Tesis sobre el tema "Homer"

Since their appearance in 1793 John Flaxman's illustrations to Homer's Iliad and Odyssey have been associated with the ancient art that inspired their commission. In this thesis they are examined from a standpoint other than that adopted in the major literature. Besides sustaining Flaxman's own assertion that the designs were to be used for sculpture, their conception is related to outline designs submitted to his former emloyer of 12 years, industrialist Josiah Wedgwood. More significantly, their most conspicuous characteristics--their two-dimensional space, absence of colour, texture, and detail and most noticeably their rendering in simple outline—are, for the first time, placed in another context of considerable importance in the 18th Century. Line drawing and its multiple-production counterpart, line engraving, were the representational modes of choice in the transmission of essential ideas in a wide variety of disciplines including his own designs for Wedgwood. Exclusive of the connection with ancient art, simple line would have been regarded as the most suitable form of illustration for the epic poems which were being studied at the time as models of the essential human society. This thesis treats Flaxman's designs as one aspect of the effort to define universal truths and the related need to create conceptual models of them in the 18th Century. To establish the designs in this-j broader context, the first four chapters set out in succession: the search for, and representation of, the essential in the 18th Century; Flaxman's relationship to it with special reference to his education and 12 year association with Wedgwood; the production of the Homer designs themselves from his studies of art works he had seen and, the critical reviews of the illustrations and their subsequent adoption by other artists as sources of inspiration. The thesis concludes by critically analyzing Flaxman's achievement, reviewing his objectives for the series and relating the designs to industrial/workshop drawings by Flaxman and other contemporary artists.
Arts, Faculty of
Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of
Graduate

Few works have created such memorable characters as the Iliad and Odyssey. Readers come away from these works with the impression that the characters described in the stories are larger than life: Achilles is strong, Ajax is enormous, Patroclus is bloodthirsty, Nestor is ancient, Stentor is loud. Nobody leaves Homer’s epics thinking his heroes are not worthy of their lasting fame. This study argues that, although the heroes of the two Homeric epics are meant to be impressive, their characterization in the Iliad and Odyssey is the result of a process of rationalization whereby the hyperbole traditionally ascribed to such figures was toned down when the two poems were finally committed to writing. I argue this by showing that the hyperbole used to describe these heroes is paralleled across many Indo-European epic traditions and that, for the most part, it is much more exaggerated in these related epics. From the scant remains of the Epic Cycle, there is reason to believe that the context in which Homeric poetry was formed was receptive to the fantastic. The best explanation of these two pieces of data is that the Iliad and the Odyssey rationalize traditional hyperbole. This was done so that the poems would have a broader appeal and greater clarity, vividness, and simplicity, traits which have long been considered hallmarks of Homer’s style.

This thesis argues that the defining characteristic of intra-familial relationships in both the Iliad and the Odyssey is inequality. Homeric relationship pairs that are presented positively are strongly marked by an uneven distribution of power and authority, and when family members do not subscribe to this ideology, the result is a dysfunctional relationship that is condemned by the poet and used as a negative paradigm for his characters. Moreover, the inequality favoured by the epics proceeds according to strict role-based rules with little scope for innovation according to personality, meaning that determination of authority is simple in the majority of cases. Wives are expected to submit themselves to their husbands, sons to their fathers, and less powerful brothers to their more dominant siblings. This rigid hierarchy does create the potential for problems in some general categories of relationship, and relations between mothers and sons in particular are strained in both epics, both because of the shifting power dynamic between them caused by the son’s increasing maturity and independence from his mother and her world, and because of Homeric epic’s persistent conjunction of motherhood with death. This category of familial relationships is portrayed in the epics as doomed to failure, but others are able to be depicted positively through adhering to the inequality that is portrayed in the epics as both natural and laudable.
I will also argue that this systemic pattern of inequality can be understood as equivalent to the Homeric concept of homophrosyne (“like-mindedness”), a term which, despite its appearance of equality, in fact refers to a persistent inequality. Accordingly, for a Homeric relationship to be portrayed as successful, one partner must submit to the other, adapting themselves to the other’s outlook and aims, and subordinating their own ideals and desires. Through this, they are able to become “like-minded” with their partners, achieving something like the homophrosyne recommended for husbands and wives in the Odyssey.

Thesis (B.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 1992.
Includes bibliographical references (leaf 121).
by Lee Hayes Morgenroth.
B.S.

Besides Iliad 10 and the end of the Odyssey, book 11 of the Odyssey has been the most disputed passage in Homer in terms of authorship. This thesis presents the first modem scholarly commentary devoted to the book. It deals with the topic at more length than the commentaries of Stanford and Heubeck, and is more advanced than the commentary of Untersteiner, which is directed towards students. The introduction discusses the place of Od. 11 within the Odyssey, in terms of theme and narrative structure. It discusses the katabasis in early Greek myth and poetry, and argues that the ritual performed by Odysseus in Hades is not necromancy, but is based on an ordinary sacrifice to the dead. A survey is given of possible Near Eastern influences on the book. The 'problem' of Od. 11 is then addressed, in which it is argued that the book is not an interpolation, but that it is probably a later addition to a revised version ofthe poem. Hapax legomena and metre are also analysed. . The commentary itself is based broadly on three lines of interpretation: linguistic, literary, and historical. The main purpose of the thesis is to present a· detailed commentary on which further discussion of the book may be based. It is argued that 440-64 and 565-600 are interpolations, but that the rest of the book is genume.

In this thesis I examine Homer’s use of Hades as a poetic resource that allows a different approach to the epic past than the one provided through Muse-inspired narrative. By portraying Hades as a realm where vision is not possible (A - ides), I argue, Homer creates a unique poetic environment in which social constraints and divine prohibitions are not applicable. The result is a narrative that emulates that of the Muses but at the same time is markedly distinct from it, as in Hades experimentation with, and alteration of, important epic forms and values can be pursued, giving rise to a different kind of poetics. I have called this the ‘Poetics of Hades.’ In the Iliad, Homer offers us a glimpse of how this alternative poetics works through the visit of Patroclus’ shade in Achilles’ dream. The recollection offered by the shade reveals an approach to its past in which regret, self-pity and a lingering memory of intimate and emotional moments displace an objective tone, and a traditional exposition of heroic values such as kleos and timē. I argue that the potential of Hades for providing alternative means of commemorating the past is more fully explored in the ‘Nekyia’ of Odyssey 11; there, Odysseus’ extraordinary ability to see (idein) the dead in Hades allows him to meet and interview the shades of heroines and heroes of the epic past. The absolute confinement of Hades allows the shades to recount their stories from their own personal point of view. The poetic implications of this, I argue, are important since by visiting Hades and listening to the stories of the shades Odysseus, and Homer with him, gain access to a tradition in which epic values associated with gender roles and even divine law are suspended, in favour of a more immediate and personally inflected approach to the epic past.

It has been long acknowledged that Lucian employs various forms of allusion to the Iliad and Odyssey across his writings. This thesis builds on previous studies — which have produced taxonomic analyses of allusion, (mis)quotation and parody — to explore more fully the intertextual richness and complexity of Lucian’s writing that such approaches can paradoxically conceal. Works such as Charon, Hercules, Alexander and several of the miniature dialogues are examined in depth, especially those which have received less attention previously and those in which Lucian can be most clearly seen engaging with the Homeric text, whether at the level of whole scenes, through quotation of short passages, by the construction of parodies and centos, or in drawing attention to lexical details. This examination reveals how such techniques are used to signal Lucian’s close familiarity with the author who was the ultimate talisman of sophistic paideia. Lucian is revealed as re-reading and re-presenting Homer in clever, mischievous, even ‘postmodern’ ways to produce striking effects which make his work both accessible and amusing to ancient audiences across a range of levels of education, from those who knew the main features of Homeric stories and language to those who were intimately familiar with allegorical interpretations of Homer and Alexandrian scholarly controversies over textual minutiae. This is complemented by analysis of Lucian’s presentation of material from the biographical traditions about Homer as man and poet, a topic which has been less studied but which leads to consideration of the role played by Homer both in Lucian’s reflections on truth and lying and in the examination, by this Greek-speaking Syrian, of cultural relations between Greeks and non-Greeks in the cosmopolitan Mediterranean world of the second century.

This thesis raises and explores questions concerning the popularity of the Homeric poems in ancient Greece. It asks why the Iliad and Odyssey held such continuing appeal among the Greeks of the Archaic and Classical age. Cultural products such as poetry cannot be separated from the sociopolitical conditions in which and for which they were originally composed and received. Working on the basis that the extent of Homer’s appeal was inspired and sustained by the peculiar and determining historical circumstances, I set out to explore the relation of the social, political and ethical conditions and values of Archaic and Classical Greece to those portrayed in the Homeric poems. The Greeks, at the time during which Homer was composing his poems, had begun to establish a new form of social organisation: the polis. By examining historical, literary and philosophical texts from the Archaic and Classical age, I explore the manner in which Greek society attempted to reorganise and reconstitute itself in a different way, developing original modes of social and political activity which the new needs and goals of their new social reality demanded. I then turn to examine Homer’s treatment of and response to this social context, and explore the various ways in which Homer was able to reinterpret and reinvent the inherited stories of adventure and warfare in order to compose poetry that not only looks back to the highly centralised and bureaucratic society of the Mycenaean world, but also looks forward, insistently so, to the urban reality of the present. I argue that Homer’s conflation of a remembered mythical age with the contemporary conditions and values of Archaic and Classical Greece aroused in his audiences a new perception and understanding of human existence in the altered sociopolitical conditions of the polis and, in so doing, ultimately contributed to the development of new ideas on the manner in which the Greeks could best live together in their new social world.

Now all but forgotten, the songs of Sidney Homer (1864-1953) were at one time well-regarded and often performed. Married to the great American contralto Louise Homer, he was in a unique position to have his songs performed by the great artists of the time. Unlike the cloying "parlor songs" of many of his contemporaries, his works consistently demonstrate a respect for both the great poets as well as the European art-song tradition. One of the most cosmopolitan of the American composers of his day, his involvement with Louise's career brought him into contact with many of the great composers and performers of the day including Massenet, Puccini, Humperdinck, Mahler, Toscanini and Caruso. When viewed in their entirety, his songs reveal not only a tremendous variety, but also the maturation of his compositional style.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007.
The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on March 24, 2009) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

A construção, transmissão e preservação dos versos que compõem os poemas homéricos constituem questões que acompanham a filologia desde seu surgimento. A teoria oral e sua hipótese de composição em performance trouxeram para os estudos homéricos novas formas de abordar essas questões. Nas últimas décadas, pesquisadores da teoria oral analisam até que ponto esse contexto de apresentação e/ou criação dos poemas homéricos influenciou sua construção e como é possível identificar os traços dessa enunciação nos textos atuais. É o caso de Egbert J. Bakker, que se baseia no contexto de enunciação, ou seja, a própria performance, para evidenciar o caráter dêitico do aumento verbal no aoristo indicativo. Partindo da visão da Ilíada e da Odisseia como resultados de atos de enunciação em contextos específicos de apresentação oral, a pesquisa aqui apresentada estudará a variação das formas aumentadas ou não aumentadas dos tempos secundários do indicativo em algumas passagens dos cantos XI, XVI e XXII da Ilíada, a fim de verificar se há um contexto específico na narração que motive o uso do aumento verbal.
The composition, transmission and preservation of the verses that compose the Homeric poems are matters that accompany philology since its inception. The oral theory and its hypothesis of composition in performance brought to Homeric studies new ways to approach these matters. In the last decades, researchers on oral theory have been analyzing to what extent this presentation or creation context of the Homeric poems influenced its construction and how it is possible to identify traces of enunciation in the current texts. It is the case of Egbert J. Bakker, who, based on the context of enunciation, that is, the performance itself, highlighted the deictic aspect of verbal augment in indicative aorist. Based on the vision of the Iliad and Odyssey as results of enunciation acts in specific contexts of oral presentation, this research examine the variation of augmented or not augmented forms of secondary indicative in some passages of books XI, XVI and XXI of the Iliad to check for a specific context in the narration that motivates the use of verbal augment.

In this thesis, we revisit a longstanding problem, the relationship between Homer and the fragmentarily preserved post-Homeric narrative poems of the so-called Epic Cycle. The approach adopted has affinities with the school of criticism known as Neoanalysis, which, originating in continental Europe as an alternative to the Parry- Lord oral-formulaic theory, sought to explain irregularities found in the Homeric text by assuming re-contextualisation of motifs taken from pre-Homeric epics which were often identified with either written versions or the oral predecessors of the Cyclic epics. Rather than Quellenforschung, however, our emphasis is on Homer‟s interactive engagement with the mythopoetic traditions which were eventually crystallised in the Epic Cycle. And where scholars have so far tended to focus on the inadequacies of the Cyclic epics in the form in which we have them or to consider the complexity that the poems exhibit in presenting Achilles and Odysseus to be later development, our interest is less in the epics themselves, either as aesthetic or as cultural phenomena, than in the poetic strategy through which the Homeric poet, in seeking to position himself within a competitive context of an oral performance culture, engages with this traditional complexity creatively, both synergistically and agonistically. CHAPTER ONE sets the scene by exploring what one may call circumstantial or situational rivalry between epic poets and, on the basis of a review of the evidence, both ancient and comparative, proposes that the circumstances of an early singer- poet were such that they encouraged the emergence of a high degree of competitive interaction among known individuals with a strong interest in personal fame. CHAPTERS TWO and THREE, shifting their focus from context to texture, explore how complex and manifold mythopoetic traditions about Achilles and Odysseus find their way into the narrative fabric of the Iliad and the Odyssey, respectively, through a sophisticated and self-reflexive type of poetic interaction that includes both compliance and contestation with the wider epic tradition. The competitive dimension of early epic storytelling has in the recent past been either overemphasised or seriously underestimated. This thesis argues that early epic competition, though much less pronounced than often assumed, is reflected in the artistically ambitious refining and distillation process that the Iliad and the Odyssey develop in adjusting divergent mythological and poetic traditions to their own idiosyncratic presentation of Achilles and Odysseus. A close intra-generic reading of the Homeric text and the fragments of the Epic Cycle in the light of suggestive evidence we have for the phenomenon of epic competitiveness can ultimately contribute to a critical understanding of the dynamics of the early Greek epic performance and of Homer‟s position within it.

Tracing the influences and references to the Muses in written language from Ancient Greece through the end of the English Renaissance, I discover transformations and revivals in their usage. There are shifts from dependence on deified inspiration to the development of personal insight. Also, there appears to be a conscious substituting of the Muses with the beloved and Cupid or Apollo. But the Muses' religious significance returns in Paradise Lost. The first part of this thesis focuses on the early Greek writers: Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Plato, and the Latin writers: Ovid, Virgil, Boethius. The second part addresses the English poetic tradition from Chaucer through Milton. The poets cited for this section are Chaucer, Spenser, Sidney, Shakespeare, Donne, Marlowe and Milton. Presentations of the Muses or a personally chosen muse during these literary periods display conceptions of what originally motivates literary creation. I cover both the epic and lyric poetic traditions.

In these studies I discuss a number of selected passages from Iliad 3-5 where there are textual variations supported by extant minuscule copies and about which we can reasonably argue that they also existed in the text of uncial COpIes. The purpose of these discussions is to assert the claim of each variant to direct tradition, i.e. that their presence in the medieval minuscule tradition is due to inheritance from the text of extant or lost uncial copies, or, to use an abbreviated term, that they are ancient; and also to assert its utility for the evaluation or classification of the manuscripts which attest it, i. e. to identify the manuscripts which are the rightful heirs of such a variant through early lost minuscules, as well as to identify closely related groups of manuscripts. I have limited myself to a selection of the older manuscripts and attempted to discover by analysis which of these manuscripts are the most useful in preserving ancient variants. This approach differs from Allen's, who in the case of his edition of 1931 uses some 180 manuscripts and in the case of the Oxford Classical Text of 1920 mainly manuscript families on the strength of numerical agreements in various readings, resulting in a most unsatisfactory state of affairs in both cases. In the second part I provide a collation of the chosen manuscripts for Iliad 18, to demonstrate how reliable or unreliable Allen's collations are. I also provide an apparatus criticus for the same book which is not meant to serve the ordinary purpose of an apparatus criticus (no notice is taken of papyri, quotations, or modem conjectures), but only to show what the manuscript picture looks like, on the evidence of my collation for the variants judged worthy of mention in the Oxford Classical Text

Orientador: Flavio Ribeiro de Oliveira
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Estudos da Linguagem
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Resumo: O corpo humano (sôma) não é, em Homero, exatamente o mesmo que ¿corpo¿ tal como encontramo-lo em Platão ou em textos modernos, mas é sabido que lá ele é entendido como ¿cadáver¿. Da mesma forma, também a alma (psykhé) homérica não é exatamente um ¿sopro vital¿, como tem sido afirmado por alguns especialistas, mas é preciso compreendê-la em sua relação com a morte como um duplo fantasmático do defunto e, pois, como uma mímesis atenuada da vida (e não como um princípio vital propriamente dito). Assim, ela não é uma parte do ser humano como o thymós, o nóos ou as phrénes, mas uma cópia do homem como um todo. O objetivo desse trabalho é provar que é falsa a opinião de Snell segundo a qual a alma homérica não tem unidade. Com efeito, ele afirma que a alma como unidade de consciência do homem (da qual depende todo e qualquer ato responsável) surgiu concomitantemente à filosofia; entretanto, é mais fácil de acreditar que, pelo contrário, o método analítico dos filósofos leva a uma visão mais fragmentária do ser humano e de sua consciência. A ausência notável de palavras para designar o ¿corpo¿ stricto sensu, e o análogo excesso de palavras para ¿alma¿ (do qual resulta uma certa variedade de sutis diferenças de significado) não implicam em que não existisse, na épica grega, uma unidade de sentido para tais noções, uma vez que podemos admitir que elas se encontravam incluídas na noção simples de ¿homem¿ (ánthropos), a qual as açambarcava em uma só unidade. Esse é, por excelência, o objeto do gênero épico, isso é, os grandes e inesquecíveis guerreiros do passado - todos eles, naturalmente, homens. Eis, portanto, quem, justamente, foi Aquiles: um homem consciente de seu destino de morte (Moîra), responsável por seus atos e, nesse sentido, um herói
Abstract: The human body (sôma) in Homer is not exactly a ¿body¿ in the sense Plato or our modern texts give to this word; we know it means ¿corpse¿ rather than ¿body¿. In the same way, Homer¿s soul (psykhé) is not exactly a ¿breath of life¿ as some specialists have affirmed, but it must be considered in relation to death, like a spectral replica of the dead man, and so a weak imitation of life (not properly a principle of life). It is not a part of the human being like thymós, nóos, phrénes, etc, but an entire copy of him. The object of this work is to disprove Snell¿s opinion that the Homeric soul has no unity. Although Snell affirmed the soul as unity of human consciousness (on which depends any kind of responsible act) appeared at the time of Philosophic practices, it is easier to believe the philosopher¿s analytic method has conducted to a more fragmentary vision of the human being and his consciousness. The notable absence of words for ¿body¿, stricto sensu, and the analog excess of words for ¿soul¿ (with a variety of tenuous differences of sense) do not imply that there was no unity for such notions in the Greek epic. We can assume they were comprehended in the simple notion of ¿man¿ (ánthropos), which unified them. The actual object of the epic genre is the great and unbelievable warriors of the past and, of course, all were men. Achilles was nothing but this: a man aware of his mortal destiny (Moîra), responsible for his acts and thus a hero
Mestrado
Mestre em Linguística

This thesis argues that ancient Greek narratives of encounter between gods and mortals cannot be understood simply in terms of constellations of recurrent descriptive features or in terms of the iterability of type-scene or ritual. Divine epiphanies are moments of disruption or antistructure which provoke strategic, structuring responses, not least in narrative and ritual. But these responses do not subsume the potential that remains at the intersection between gods and mortals. Contestation over power, authority and legitimacy is constitutive of epiphany. In the first section I examine problems caused by scholarly concern for 'authentic experience' in treating epiphany-accounts in general and Homeric epic in particular. I propose an alternative focus on how sense, both as perception and as significance, is actively produced in such contexts: narrativisation and ritualisation offer experiences-in-themselves in which people participate to make sense and significance in the world. The cultural currency of such narratives depends not on their relation to religious experiences or religious belief as such, but on the ways that such narratives engage their audiences in exploring the difference of gods from mortals and the ramifications of this difference for human existence in the world. In the second section I consider a succession of moments in the Iliad and the Odyssey, first to destabilise the notion of divine epiphany as a self-evident category or paradigm, second to explore the vital importance of three questions: what constitutes divine presence and absence, how they are manifested, and how they might or might not be recognised. The expression of divine presence in figurative terms in Homer does not reflect a metaphorisation of divine power, but is constitutive of the problematic play of divine presence and mortal recognition. The consequences of recognising or failing to recognise this play of presence and absence can be profound. Even when contemplating the 'body' of the gods, problems of perception and point-of-view are operative. Viewing divine epiphany as an interplay of presence and perception points to the importance of the specific constituting frames of presence and absence. Contestation and realisation of authority and legitimacy are crucial concomitants. I explore the ends of the Odyssey and Iliad in terms of the authority of gods to end our narratives and the potential for mortals to generate specifically human meanings in and around these ends. In my conclusion I look beyond Homer briefly to consider the ongoing place of narratives of divine epiphany in Greek cultural contexts. How significance is generated in relation to the presence and absence of the gods remains a central question, and the disruptive tropes of epiphany play a crucial role.

This thesis investigates the presence of Homer in the literary culture of Renaissance England. It seeks to identify how the Iliad and the Oqyssry, virtually unread by anyone in early 16th_century England, went on to become well-known texts by the mid-17th century. The thesis focuses on literary texts in which I believe Homer's influence begins to make itself extensively felt. I explore the nature and reasons behind such imitation in the cases of three authors-Spenser, Shakespeare and Chapman -identifying what the 'discovery' of Homer's texts involved in the very different practice of each. I argue that Spenser's reading and use of Homer was motivated and shaped by Homer's connection to other authors that were of key importance to Spenser, like Virgil. Spenser consistently makes literary capital out of the Homeric ancestry of his various sources. I then assess the impact on Shakespeare of a culture where Homer is becoming increasingly visible, particularly when his dramatist-colleague Chapman publishes a successful partial translation of Homer in 1598. I examine Shakespeare's possible interaction with this culture by looking at moments when Homer makes a surprising difference to his reading and transformation of other literary sources. I focus on Troilus and Cressida, which, I believe, engages closely with Chapman's 1598 Homer, refracted through Ovid's imitation of Homer. Finally, I turn to Chapman's translations of Homer over the years 1598-1614. These show Chapman developing a very eccentrically conceived methodological rigour, by which he attempts to understand the Homeric texts almost on their own terms alone. He privileges interpretations derived using only the texts' internal evidence, after reading this evidence in ways that presuppose peculiarly strict coherences in the Homeric texts. The results he arrives at are often startling. This is both a process of intellectual self-fashioning on Chapman's part and connected to Homer's place in the cultural moment in which he lived Each of these authors' imitation is read through and against contemporary reading and interpretative practices relevant to Homer. These trace the outlines of the broader cultural trend that was the 16th_century reception of Homer, a literary and intellectual 'discovery' taking place on the continent just before England. Central to the thesis is how the Homeric texts became accommodated within established bodies of what we now consider competing material: alternative versions to the stories in Homer, other sources for them and better-known imitations of Homer's literary idiom. How and when such antagonism between the received and the new, or the 'secondary' and the 'authentic', became conceptualised are crucial to how 'discovery' is understood. I believe that Homer's presence in Renaissance England has only been noticed after it becomes joined to some such notion of antagonism: i.e. in the case of Chapman, who articulates the antagonism (and the personal and cultural particularity of this articulation has never been appreciated), and of authors after him. But this stage postdates and is the outcome of a period in which Homer is discovered, that is, approached and put to original use alongside 'competing' material, in a fruitful contaminatio that can only be understood on its own terms. The recognition of an earlier awareness of Homer, in a form different from that we have been looking for, is important because it changes our understanding of the literature, but also because it speaks of lingering critical preconceptions which are preventing us from recognising the shapes of renaissance classicism in such periods of 'discovery' until after they have passed.

Na epopéia homérica, a ágora, a assembléia do povo, constitui espaço privilegiado de interação social, servindo de cenário para a figuração de eventos importantes para a condução da trama, tanto da Ilíada quanto da Odisséia. No âmbito dos estudos homéricos, aqueles que se dedicam à análise histórica dos poemas têm feito largo uso desses episódios, na busca de chegar a explicações coerentes a respeito dos modos de operação da sociedade retratada na narrativa. Qual seria o papel das assembléias na sociedade homérica? Qual seria a constituição social do povo presente nessas reuniões? Seria ela conformada aos moldes de uma sociedade de caráter patriarcal ou refletiria as instituições das nascentes póleis arcaicas? Ou seria pura ficção, um amálgama de elementos contraditórios, não retratando uma sociedade que tivesse tido existência fora dos textos? O principal obstáculo para o encaminhamento dessas questões encontra-se na própria natureza dos textos homéricos. Elas são caras à nossa forma de perceber o mundo, mas não encontram eco no texto. Os poemas não apresentam registros que possibilitem respostas precisas para elas. Quando as questões que animam a interpretação buscam a clara delimitação das instâncias organizacionais da sociedade figurada na Ilíada e na Odisséia, a memória preservada, no registro épico da ágora homérica, apresenta-se para nós permeada de ambigüidade e indefinições, que, para serem rompidas, necessitam de esquemas de referências que possibilitem contextos a partir dos quais se possa empreender a análise. No presente trabalho, apresentam-se reflexão sobre a forma como a crítica especializada tem contornado tais problemas de interpretação e proposta de hermenêutica das cenas de assembléia na épica, tendo como fio condutor as questões da conformação da ágora como elemento definidor do estatuto da vida civilizada; da oposição entre assunto público e privado; e da natureza social do povo presente nas assembléias
In Homeric epic poems, the ágora, the assembly of the people, constitutes a privileged space of social interaction. It serves as stage set for portraying important events for plot conduction, both in the Iliad and the Odissey. In scope of Homeric studies, those engaged in historical analysis of the epic poems have made wide use of these episodes in search of coherent explanations, regarding the operational ways of the society portrayed throughout the narrative. Which would be the role of the assemblies in the Homeric society? Which would be the social constitution of the people present in these meetings? Would it be conformed to the moulds of a society of patriarchal character or would it reflect the institutions of the rising archaic pólis? Or would it be pure fiction, an amalgam of contradictory elements, not portraying a society that had had existence out of the texts? The main obstacle for the guiding of these questions meets in the proper nature of the Homeric texts. They are so dear to the way we perceive the world, but they don\'t find any echo in the text. The poems do not present registers that make possible accurate answers for the asked questions. When the questions that liven up the interpretation search the clear delimitation of the organizational instances of the society depicted in the Iliad and in the Odyssey, the memory preserved in the epic register of the Homeric ágora comes out pervaded by ambiguity and unclear settings, that, to be breached, need design of references that make possible contexts from which the analysis can be undertaken. This work presents a reflection on the form as the specialized critic has contoured such problems of interpretation and a proposal of hermeneutics of the assembly scenes in the epic, having as conducting wire the questions related to the conformation of the ágora as defining element of civilized life; the opposition between public and private subject; and the social nature of people present in the assemblies

Much has been written on the famous transition from muthos to logos or from myth to reason. However, there is little on how the proponents of myth responded. They fought back with mutho-logia, that is, with a logos about myth. This rational approach invoked the same logos that is generally associated with philosophia. In fact, philosophia and muthologia are at times so intimately connected that until the Enlightenment period, it is often diffi­cult to distinguish between them. This is due to the spell of myth or more precisely because of the allegorical interpretation of myth. In this essay, I at­tempt to shed some light on the origin and development of this rather unremarked and yet remarkable event in the history of philosophy.
Mucho se ha escrito sobre la célebre transición del muthos al logos, o del mito a la razón. Sin embargo, el tratamiento que se le ha dado al asunto de cómo respondieron los defensores del mito es más bien escaso. Ellos respondieron con mutho-logia; es decir, con un logos sobre el mito. Esta aproximación racional invocaba el mismo logos con el que generalmente se asocia la filosofía. De hecho, la philosophía y la muthología están tan estrechamente relacionadas por momentos que hasta el período de la Ilustración suele ser difícil distinguirlas entre sí. Esto se debe al encanto del mito o, más precisamente, a la interpretación alegórica del mito. En este ensayo pretendo esclarecer el origen y el desarrollo de este poco notado, aunque notable, evento en la historia de la filosofía.

This thesis is a study of Quintus Smyrnaeus’ Posthomerica, a Greek epic of the third century C.E. written in Greek hexameters in Homeric diction and in a Homeric style and about the post-Iliadic events of the Trojan War. My thesis deals with intertextuality, that is, the relationship between the Posthomerica and the Homeric texts. The Posthomerica has been called a hyper-Homeric text, which has been viewed as a negative trait of the poem. I analyse this Homeric-emulative tendency and discuss the interaction between the cultural and literary influences contemporary to the Posthomerica, and the poem’s overwhelmingly Homeric intertextuality. I assess how Quintus, as a Late Antique reader, reads Homer, and I focus in on the originality and Late Antique interpretative bias of Quintus in his readings and emulation of Homer. Intertextuality points to resemblances and differences, and indicates how a poem that can be called “Homeric” is in fact neo-Homeric in its updating of Homeric ethics, ideologies and poetics. I also discuss throughout the thesis how the Posthomerica is Alexandrian in its indebtedness to Homer. The Posthomerica is a learned text where application of intertextuality by the reader activates and vivifies a poem that has otherwise been dismissed as second-rate. There are four sections in my thesis, all dealing specifically with three separate aspects of poetics. The first section is a study of similes in the Posthomerica. I present a complete statistical analysis of similes in the poem, and compare practice in earlier epics. I then focus on specific examples of similes in the poem, and show how Homeric intertextuality vivifies meaning and characterisation of these similes. Very often the context of the Homeric passage implicated in the Posthomeric simile adds a varying sense and meaning. I also highlight the concern for pattern and structure in the placement of similes in the Posthomerica in a way that derives more from the style of Apollonius Rhodius than Homer. Thus Quintus reads Homer through later Greek epic lenses. My second and third sections are related. I discuss gnomai in the Posthomerica, and present detailed statistics for this understudied area of the poem. I argue that the widespread use of gnomai, particularly in the voice of the primary narrator, provides an ethical thread in the poem, and that the content of these gnomai is non- Homeric, and influenced by Stoicism. Thus within a Homeric-emulative poem we read a recurrent non-Homeric philosophy and ethics carried by gnomai. The third section then focuses on one simile (in Book 14), which, in a very original way, contains a gnome. The simile derives its content from Odyssey 8 and the story of Aphrodite and Ares caught in the act of adultery. I read Quintus updating Homer in this simile and re-presenting the Homeric story with a definite moral, and therefore un-Homeric, emphasis. The fourth section concentrates on ecphrasis and the Shield of Achilles in Posthomerica 5. I show how Quintus presents radically non-Homeric devices within this ecphrasis first narrated in Iliad 18. I argue that this originality within a very Homeric template is reflective of the overall status of the Posthomerica in relation to Homer. I focus in particular on the figure of the Mountain of Arete on the Shield of Achilles, and illustrate how this figure, which is Stoic in its inheritance, behaves as a mise-en-abîme for the key ethical content of the poem found in gnomai. I then discuss the implications of Quintus revising the Homeric Shield of Achilles into a symbol of the Stoic ethics that the Posthomerica, this most “Homeric” of poems, contains. That is the overall focus of this thesis: the interaction of Homeric indebtedness and non-Homeric influences in the Posthomerica.

Homer proteins are a family of scaffolding proteins involved in many intracellular signaling pathways, in both excitable and non-excitable cells. These proteins participate in the assembly and regulation of functional signaling complexes, facilitating the cross-talk between surface membrane receptors and channels in the membranes of intracellular compartments (Worley PF. et al., 2007). Homer proteins are constitutively expressed in the brain, where their scaffolding function is important for a variety of neuronal processes, such as intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis, synaptic plasticity associated with learning and memory in the mature brain, and neuronal development of the embryonic brain (Xiao B. et al., 1998; Worley PF. et al., 2007; Foa L. et al., 2009). Among the Homer splice variants, Homer 1a isoform acts as a natural dominant-negative by disassembling signalling complexes mediated by other Homer isoforms. The Homer 1a gene is transcribed as an immediate early gene (IEG), in neuronal cells its expression is low under normal conditions and increases rapidly after neuronal activation (Brakeman PR. et al., 1997). Homers proteins are also expressed in cardiac muscle, but their regulation and function remain still poorly understood. Despite their important role as regulators of multimeric signalling complex in nervous system, few reports have focused on the role of Homers in the heart. It has been reported that mRNA coding for Homer 1a rapidly and transiently increases in neonatal cardiomyocytes upon stimulation with either endothelin-1 (ET1) or other hypertrophic agonists (Kawamoto T. et al., 2006). The Homer 1a protein levels are also up-regulated following AngII-induced hypertrophy in neonatal cardiomyocytes (Guo WG. et al., 2010). Recently, it has been demonstrated that the variant Homer 1b/c positively regulates α1-adrenergic dependent hypertrophy, whereas Homer 1a is able to antagonize such effect (Grubb DR. et al., 2011). This study investigated the role of Homer 1a in the cardiac hypertrophic program. Our working hypothesis is that Homer 1a may be one of the molecular modulators of cardiac hypertrophy. For this purpose, we studied the presence, sub-cellular distribution and function of Homer1a in cardiac muscle. Under resting conditions we found that Homer 1a is constitutively expressed in cardiac muscle of both mouse and rat and in HL-1 cells (a specific cardiac cell line). In addition, using immunofluorescence confocal microscopy of adult rat heart sections, we showed that Homer 1a displays a peculiar localization: it is sarcomeric and peri-nuclear. We also analyzed Homer 1a expression under hypertrophic conditions. For this purpose, we used rat neonatal cardiomyocytes stimulated with the adrenergic agonist norepinephrine (NE). A significant increase in both Homer1a mRNA and protein was found after NE stimulation, whereas Homer 1b/c (a different Homer 1 isoform) expression remained unchanged. In this hypertrophic cellular model, we studied the adrenergic pathways involved in NE-inducted Homer 1a up-regulation by using specific α1- and β- adrenergic receptor blockers (prazosin and propranolol, respectively). The results showed that prazosin - but not propranolol - drastically reduced NE-induced up-regulation of Homer 1a mRNA, demonstrating that the α1-adrenergic pathway is involved. The effect of hypertrophic stimulation on Homer 1a expression was also confirmed in NE-stimulated HL-1 cardiomyocytes. In this cell line we found that 1 hour after NE stimulation Homer 1a content increased by a factor of 2.5. Overall, these results confirm our working hypothesis and demonstrate the involvement of Homer 1a in the α1-adrenergic pathway leading to cardiac hypertrophy. In the second part of the study we analyzed the effects of Homer 1a over-expression monitoring different hypertrophic markers, such as MAPK/ERK1/2 phosphorylation, NFAT nuclear translocation, ANF-promoter activity and increase in cell size. The results showed that during NE stimulation Homer 1a modulated many of them (except for NFAT nuclear translocation that did not appear to be affected by Homer 1a over-expression), whereas under resting conditions Homer 1a over-expression per sè was ineffective. In particular, we found that, in NE-stimulated HL-1 cells, over-expressed Homer 1a significantly reduced phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2 by about 40%, negatively modulating MAPK pathway. As regards the ANF promoter activity, this activity was significantly reduced by about 20% in NE-stimulated Homer 1a over-expressing cells. In order to verify the specificity of the Homer 1a effect on ANF, we performed the same experiment over-expressing Homer 1c and we found that, unlike Homer 1a, Homer 1c did not modulate the activity of ANF promoter in NE-stimulated HL-1 cells. Subsequently, we assessed the effect of Homer 1a over-expression on increase in cell size. The results obtained showed that Homer 1a counteracted the increase in NE-stimulated cell size. Finally, a preliminary analysis, in vivo, of Homer 1a expression was performed in three hypertrophic models, i.e. mice with chronic transverse aortic constriction, transgenic mice over-expressing Gαq and rats treated with monocrotaline. At variance with results observed in cellular models in vitro, in these models Homer 1a expression did not result affected by hypertrophic conditions, at least in the time span under investigation. However, for this approach in vivo, a broad time-course is needed and, therefore, further analyses are required. In summary, our data on Homer 1a presence and sub-cellular localization in cardiac tissue demonstrate that Homer 1a is constitutively expressed and displays a sarcomeric and peri-nuclear distribution. In our cellular models in vitro, Homer 1a up-regulation is an early event of the NE-induced hypertrophy and, as inferred from gain-of function studies, Homer 1a isoform antagonizes initiation and development of NE-induced events leading to α1-adrenergic-dependent hypertrophy. In conclusion, our results in vitro indicate that Homer 1a is inserted into a negative feedback mechanism in which acts as negative molecular modulator, counteracting early steps of hypertrophy. However, further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying this process.
Le proteine Homer sono una famiglia di proteine coinvolte in molte vie di trasduzione del segnale intracellulare, in cellule eccitabili e non eccitabili. Queste proteine partecipano nell’assemblaggio e nella regolazione di complessi funzionali di ‘signalling’, facilitando il ‘cross-talk’ tra recettori della membrana plasmatica e canali posti sulle membrane dei compartimenti intracellulari (Worley PF. et al., 2007). Le proteine Homer sono costitutivamente espresse nel cervello, dove svolgono la funzione di ‘scaffold’ in molti processi neuronali, quali ad esempio l’omeostasi del calcio intracellulare, la plasticità sinaptica associata all’apprendimento ed alla memoria nel cervello maturo, lo sviluppo embrionale del cervello (Xiao B. et al., 1998; Worley PF. et al., 2007; Foa L. et al., 2009). Tra le diverse varianti di splicing alternativo, l’isoforma Homer 1a agisce da dominante negativo disassemblando i complessi di ‘signalling’ formati dalle altre isoforme Homer. Il gene Homer 1a è trascritto come gene immediato precoce, la sua espressione nelle cellule neuronali è bassa in condizioni basali ed aumenta rapidamente in seguito ad attivazione neuronale (Brakeman PR. et al., 1997). Le proteine Homer sono espresse anche nel muscolo cardiaco, ma la loro regolazione e la loro funzione è ancora poco conosciuta. Nonostante l’importanza degli Homer come proteine regolatrici di complessi coinvolti nelle vie di trasduzione del segnale, pochi studi si sono focalizzati sul loro ruolo nel cuore. A tal riguardo, è stato riportato che l’mRNA codificante per Homer 1a aumenta rapidamente e transientemente in colture di cardiomiociti neonatali in seguito a stimolazione con endotelina-1 ed con altri agonisti ipertrofici (Kawamoto T. et al., 2006). Un successivo lavoro ha evidenziato che, in condizioni di ipertrofia indotta da angiotensina II, anche i livelli di espressione della proteina Homer 1a risultano up-regolati in colture di cardiomiociti neonatali (Guo WG. et al., 2010). Un recente studio ha, invece, dimostrato che l’isoforma Homer 1b/c regola positivamente l’ipertrofia dovuta a stimolazione α-adrenergica, mentre l’isoforma Homer 1a antagonizza tale effetto (Grubb DR. et al., 2011). In questo studio abbiamo esaminato il ruolo della proteina Homer 1a nell’ipertrofia cardiaca. La nostra ipotesi di lavoro è che la proteina Homer 1a sia un modulatore molecolare dell’ipertrofia. A tal fine, abbiamo studiato la presenza, la localizzazione sub-cellulare e la funzione di Homer 1a nel muscolo cardiaco. Analizzando l’espressione di Homer1a in condizioni normali è emerso che la proteina Homer 1a è espressa costitutivamente nel muscolo cardiaco di topo e ratto e nelle cellule HL-1 (una specifica linea cellulare cardiaca). Mediante immunofluorescenze su sezioni di cuore di ratto adulto (analizzate utilizzando il microscopio confocale) abbiamo esaminato la localizzazione sub-cellulare di Homer 1a che risulta essere sarcomerica e perinucleare. Successivamente, abbiamo analizzato l’espressione di Homer 1a in condizioni ipertrofiche; per questa analisi sono stati utilizzati cardiomiociti neonatali di ratto stimolati con l’agonista adrenergico norepinefrina (NE). In questo sistema sperimentale, abbiamo riscontrato un aumento significativo sia dell’mRNA che della proteina Homer 1a in seguito alla stimolazione con NE, mentre non abbiamo rilevato nessuna variazione sull’espressione della proteina Homer 1b/c (una diversa isoforma degli Homer). In cardiomiociti in coltura stimolati con NE, sono state, inoltre, analizzate le vie di trasduzione del segnale adrenergico coinvolte nell’up-regolazione di Homer 1a indotta da NE, usando specifici inibitori dei recettori α1- and β- adrenergici (prazosin e propanololo, rispettivamente). I risultati ottenuti hanno evidenziato che il prazosin, ma non il propranololo, drasticamente riduce l’up-regolazione dell’mRNA di Homer 1a indotta da NE, dimostrando che la via di trasduzione del segnale α1-adrenergico è coinvolta. L’effetto della stimolazione ipertrofica sull’espressione di Homer 1a è stato confermato anche su cellule HL-1 stimolata con NE. In questa linea cellulare abbiamo osservato che un’ora dopo la stimolazione con NE la proteina Homer 1a aumenta di un fattore 2,5. Complessivamente, questi risultati confermano la nostra ipotesi di lavoro e dimostrano il coinvolgimento della proteina Homer 1a nella trasduzione del segnale α1-adrenergico che induce ipertrofia cardiaca. Nella seconda parte di questo studio abbiamo esaminato gli effetti dell’over-espressione di Homer 1a monitorando diversi markers ipertrofici, quali la fosforilazione delle proteine MAPK/ERK1/2, la traslocazione nucleare di NFAT, l’attivazione del promotore di ANF e l’aumento delle dimensioni cellulari. I risultati hanno dimostrato che durante la stimolazione con NE Homer 1a modula la maggior parte di questi (eccezion fatta per la traslocazione nucleare di NFAT che non risulta essere variata dall’over-espressione di Homer 1a), al contrario in condizioni basali (senza stimolazione con NE) l’over-espressione di Homer 1a di per sé non ha alcun effetto. Nello specifico, i risultati ottenuti hanno rilevato che in cellule HL-1 stimolate con NE la proteina Homer 1a over-espressa significativamente riduce i livelli di fosforilazione delle proteine ERK1/2 di circa il 40%, modulando negativamente la via di trasduzione del segnale MAPK/ERK1/2. Per quanto concerne l’attività promotoriale di ANF, questa attività è significativamente ridotta di circa il 20% nelle cellule HL-1 over-esprimenti Homer 1a e stimolate con NE. Al fine di verificare la specificità di questo effetto sul promotore ANF, abbiamo condotto lo stesso esperimento over-esprimendo l’isoforma Homer 1c ed abbiamo riscontrato che, diversamente da Homer 1a, la proteina Homer 1c non ha alcun effetto sull’attività del promotore ANF in cellule HL-1 stimolate con NE. Successivamente, abbiamo analizzato l’effetto dell’over-espressione di Homer 1a sull’aumento delle dimensioni cellulari durante stimolazione con NE. I risultati ottenuti hanno dimostrato che la proteina Homer 1a è in grado di bloccare significativamente l’aumento delle dimensioni delle cellule HL-1 stimolate con NE. Nell’ultima parte di questo lavoro, abbiamo condotto un’analisi preliminare, in vivo, dell’espressione della proteina Homer 1a in tre modelli di ipertrofia, quali topi con costrizione trasversale dell’aorta, topi transgenici over-esprimenti Gαq e ratti trattati con monocrotalina. Diversamente da quanto ottenuto nel modello cellulare in vitro, in questi modelli l’espressione della proteina Homer 1a non risulta alterata dalle condizioni ipertrofiche, almeno nell’intervallo di tempo considerato. Tuttavia, per quanto riguarda questo approccio in vivo, sarà necessario analizzare l’espressione della proteina Homer 1a in un intervallo di tempo più ampio e, di conseguenza, ulteriori analisi sono richieste. In sintesi, dai nostri risultati relativi alla presenza ed alla localizzazione sub-cellulare di Homer 1a nel tessuto cardiaco è emerso che la proteina Homer 1a è costitutivamente espressa e mostra una localizzazione sarcomerica e peri-nucleare. Nei nostri modelli cellulari in vitro, l’up-regolazione di Homer 1a è un evento precoce dell’ipertrofia indotta da NE e, come dimostrato dagli studi di gain-of fuction, la proteina Homer 1a è in grado di antagonizzare l’avvio e lo sviluppo degli eventi che portano all’ipertrofia α1- adrenergica dipendente. Concludendo, i nostri dati in vitro indicano che Homer 1a è inserito in un meccanismo di feedback negativo in cui agisce come modulatore negativo, bloccando gli steps precoci dell’ipertrofia cardiaca. Tuttavia, ulteriori studi sono necessari per definire il meccanismo alla base di questo processo.

Aquesta tesi presenta un estudi comparatiu de les dones treballadores a partir de l’anàlisi dels primers testimonis escrits en llengua grega: les inscripcions micèniques i les fonts literàries de la Ilíada i l’Odissea. Des d’un inici, les tauletes en Lineal B han revelat la presència de nombrosos grups de treball formats per dones que depenen del palau i que es distingeixen d’altres dones que semblen ocupar un lloc privilegiat. Els poemes homèrics sovint distingeixen, en general, dues categories de dones: dones aristocràtiques, `senyores’ o reines, i el col·lectiu de serventes o esclaves que apareixent generalment en grup realitzant les tasques que els són assignades. Aquesta recerca se centra en l’anàlisi de les dones treballadores sense tenir en consideració el personal de culte ni altres categories de dones que podrien formar part de l’elit política i religiosa, com les sacerdotesses i reines. L’objectiu principal d’aquest estudi és fer una anàlisi comparativa de les característiques d’aquestes dones treballadores deduïbles dels textos micènics i els poemes homèrics. Aquesta recerca busca respondre si hi ha continuïtat o ruptura en el paper que aquestes dones tenien en el món del treball, en l’economia i, en definitiva, en la societat de l’antiga Grècia del segon i primer mil·lenni a.C. Amb aquesta finalitat, s’examina per separat el lèxic i el context que pot aportar informació sobre els sectors econòmics en què estan presents les dones treballadores, els seus oficis, el grau d’especialització, els ètnics que poden ser indicatius dels seus possibles orígens geogràfics i socials, i alguns aspectes importants de l’organització del treball, com el nombre de dones, la jerarquia del treball i la composició dels grups per raó d’edat i de gènere. Només després, s’intenta comparar les dades obtingudes per identificar, si escau, característiques afins o divergents en ambdues fonts. El segon objectiu aborda el grau de dependència d’aquestes dones. Aspectes com el nivell de control del seu treball, l’assignació de racions, productes o béns, o el temps de la prestació de serveis, durant tot o part de l’any, podrien indicar diferents nivells de dependència laboral i econòmica i que algunes dones treballadores poguessin tenir mitjans alternatius o complementaris de subsistència. El tercer objectiu es proposa observar l’estatus i la condició d’aquestes dones en el teixit social del segon i primer mil·lenni a.C. Una anàlisi comparativa d’aquest tipus implica afrontar problemes de diferents magnituds, alguns de caràcter interpretatiu o lèxic, altres relacionats amb el diferent àmbit palatial i la diversitat de contextos polítics i econòmics dels regnes micènics i homèrics, o la diferent naturalesa de les fonts escrites i la informació limitada que proporcionen. No obstant això, aquests són els primers documents que tenim. Amb aquestes limitacions, l’anàlisi comparativa mostra notables coincidències en ambdues fonts, destacant la importància que tenen com a agents econòmics en alguns sectors productius, l’organització de grups de treball ben estructurats i la continuïtat d’un estatus social que no és tan uniforme com podria semblar inicialment. Dins d’aquesta continuïtat, també es poden observar certes diferències que revelen en el primer mil·lenni una major divisió sexual del treball, una reducció de la seva presència en determinats oficis i sectors econòmics, i una tendència a situar la seva activitat laboral permanentment dins de l’οἶκος, fet que, en la nostra opinió, fa probable un major control laboral i social d’aquestes dones i anuncia un canvi en el paper que jugaran en l’economia i la societat del primer mil·lenni.
Esta tesis presenta un estudio comparado de las mujeres trabajadoras a partir del análisis de los primeros testimonios escritos en lengua griega: las inscripciones micénicas y las fuentes literarias de la Ilíada y la Odisea. Desde un inicio, las tablillas en Lineal B han revelado la presencia de numerosos grupos de trabajo formados por mujeres que dependen de la administración palaciega y que se distinguen de otras mujeres que parecen ocupar un lugar privilegiado. Los poemas homéricos suelen distinguir, a grandes rasgos, dos categorías de mujeres: las mujeres aristocráticas, `señoras’ o reinas, y el colectivo de sirvientas o esclavas que aparecen generalmente en grupo realizando las tareas que les son asignadas. Esta investigación se centra en el análisis de las mujeres trabajadoras sin considerar el personal de culto ni otras categorías de mujeres que podrían formar parte de la élite política y religiosa, como las sacerdotisas y las reinas. El objetivo principal de este estudio es hacer un análisis comparativo de las características de esas mujeres trabajadoras deducibles de los textos micénicos y de los poemas homéricos. Esta investigación trata de responder si hay continuidad o ruptura en el rol que estas mujeres tenían en el mundo laboral, en la economía y, en definitiva, en la sociedad de la Grecia antigua del segundo y del primer milenio a.C. Para ello, se examina, de forma separada en cada fuente, el léxico y el contexto que puede aportar información sobre los sectores económicos en los que están presentes, sus oficios, el grado de especialización, los étnicos que pueden ser indicativos de sus posibles orígenes geográficos y sociales, y algunos aspectos importantes de la organización del trabajo, como el número de mujeres, la jerarquía laboral y la composición de los grupos de trabajo por razón de edad y sexo. Sólo después, se intenta comparar los datos obtenidos para identificar, en su caso, características afines o divergentes en ambas fuentes. El segundo objetivo aborda el grado de dependencia de estas mujeres. El nivel de control de su trabajo, la asignación de raciones, productos o bienes, o la duración de la prestación de servicios, durante todo o parte del año, pueden ser indicativos de que entre estos equipos de trabajadoras podría haber distintos niveles de dependencia laboral y económica, y que algunas mujeres podrían tener medios alternativos o complementarios de subsistencia. El tercer objetivo se propone observar el estatus y la condición de estas mujeres en el entramado social del segundo y el primer milenio a.C. Un análisis comparativo de esta clase supone afrontar problemas de distintas magnitudes, algunos de naturaleza interpretativa o léxica, otros relacionados con el distinto ámbito palacial y los diferentes contextos políticos y económicos de los reinos micénicos y homéricos, o la diferente naturaleza de ambas fuentes escritas y la información limitada que proporcionan. Sin embargo, éstos son los primeros testimonios que tenemos. Con estas limitaciones, el análisis comparativo muestra notables coincidencias en ambas fuentes, destacando la importancia que tienen como agentes económicos en algunos sectores productivos, la organización de grupos de trabajo estructurados, y la continuidad de un estatus social que no es tan uniforme como podría inicialmente parecer. Dentro de esta continuidad, se pueden observar también ciertas diferencias que revelan en el primer milenio una mayor división sexual del trabajo, una reducción de su presencia en determinados oficios y sectores económicos, y una tendencia a localizar su actividad laboral permanentemente en el οἶκος lo que, en nuestra opinión, hace probable un mayor control laboral y social de estas mujeres y anuncia un cambio en el papel que tendrán en la economía y la sociedad del primer milenio.
This dissertation presents a comparative study of working women based on the analysis of the first documents written in Greek: Mycenaean inscriptions and literary sources of the Iliad and the Odyssey. From the outset, Mycenaean tablets revealed the presence of numerous working groups formed by women who depend on the palatial administration, and who differ from other women who seem to occupy a privileged place. Homeric poems often distinguish, in general, two categories of women: aristocratic women, `ladies’ or queens, and the collective of maids or slaves who usually appear in group performing the tasks assigned to them. This research focuses on the analysis of working women without considering cult personnel or other categories of women who form part of the political and religious elite, such as priestesses and queens. The main aim of this study is to make a comparative analysis of the characteristics of these women, which could be deduced from Mycenaean texts and Homeric poems. This research intends to answer whether there is continuity or rupture in the role that these women played in the working world, in the economy and, ultimately, in the society of Ancient Greece of the second and first millennium B.C. To this end, it has been separately examined the terms and the context documented in each source that provides information on the economic sectors in which they are present, their occupations, the degree of specialization, some ethnics that may be indicative of their possible geographical and social origins, and some important aspects of work organization, such as the number of women, hierarchy relationship, and the composition of working groups by age and gender. Only then, we attempt to compare the data obtained to identify, if possible, the related or divergent characteristics in both sources. The second objective is to examine the degree of dependence of these women. The level of control over their work, the allocation of rations, products or goods, or the extent to which services are provided during all or part of the year, may indicate that there could be different levels of labour and economic dependence, and that some women might have complementary or alternative livelihoods. The third objective is to observe the status and condition of these women in the social fabric of the second and first millennium B.C. A comparative analysis of the first documents involves facing problems of different magnitudes, some of an interpretative or lexical nature, others related to the different palatial scope and the diverse political and economic contexts of the Mycenaean and Homeric realms, or the different nature of both written sources and the limited information they provide. Nevertheless, these are the first written sources we have. With these limitations, the comparative analysis uncovers remarkable coincidences, highlighting the importance that they have as economic agents in some productive sectors, the organization of structured working groups, and the continuity of a social status that is not as uniform as it might initially appear. Within this continuity, certain differences can also be observed that reveal on the first millennium a greater sexual division of labour, a reduction in their presence in certain trades and economic sectors, and a tendency to locate their work permanently in the οἶκος, what, in our opinion, makes probable a greater labour and social control of these women and heralds a change in the role they will play in the economy and the society of the first millennium.
Universitat Autònomad de Barcelona. Programa de Doctorat en Cultures en Contacte a la Mediterrània

Neste trabalho analisou-se de forma técnica e econômica, diferentes unidades de geração elétrica. São elas: célula a combustível movida a hidrogênio, geração eólica, geração solar, geração hídrica, grupo moto gerador à diesel. Utiliza-se do software HOMER para simular o funcionamento das unidades geradoras. Ainda discute-se o tema energético, levanta-se os parâmetros de entrada, analisa-se as variáveis de sensibilidade e discute-se os resultados obtidos.
In this study was analyzed technically and economically, different units of electrical generation. There are: fuel cell powered by hydrogen, wind power, solar power, hydro power, diesel generator. Makes use of the HOMER software to simulate the runs of the generator units. Also discusses the energy theme, develop input parameters, analyzes the variables of sensitivity and discusses the results.

The aim of this project is to account for the widespread reception of the epics of Homer and Virgil by American poets of the twentieth century. Since 1914, an unprecedented number of new poems interpreting the Iliad, Odyssey and Aeneid have appeared in the United States. The vast majority of these modern versions are short, combining epic and lyric impulses in a dialectical form of genre that is shaped, I propose, by two cultural movements of the twentieth century: Modernism, and American humanism. Modernist poetics created a focus on the fragmentary and imagistic aspects of Homer and Virgil; and humanist philosophy sparked a unique trend of undergraduate literature survey courses in American colleges and universities, in which for the first time, in the mid-twentieth century, hundreds of thousands of students were exposed to the epics in translation, and with minimal historical contextualisation, prompting a clear opportunity for personal appropriation on a broad scale. These main matrices for the reception of epic in the United States in the twentieth century are set out in the introduction and first chapter of this thesis. In the five remaining chapters, I have identified secondary threads of historical influence, scrutinised alongside poems that developed in that context, including the rise of Freudian and related psychologies; the experience of modern warfare; American national politics; first- and second-wave feminism; and anxiety surrounding poetic belatedness. Although modern American versions of epic have been recognised in recent scholarship on the reception of Classics in twentieth-century poetry in English, no comprehensive account of the extent of the phenomenon has yet been attempted. The foundation of my arguments is a catalogue of almost 400 poems referring to Homer and Virgil, written by over 175 different American poets from 1914 to the present. Using a comparative methodology (after T. Ziolkowski, Virgil and the Moderns, 1993), and models of reception from German and English reception theory (including C. Martindale, Redeeming the Text, 1993), the thesis contributes to the areas of classical reception studies and American literary history, and provides a starting point for considering future steps in the evolution of the epic genre.