diciembre de 2013): 399–431. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0475.2012.00575.x.

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Abstract Changes in labor market institutions and the increasing integration of the world economy may affect the volatility of capital and labor incomes. This article documents and analyzes changes in income volatility using data for 11 industrialized countries, 22 industries and 35 years (1970-2004). The article has four main findings. First, the unconditional volatility of labor income has declined in parallel to the decline in macroeconomic volatility. Second, the industry-specific, idiosyncratic component of labor income volatility has hardly changed. Third, cross-sectional heterogeneity is substantial. If anything, the labor incomes of high- and low-skilled workers have become more volatile relative to the volatility of capital incomes. Fourth, the volatility of labor income relative to the volatility of capital income declines in the labor share. Trade openness has no clear-cut impact.

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23

Hancock, Ruth, Ariadna Juarez-Garcia, Adelina Comas-Herrera, Derek King, Juliette Malley, Linda Pickard y Raphael Wittenberg. "Winners and Losers: Assessing the Distributional Effects of Long-Term Care Funding Regimes". Social Policy and Society 6, n.º 3 (7 de junio de 2007): 379–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1474746407003703.

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Using two linked simulation models, we examine the public expenditure costs and distributional effects of potential reforms to long-term care funding in the UK. Changes to the means tests for user contributions to care costs are compared with options for the abolition of these means tests (‘free’ personal care). The latter generally cost more than the former and benefit higher income groups more than those on lower incomes (measuring income in relation to the age-specific income distribution). Reforms to the means tests target benefits towards those on lower incomes. However, the highest income group are net losers if free personal care is financed by a higher tax rate on higher incomes and the effect on the whole population considered.

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24

Runowski, Henryk. "THE PROBLEM OF ASSESSING THE LEVEL OF AGRICULTURAL INCOME IN EUROPEAN UNION". Annals of the Polish Association of Agricultural and Agribusiness Economists XIX, n.º 5 (30 de noviembre de 2017): 185–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0010.6233.

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The aim of the study was to identify the problems of using different methods of measuring agricultural income and the resulting assessments. The system used by the European Union to measure farmers’ incomes is imperfect. The concept of measuring farm incomes is criticized. There are mentioned, among others no statistics on farm incomes, including both farm income and non-farm income. The Common Agricultural Policy strives to ensure an adequate standard of living for the rural population, i.e. the level of disposable income on the farm. The question is, what is the right level? This is largely determined by the level of social labor productivity attained in agriculture and the income derived from agriculture to the income generated outside of it by occupational groups attaining similar labor productivity. Only in this state makes sense to refer to the need to ensure income parity in agriculture and out of this sector.

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25

Scott, Peter y James T. Walker. "The Comfortable, the Rich, and the Super-Rich. What Really Happened to Top British Incomes during the First Half of the Twentieth Century?" Journal of Economic History 80, n.º 1 (26 de diciembre de 2019): 38–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0022050719000767.

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We examine shifts in British income inequality and their causes from 1911–1949. Using newly rediscovered Inland Revenue income distribution estimates, we show that Britain had an unusually high concentration of personal incomes in 1911 compared to other industrial nations. We also find that Britain’s substantial inequality reduction over the next four decades was largely driven by a collapse in top capital incomes. This parallels findings for France, the United States, and other western countries, that reduced inequality was mainly caused by declining top unearned incomes, owing to economic shocks, policy responses, and non-market mechanisms associated with the retreat from globalization.

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Lee, Chun-Chang, Cheng-Huang Tung, Yu-Heng Lee y Shu-Man You. "Factors Determining Income among Real Estate Salespersons: The Impacts of Individual Conditions, Franchises, and Regular Chains". International Journal of Economics and Finance 7, n.º 11 (27 de octubre de 2015): 94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ijef.v7n11p94.

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<p>This study explores the factors that affect the incomes of real estate salespersons by applying hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) to investigate the incomes of real estate salespersons in Kaohsiung. A total of 510 questionnaires were distributed to large chain housing agencies, of which a total of 319 effective samples were retrieved from 54 branch stores, for an effective return rate of 62.55%. The empirical results showed that individual incomes vary significantly from store to store. About 4.8% of the variation in individual incomes was due to differences among different branch stores. The individual income of a real estate salesperson is also significantly affected by individual-level factors such as age, working hours, and working experience. The marginal impact of education level, age, working hours, and working experience on real estate salesperson income is moderated by the type of store at which the given salesperson works. In addition, a branch store’s location has a direct, significant, and positive impact on a real estate salesperson’s income.</p>

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27

Łukasiewicz, Piotr, Krzysztof Karpio y Arkadiusz Orłowski. "Two-component structure of household income distributions in Poland". Equilibrium 13, n.º 4 (31 de diciembre de 2018): 603–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.24136/eq.2018.029.

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Research background: Studies of the structures of the income distributions have been performed for about 15 years. They indicate that there is no model which describes the distributions in their whole range. This effect is explained by the existence of different mechanisms yielding to low-medium and high incomes. While more than 97% of the distributions can be described by exponential or log-normal models, high incomes (about 3% or less) are in agreement with the power law. Purpose of the article: The aim of this paper is an analysis of the structure of the household income distributions in Poland. We verify the hypothesis about two-part structure of those distributions by using log-normal and Pareto models. Methods: The studies are based on the households’ budgets microdata for years 2004–2012. The two-component models are used to describe the income distributions. The major parts of the distributions are described by the two parametric log-normal model. The highest incomes are described by the Pareto model. We also investigate the agreement with data of the more complex models, like Dagum, and Singh-Madalla. Findings & Value added: One has showed that two or three parametric models explain from about 95% to more than 99% of income distributions. The poorest agreement with data is for the log-normal model, while the best agreement has been obtained for the Dagum model. However, two-part model: log-normal for low-middle incomes and Pareto model for the highest incomes describes almost the whole range of income distributions very well.

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28

Szulc, Adam. "Polish inequality statistics reconsidered: are the poor really that poor?" Statistics in Transition New Series 23, n.º 3 (1 de septiembre de 2022): 79–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/stattrans-2022-0031.

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Abstract In the present study income inequality in Poland is evaluated using corrected income data to provide more reliable estimates. According to most empirical studies based on household surveys and considering the European standards, the recent income inequality in Poland is moderate and decreased significantly after reaching its peaks during the first decade of the 21st century. These findings were challenged by Brzeziński et al. (2022), who placed Polish income inequality among the highest in Europe. Such a conclusion was possible when combining the household survey data with information on personal income tax. In the present study the above-mentioned findings are further explored using 2014 and 2015 data and employing additional corrections to the household survey incomes. Incomes of the poorest people are replaced by their predictions made on a large set of well-being correlates, using the hierarchical correlation reconstruction. Applying this method together with the corrections based on Brzeziński’s et al. results reduces the 2014 and 2015 revised Gini indices, still keeping them above the values obtained with the use of the survey data only. It seems that the hierarchical correlation reconstruction offers more accurate proxies to the actual low incomes, while matching tax data provides better proxies to the top incomes.

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29

Galster, George y Lena Magnusson Turner. "Status Aversion, Attraction and Discrepancy as Drivers of Neighborhood Selection". City & Community 18, n.º 3 (septiembre de 2019): 937–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cico.12435.

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Neighborhood income segregation is a widespread phenomenon. We explore its origins by modeling neighborhood selection by native Norwegian households making inter–neighborhood moves, distinguishing influences of shares of three income groups and the discrepancy between the individual household's income and neighborhood median. We conduct a conditional logit analysis employing 2013–2014 population register data from the Oslo, Norway, metropolitan area. We find that status composition (shares of low– and high–income households) and status discrepancy (difference between individual household's and neighborhood median disposable incomes) critically shapes neighborhood selection, though heterogeneously across income groups. All income groups sort into neighborhoods that have more of their own status group in residence. Middle– or high–income households avoid neighborhoods with above–average shares of low–status households and median incomes that are higher than their own. High–income households are more attracted to a place the greater the superiority of their incomes compared to the neighborhood median. Our findings suggest that although the drivers of residential income segregation are powerful, public policies aimed at neighborhood diversification have potential efficacy nevertheless.

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30

Alla, Leonidova. "The effect of inflation on welfare of the population and Russian market capacity". SHS Web of Conferences 69 (2019): 00071. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20196900071.

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The material basis of welfare of the population is its income. However, the inflation negatively affects current incomes of the population and market capacity determined by the value of current incomes. Given the variable dynamics of inflation, it is necessary to evaluate its impact on household incomes and market capacity using the accumulated inflation rate with a scientifically based reference point. This calculation option will allow us to determine the dynamics of real average per capita incomes and market capacity calculated in constant prices of the reference point, assess the problem and its impact on the economic development. The low level of real per capita incomes and their negative dynamics are aggravated by loans of the population which reduce the market capacity and make the domestic market less attractive for manufacturers.

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31

MURPHY, RYAN H. "Economic freedom of North America at state borders". Journal of Institutional Economics 12, n.º 4 (15 de junio de 2016): 885–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1744137416000114.

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AbstractI use matched county pairs on either side of US state borders to investigate the causal effects of the Economic Freedom of North America index (EFNA) on local outcomes. This method is similar to Dube et al. (2010). I construct a panel of county pairs running from 1981–2012 and four measures of outcomes, logged real incomes, logged real per capita incomes, employment, and logged real wages, employing single year and five year differences-in-differences. I find small, but precisely estimated, effects on incomes but mixed effects on wages and employment. All regressions show low R2. This supports the hypothesis that state-level economic freedom improves capital income or that it attracts capital income across state borders.

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32

Bach, Stefan, Giacomo Corneo y Viktor Steiner. "Effective Taxation of Top Incomes in Germany". German Economic Review 14, n.º 2 (1 de mayo de 2013): 115–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0475.2012.00570.x.

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Abstract We exploit a dataset that includes the individual tax returns of all taxpayers in the top percentile of the income distribution in Germany to pin down the effective income taxation of households with very high incomes. Taking tax base erosion into account, we find that the top percentile of the income distribution pays an effective average tax rate of 30.5% and contributes more than a quarter of total income tax revenue. Within the top percentile, the effective average tax rate is first increasing, then decreasing, with income. Since the 1990s, effective average tax rates for the German super-rich have fallen by about a third, with major reductions occurring in the wake of the personal income tax reform of 2001-05. As a result, the concentration of net incomes at the very top of the distribution has strongly increased in Germany.

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33

Beil, Richard O. y David N. Laband. "The American Economic Association Dues Structure". Journal of Economic Perspectives 10, n.º 4 (1 de noviembre de 1996): 179–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jep.10.4.179.

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Because consumers have an incentive to misrepresent their incomes and accurate information about consumers' incomes is costly for sellers to obtain, income-based pricing of goods or services seems unlikely to survive for long. Indeed, income-based pricing is extremely rare. However, the American Economic Association's dues structure in which members voluntarily pay dues according to income has survived for twenty years. The authors’ survey results reveal that while some ‘cheating’ does occur, there is substantial compliance with the income-based dues structure. They offer several explanations for their findings.

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Weeks, William B., Amy E. Wallace y Todd A. Mackenzie. "Gender Differences in Anesthesiologists' Annual Incomes". Anesthesiology 106, n.º 4 (1 de abril de 2007): 806–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.anes.0000264766.41297.ce.

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Background Specialty, work effort, and gender have been shown to be associated with physicians' annual incomes; however, careful examination of the association between provider gender and annual income after correcting for other factors likely to influence income has not been conducted for anesthesiologists. Methods Survey responses collected throughout the 1990s from 819 actively practicing anesthesiologists and linear regression analysis were used to determine the association between provider gender and annual incomes after controlling for work effort, provider characteristics, and practice characteristics. Results White female anesthesiologists reported working 12% fewer annual hours than their white male counterparts. White female anesthesiologists had practiced medicine for fewer years than white males and were more likely to be employees, as opposed to having an ownership interest in the practice, but less likely to be board certified. After adjustment for work effort, provider characteristics, and practice characteristics, white females' mean annual income was 236,628 dollars, or 60,337 dollars (20%) lower than that for white males (95% confidence interval, 81,674 dollars lower to 39,001 dollars lower; P < 0.001). Conclusions During the 1990s, female gender was associated with lower annual incomes among anesthesiologists. These findings warrant further exploration to determine what factors might cause these gender-based income differences.

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35

Torregrosa-Hetland, Sara. "Inequality in tax evasion: the case of the Spanish income tax". Applied Economic Analysis 28, n.º 83 (15 de julio de 2020): 89–109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/aea-01-2020-0007.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to estimate tax evasion and its impact on progressivity, redistribution and the measurement of inequality, using microdata from the Spanish income tax for 2001-2004. Design/methodology/approach The approach follows Feldman and Slemrod (2007) by exploiting the relation of charitable donations with the composition of income but introduces two methodological innovations, which could be useful for further studies: correction for sample selection with a Heckman two-step setting and the calculation of different evasion rates for top incomes with an interaction term. Findings Evasion in capital incomes was significant throughout these years. Financial incomes were reported at around 50-70 per cent of their real value, with the lowest estimates corresponding to the top decile. Revenues from fixed capital display similarly low compliance rates for the top 10 per cent. Tax evasion in self-employment incomes (direct assessment) is estimated at 20 per cent for 2001. Mostly because of a composition effect, this means that fraud was higher at the top of the income distribution, thus having a regressive impact. Inequality statistics and top income concentration estimates should, therefore, be revised upwards. Originality/value This is the first paper to estimate the distributive impacts of tax evasion in Spain, and one of very few internationally.

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36

Hall, Randy. "Media Clips: University Endowments; Deal or No Deal?" Mathematics Teacher 102, n.º 5 (diciembre de 2008): 370–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mt.102.5.0370.

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Under Harvard University's initiative to cut tuition costs, families with incomes between $120,000 and $180,000 per year will be expected to contribute 10 percent of their income toward the cost of undergraduate tuition, and families with incomes below $120,000 will be expected to contribute amounts determined by a sliding scale that declines from 10 percent for those with incomes at $120,000 down to 0 percent for those with incomes at $60,000 and below. Harvard's tuition is about $31,000 per year. This figure does not include additional expenses (textbooks, supplies, room and board, etc.), which Harvard estimated to be about $15,000 for the 2007–2008 academic year (www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/ 2007/04.05/99-admissions.html).

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37

Hall, Randy. "Media Clips: University Endowments; Deal or No Deal?" Mathematics Teacher 102, n.º 5 (diciembre de 2008): 370–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.5951/mt.102.5.0370.

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Under Harvard University's initiative to cut tuition costs, families with incomes between $120,000 and $180,000 per year will be expected to contribute 10 percent of their income toward the cost of undergraduate tuition, and families with incomes below $120,000 will be expected to contribute amounts determined by a sliding scale that declines from 10 percent for those with incomes at $120,000 down to 0 percent for those with incomes at $60,000 and below. Harvard's tuition is about $31,000 per year. This figure does not include additional expenses (textbooks, supplies, room and board, etc.), which Harvard estimated to be about $15,000 for the 2007–2008 academic year (www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/ 2007/04.05/99-admissions.html).

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38

Papcunová, Viera, Dana Országhová y Radomíra Hornyák Gregáňová. "Evaluation of Tax Incomes of Municipalities in Conditions of the Slovak and Czech Republics". Acta Universitatis Bohemiae Meridionalis 21, n.º 2 (1 de diciembre de 2018): 16–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/acta-2018-0003.

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Abstract The basis of neoclassical theory of fiscal policy is the significant rationality of economic subjects. Rationality results from the ability of these entities to optimize their decisions within a long time horizon, taking into account the activities of other entities, for example Government. An important economic entity is also municipalities and cities as representatives of local self-government. In most countries, fiscal decentralization has taken place in relation to local self-government which aim was reducing the local government's dependence on the state's financial management. Nevertheless, the state's incomes are still identifying as an important part of local budgets. The objective of the contribution is to evaluate the tax incomes of municipalities on the basis of selected indicators in the conditions of the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic in the period 2009 - 2016. The basis for the analysis was cumulative data from municipalities in the Slovak Republic (2 890 municipalities) and cumulative data from municipalities in the Czech Republic (6 271 municipalities) processed in MS Excel. The analysis showed that incomes from tax of personal income represent on average over the analysed period 70% on tax incomes for municipalities in the Slovak Republic and 22% on tax incomes of municipalities in the Czech Republic. Within the structure of the current incomes of municipalities in the Slovak and Czech Republic, tax incomes represent an important component. At the level of municipalities in the Slovak Republic tax incomes represent on average over the analysed period 53% on total current incomes of municipalities and in municipalities in the Czech Republic tax incomes represent 52% on total current incomes of municipalities. Within the analysed period, we register a faster increase of the total current incomes in the municipalities in the Slovak Republic in comparison with the municipalities of the Czech Republic.

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39

Dallinger, Ursula. "The endangered middle class? A comparative analysis of the role played by income redistribution". Journal of European Social Policy 23, n.º 1 (23 de enero de 2013): 83–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958928712456573.

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Contributing to the debate on the decline of the middle class, this article provides a comparative and longitudinal analysis of changes to the relative position of middle income groups in 19 (post)industrial countries between 1985 and 2005. How much did the income position of the middle worsen compared with more vulnerable groups? To what extent did public policies mitigate the market position of different income groups? The analysis is based on microdata of the Luxembourg Income Study. It divides the broad category of ‘middle class’ into three groups. Results suggest little change in the income position of the middle classes with respect to both market and disposable incomes. In most countries market incomes in the top quintile increased remarkably while the bottom quintile group lost out. The scale of government income redistribution has improved the position of the lowest income group, while burdening the highest income group. But it failed to fully compensate for the growing gap between the top and bottom income groups. The distance between the middle and the top incomes grew significantly, which might be one reason for the current public debate about an endangered middle class.

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40

Lumintang, Wandi Brafeli, Juliana R. Mandei y Gene H. M. Kapantow. "POLA PENGALOKASIAN PENDAPATAN PETANI CENGKEH DI DESA KIAWA I KECAMATAN KAWANGKOAN UTARA". AGRI-SOSIOEKONOMI 12, n.º 2A (1 de agosto de 2016): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.35791/agrsosek.12.2a.2016.12921.

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The objective of this research was to understandthe allocation pattern of clove farmers’ income at Kiawa 1 Village at the harvest time in 2014. This research was conducted in the Kiawa 1 Village for 3 months, from April 2015 to July 2015. Primary and secondary data were used in this research. The primary data were obtained by interviewing respondents using a list of questions (questionnaire). The secondary data were obtained from some relevant offices. Thirty respondents were randomly selected from 86 available farmers. Data were analysed descriptivelyusing some tables. The respondents were grouped based on their incomes, which were those with incomes less than 50 millions rupiahs and those with incomes of 50 millions rupiahs or above.The results showed that the income allocation pattern of the farmers' with income <50 million as follows:average consumption was Rp. 25,762,483.6 or 70.48%, average investment was Rp. 6396533.7 or 17.50%, and average savings was Rp. 4389871.4 or 12.01%. Moreover, the pattern for the group of farmers with income >50 million as follows: average consumption was Rp. 46,242,699.1 or 46.67%, average investment was Rp. 27,309,599.67 or 27.56% and average savings was Rp. 25,532,689.2 or 25.76%. The results indicated that the magnitude of the farmer's income affected the income allocation for consumption, investment and savings. As the farmers’ incomes increased the allocation for consumption tended to decrease while the allocation for investment and savings tended to increase.*ghmk*

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41

Humphries, Jane y Jacob Weisdorf. "Unreal Wages? Real Income and Economic Growth in England, 1260–1850". Economic Journal 129, n.º 623 (16 de mayo de 2019): 2867–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ej/uez017.

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Abstract Estimates of historical workers’ annual incomes suffer from the fundamental problem that they are inferred from day wage rates without knowing how many days of work day-labourers undertook per year. We circumvent the problem by building an income series based on the payments made to workers employed by the year rather than by the day. Our data suggest that earlier annual income estimates based on day wages overestimate medieval labour incomes but underestimate labour incomes during the Industrial Revolution. Our revised estimates indicate that modern economic growth began more than two centuries earlier than commonly thought and was driven by an ‘Industrious Revolution’. They also suggest that the current global downturn in labour's share is not exceptional but fits within the range of historical fluctuations.

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42

Noël, Alain. "The Politics of Minimum Income Protection in the Canadian Provinces". Canadian Journal of Political Science 53, n.º 2 (19 de marzo de 2020): 399–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008423920000098.

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AbstractThis article compares social assistance incomes, or minimum income protection, for four household types in the 10 Canadian provinces between 1990 and 2017 and relates these incomes to a number of factors, including partisan dominance over time, trade union density, the presence or absence of poverty reduction strategies, provincial social expenditures, overall redistribution efforts, debt service costs and social assistance recipiency rates. In line with findings for the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) welfare states, partisan politics does not play a strong role but, as power resources theory predicts, union density and a province's overall redistribution efforts do. Social assistance recipiency rates, which capture the salience of social assistance incomes in a province, also have a significant, positive impact on welfare incomes, confirming the “welfare paradox” identified by Ivar Lødemel. Poverty reduction strategies, however, do not, and they even have a negative influence on welfare incomes.

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43

Hutton, Sandra. "Current and Future Incomes for Older People". Ageing and Society 16, n.º 6 (noviembre de 1996): 775–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0144686x00020080.

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Income in retirement does not normally feature in national headlines, but scandals such as the misuse of the company pension fund by Robert Maxwell, and the financial advice given to join personal pension schemes have done just that. The ‘demographic time bomb’ has become a media cliché. In this first of two reviews of the incomes and financial circumstances of older people we examine the influence of these headlines and clichés on present and future incomes. To set the scene, the current levels and sources of income for older people are outlined and compared with those of the younger population. The following section describes the trends and changes in pensioners’ incomes and what has influenced these trends. The next sets out the main issues in providing a secure income in old age, and finally the current policy debate is reviewed and some questions are identified for re-examination in two years’ time.

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44

David, Delia, Luminița Păiușan y Ștefania Amalia Jimon. "Taxation of the Natural Persons’ Incomes Based on Income Rules". CECCAR Business Review 3, n.º 1 (31 de enero de 2022): 37–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.37945/cbr.2022.01.05.

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45

Dixon, Sylvia y David C. Maré. "Understanding changes in Māori incomes and income inequality 1997–2003". Journal of Population Economics 20, n.º 3 (21 de julio de 2006): 571–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00148-006-0083-x.

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46

TARASOV, Vladimir T. "A NEW APPROACH TO THE ANALYSIS OF INEQUALITY IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF CASH INCOMES OF THE POPULATION OF THE URAL FEDERAL DISTRICT". Tyumen State University Herald. Social, Economic, and Law Research 7, n.º 1 (2021): 6–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.21684/2411-7897-2021-7-1-6-24.

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The article analyzes income inequality in the regions of the Ural Federal District using methodological innovations proposed by scientists from the Study Center of Sociocultural Changes at the Institute of Philosophy of the RAS and the Vologda Scientific Center of the RAS who introduced a family of income inequality centile coefficients into scientific circulation. These indicators characterize the ratio of incomes of the population various groups in the context of its depersonalized representative macrostrates.In the context of deepening economic inequality, the relevance of these innovations increases significantly, since in the current practice of identifying and analyzing the differentiation of the population incomes, a limited list of indicators is used, while the proposed new indicators make it possible to significantly expand the analytical possibilities of substantiating social policy. However, the complexity of the innovations application lies in the fact that the published statistical information does not allow directly calculating new characteristics. In this regard, the goal of the article is to substantiate and experimentally test a new toolkit that allows, on the basis of limited factual data, to determine the decile distribution of the regions population by the level of monetary income and to form the possibility of further calculating income weights and centile indicators of inequality. Experimental calculations were performed using the example of the Ural Federal District regions for 2000-2018. As a result of calculations and subsequent analysis, macrostrains of the supposed middle class with a stable share of monetary incomes in their total volume are identified that are stable over a long time. At the same time, the growth of inequality was mainly due to the redistribution of incomes from the low-income group in favor of the population part with the highest incomes.

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Gärtner, Manfred. "Bankgeheimnis und Verrechnungssteuer: Konsequenzen für die Steuerehrlichkeit in den Kantonen der Schweiz". Perspektiven der Wirtschaftspolitik 12, n.º 3 (agosto de 2011): 258–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2516.2011.00365.x.

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AbstractSwiss banking secrecy tempts foreigners to remain silent about capital incomes and, thus, not pay taxes as obliged by law, but residents of Switzerland as well. Therefore, Switzerland introduced a withholding tax on capital income in order to make domestic residents report levels of wealth and capital incomes properly. We ask whether a withholding tax rate of 35 percent achieves this goal. For this purpose, marginal income tax rates are computed and income distributions are estimated for each canton. From these we identify income levels and shares of tax payers for whom the withholding tax does not work as intended.

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48

MIRRLEES, J. A. "TAXING UNCERTAIN INCOMES *". Oxford Economic Papers 42, n.º 1 (enero de 1990): 34–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.oep.a041942.

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49

Baum, Joseph J. "Outcomes, not Incomes". Postgraduate Medicine 89, n.º 8 (junio de 1991): 33–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00325481.1991.11700950.

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50

Humphrev, Carolyn J. "Outcomes and Incomes". Home Healthcare Nurse: The Journal for the Home Care and Hospice Professional 14, n.º 6 (junio de 1996): 417–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004045-199606000-00001.

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