Artículos de revistas: "High Granularity Timing Detector"

1

Missio, Marion. "Overview of the ATLAS High-Granularity Timing Detector: project status and results". Journal of Instrumentation 19, n.º 04 (1 de abril de 2024): C04008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/19/04/c04008.

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Abstract The increase of the particle flux (pile-up) at the high-luminosity phase of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) with an instantaneous luminosity up to L ≈ 7.5 × 1034 cm-2 s-1 will have a severe impact on the ATLAS detector reconstruction and trigger performance. A High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) will be installed in the forward region for pile-up mitigation and luminosity measurement. This detector, based on Low Gain Avalanche Detectors and custom ASICs, will provide a time resolution of 30 ps per track at the beginning of HL-LHC and 50 ps at the end. This proceeding paper will summarise the overall specifications of the HGTD as well as the project status.

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2

Imam, H. "A High Granularity Timing Detector for the ATLAS Detector Phase-II Upgrade". IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science 69, n.º 4 (abril de 2022): 677–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/tns.2022.3146347.

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3

Wang, C., Z. Xu, X. Huang, L. Zhang, Q. Sha, Z. Ge, Y. Che et al. "Radiation tolerance of the MUX64 for the High Granularity Timing Detector of ATLAS". Journal of Instrumentation 19, n.º 03 (1 de marzo de 2024): C03044. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/19/03/c03044.

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Abstract The MUX64 ASIC is a 64-to-1 analog multiplexer to accommodate 64 inputs, with one addressed to output for ADC readout. It is developed for monitoring of the Low-Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGAD) detector modules in the High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) of the ATLAS Phase-II upgrade. The MUX64 chips will be used in the radiation field of high-luminosity pp collisions at LHC to an integrated luminosity of 4000 fb-1. This work presents the radiation tolerance study for the MUX64 being tested with 80 MeV protons and X-ray exposures for damages caused by Non-Ionizing Energy Loss (NIEL) and Total Ionizing Dose (TID), respectively. The irradiated samples demonstrated tolerance to the NIEL to a fluence of 3.21 × 1015 (Si, 1 MeV) neq/cm2, and the TID of 7.46 × 105 Gy (Si).

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4

Casado, M. P. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector for the ATLAS Phase-II upgrade". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 1032 (junio de 2022): 166628. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2022.166628.

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5

Perrin, Océane. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector for the ATLAS Phase-II upgrade". EPJ Web of Conferences 288 (2023): 01001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202328801001.

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The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) will reach an integrated luminosity up to 4 000 fb-1 from 2029 to 2039. The number of collisions per bunch crossing will significantly increase, rising a challenge in terms of pileup mitigation that will have a severe impact on the ATLAS detector performance. Therefore, the HighGranularity Timing Dectector (HGTD) will be installed in front of the Liquid Argon Calorimeter (LAr) covering the forward region with a pseudo-rapity from 2.4 to 4.0. HGTD will provide a time measurement of the time for Minimum Ionizing Particles (MIP) with a 30 ps per track resolution and will be coupled to the futur tracking detector (ITk) to assign each particle to a vertex. HGTD will be composed of 3.6 million readout channels, including a Low Gain Avalanche Diode (LGAD) based technology sensors and a front-end readout chip (ASIC) based on the 130 nm CMOS technology. These latest will be combined and assembled to produce a module, that will be installed and glued on a support unit. This article presents a general overview of the HGTD project, its status and some highlights of sensitive components.

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6

Mallios, S., P. Dauncey, A. David y P. Vichoudis. "Firmware architecture of the back end DAQ system for the CMS high granularity endcap calorimeter detector". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 04 (1 de abril de 2022): C04007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/04/c04007.

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Abstract During the High-Luminosity phase of the Large Hadron Collider, the endcap calorimeter detectors of the compact muon solenoid experiment will be replaced by the high-granularity calorimeter. For reading out the new calorimeter, field programmable gate array firmware was developed targeting the off-detector hardware. The firmware is responsible not only for the readout of the detector but also for its slow control and timing. To facilitate system maintenance, the firmware is optimized to handle all the different front-end electronics configurations and data rates using a single — highly configurable — design. This manuscript presents the firmware architecture and the implementation.

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7

Allaire, Corentin. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector in ATLAS: Performance at the HL-LHC". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 924 (abril de 2019): 355–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2018.05.028.

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8

Yang, Xiao, Kuo Ma, Xiangxuan Zheng y Yanwen Liu. "Radiation hardness characterization of low gain avalanche detector prototypes for the high granularity timing detector". Journal of University of Science and Technology of China 52, n.º 1 (2022): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.52396/justc-2021-0204.

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The high granularity timing detector (HGTD) is a crucial component of the ATLAS phase II upgrade to cope with the extremely high pile-up (the average number of interactions per bunch crossing can be as high as 200). With the precise timing information (σt～30 ps) of the tracks, the track-to-vertex association can be performed in the “4-D” space. The Low Gain Avalanche Detector (LGAD) technology is chosen for the sensors, which can provide the required timing resolution and good signal-to-noise ratio. Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. (HPK) has produced the LGAD with thicknesses of 35 μm and 50 μm. The University of Science and Technology of China(USTC) has also developed and produced 50 μm LGADs prototypes with the Institute of Microelectronics (IME) of Chinese Academy of Sciences. To evaluate the irradiation hardness, the sensors are irradiated with the neutron at the JSI reactor facility and tested at USTC. The irradiation effects on both the gain layer and the bulk are characterized by I-V and C-V measurements at room temperature (20 ℃) or −30 ℃. The breakdown voltages and depletion voltages are extracted and presented as a function of the fluences. The final fitting of the acceptor removal model yielded the c-factor of 3.06×10−16 cm−2, 3.89×10−16 cm−2 and 4.12×10−16 cm−2 for the HPK-1.2, HPK-3.2 and USTC-1.1-W8, respectively, showing that the HPK-1.2 sensors have the most irradiation resistant gain layer. A novel analysis method is used to further exploit the data to get the relationship between the c-factor and initial doping density.

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9

Mazza, S. M. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) for the Phase-II upgrade of the ATLAS detector". Journal of Instrumentation 14, n.º 10 (17 de octubre de 2019): C10028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/14/10/c10028.

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10

Brondolin, E. "CLUE: a clustering algorithm for current and future experiments". Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2438, n.º 1 (1 de febrero de 2023): 012074. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2438/1/012074.

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Abstract CLUE (CLUstering of Energy) is a fast parallel clustering algorithm for High Granularity Calorimeters in High Energy Physics. In these types of detectors, the standard clustering algorithms using combinatorics are expected to fail due to large number of digitized energy deposits (hits) in the reconstruction stage bringing to a consequent memory/timing explosion. This innovative algorithm uses a grid spatial index for fast querying of neighbors and its timing scales linearly with the number of hits within the range considered. Initially CLUE was developed in a standalone repository that allows performance benchmarking with respect to its CPU and GPU implementations, demonstrating the power of algorithmic parallelization in the coming era of heterogeneous computing. CLUE has been successfully used in simulation and beam tests of the High Granularity Calorimeter to be installed for the upgrade of the CMS detector in Phase-2 of the HL-LHC. Recently CLUE was also imported in the key4hep framework and first results will be shown for detectors proposed in future collider projects.

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11

Weitzel, Q., A. Brogna, J. Ehrecke, A. Kurt, L. Masetti, J. Patel, B. Pham, P. Theobald y M. Robles Manzano. "Design and testing of long flexible printed circuits for the ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector demonstrator". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 02 (1 de febrero de 2023): C02015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/02/c02015.

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Abstract The High Granularity Timing Detector for the ATLAS upgrade is under construction to meet the challenges of the HL-LHC. In order to connect a module, the basic detector element, to the surrounding peripheral electronic board, a flexible printed circuit (FPC) is used as an interconnection for data transmission and power distribution. An identical design for all FPCs is required except for their length, depending on the module position on the detector active area. The design and qualification of a preliminary FPC version, manufactured in 13 different lengths (from 28.5 to 73.2 cm), are presented.

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12

Ge, Zhenwu, Jie Zhang, Lei Zhang y Liangliang Han. "An FPGA-based front-end module emulator for the High Granularity Timing Detector". Journal of Instrumentation 19, n.º 03 (1 de marzo de 2024): C03055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/19/03/c03055.

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Abstract This paper introduces an FPGA-based front-end module emulator developed for the High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) within the ATLAS experiment at LHC. The emulator serves as a debugger for the HGTD readout system during the stage when the front-end module is not available. Using a Xilinx-Spartan 7 FPGA, the emulator mimics the behavior of the ASIC utilized in the front-end module. In addition, it shares the same dimensions and connectors as its successor, the real front-end module. This emulator has been effectively employed in the design and testing of the HGTD.

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13

Doblas, Albert, David Flores, Salvador Hidalgo, Neil Moffat, Giulio Pellegrini, David Quirion, Jairo Villegas, Dzmitry Maneuski, Marie Ruat y Pablo Fajardo. "Inverse LGAD (iLGAD) Periphery Optimization for Surface Damage Irradiation". Sensors 23, n.º 7 (25 de marzo de 2023): 3450. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23073450.

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Pixelated LGADs have been established as the baseline technology for timing detectors for the High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) and the Endcap Timing Layer (ETL) of the ATLAS and CMS experiments, respectively. The drawback of segmenting an LGAD is the non-gain area present between pixels and the consequent reduction in the fill factor. To overcome this issue, the inverse LGAD (iLGAD) technology has been proposed by IMB-CNM to enhance the fill factor and provide excellent tracking capabilities. In this work, we explore the use of iLGAD sensors for surface damage irradiation by developing a new generation of iLGADs, the periphery of which is optimized to improve the performance of irradiated sensors. The fabricated iLGAD sensors exhibit good electrical performances before and after X-ray irradiation.

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14

Yang, X., S. Alderweireldt, N. Atanov, M. K. Ayoub, J. Barreiro Guimaraes da Costa, L. Castillo García, H. Chen et al. "Layout and performance of HPK prototype LGAD sensors for the High-Granularity Timing Detector". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 980 (noviembre de 2020): 164379. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2020.164379.

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15

Shi, X., M. K. Ayoub, J. Barreiro Guimarães da Costa, H. Cui, R. Kiuchi, Y. Fan, S. Han et al. "Radiation campaign of HPK prototype LGAD sensors for the High-Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD)". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 979 (noviembre de 2020): 164382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2020.164382.

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16

Agapopoulou, C., L. A. Beresford, D. E. Boumediene, L. Castillo García, S. Conforti, C. de la Taille, L. D. Corpe et al. "Performance of a front-end prototype ASIC for the ATLAS High Granularity timing detector". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 08 (1 de agosto de 2023): P08019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/08/p08019.

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Abstract This paper presents the design and characterisation of a front-end prototype ASIC for the ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector, which is planned for the High-Luminosity phase of the LHC. This prototype, called ALTIROC1, consists of a 5 × 5-pad matrix and contains the analog part of the single-channel readout (preamplifier, discriminator, two TDCs and SRAM). Two preamplifier architectures (transimpedance and voltage) were implemented and tested. The ASIC was characterised both alone and as a module when connected to a 5 × 5-pad array of LGAD sensors. In calibration measurements, the ASIC operating alone was found to satisfy the technical requirements for the project, with similar performances for both preamplifier types. In particular, the jitter was found to be 15 ± 1 ps (35 ± 1 ps) for an injected charge of 10 fC (4 fC). A degradation in performance was observed when the ASIC was connected to the LGAD array. This is attributed to digital couplings at the entrance of the preamplifiers. When the ASIC is connected to the LGAD array, the lowest detectable charge increased from 1.5 fC to 3.4 fC. As a consequence, the jitter increased for an injected charge of 4 fC. Despite this increase, ALTIROC1 still satisfies the maximum jitter specification (below 65 ps) for the HGTD project. This coupling issue also affects the time over threshold measurements and the time-walk correction can only be performed with transimpedance preamplifiers. Beam test measurements with a pion beam at CERN were also undertaken to evaluate the performance of the module. The best time resolution obtained using only ALTIROC TDC data was 46.3 ± 0.7 ps for a restricted time of arrival range where the coupling issue is minimized. The residual time-walk contribution is equal to 23 ps and is the dominant electronic noise contribution to the time resolution at 15 fC.

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17

Ma, K. "Status of USTC-IME pre-production sensor for the ATLAS high granularity timing detector". Nuclear and Particle Physics Proceedings 346 (octubre de 2024): 53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2024.08.004.

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18

Agapopoulou, C., S. Alderweireldt, S. Ali, M. K. Ayoub, D. Benchekroun, L. Castillo García, Y. H. Chan et al. "Performance in beam tests of irradiated Low Gain Avalanche Detectors for the ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 09 (1 de septiembre de 2022): P09026. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/p09026.

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Abstract The High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) will be installed in the ATLAS detector to mitigate pile-up effects during the High Luminosity (HL) upgrade of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. The design of the HGTD is based on the use of Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs), with an active thickness of 50 μm, that allow to measure with high-precision the time of arrival of particles. The HGTD will improve the particle-vertex assignment by measuring the track time with a resolution ranging from approximately 30 ps at the beginning of the HL-LHC operations to 50 ps at the end. Performances of several unirradiated, as well as neutron- and proton-irradiated, LGAD sensors from different vendors have been measured in beam test campaigns during the years 2018 and 2019 at CERN SPS and DESY. This paper presents the results obtained with data recorded by an oscilloscope synchronized with a beam telescope which provides particle position information within a resolution of a few μm. Collected charge, time resolution and hit efficiency are presented. In addition to these properties, the charge uniformity is also studied as a function of the position of the incident particle inside the sensor pad.

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19

Xu, Z., L. Zhang, X. Huang, Q. Sha, Z. Ge, Y. Che, D. Gong et al. "MUX64, an analogue 64-to-1 multiplexer ASIC for the ATLAS high granularity timing detector". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 03 (1 de marzo de 2023): C03012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/03/c03012.

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Abstract We present the design and the performance of MUX64, a 64-to-1 analogue multiplexer ASIC for the ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD). The MUX64 transmits one of its 64 inputs selected by six address lines for the voltages or temperatures being monitored to an lpGBT ADC channel. The prototype ASICs fabricated in TSMC 130 nm CMOS technology were prepared in wire-bonding and QFN88 packaging format. A total of 280 chips was examined for functionality and quality assurance. The accelerated aging test conducted at 85 °C shows negligible degradation over 16 days.

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20

Robles Manzano, M., P. Bernhard, A. Brogna, F. Greiner, A. Kurt, L. Masetti, B. Pham et al. "Design and testing results of a long flexible printed circuit for the ATLAS high granularity timing detector". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 06 (1 de junio de 2022): C06001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/06/c06001.

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Abstract The high granularity timing detector for the ATLAS upgrade is under construction to meet the challenges of the HL-LHC. The silicon detectors along with the electronics are installed in two double-sided disks per end-cap and consist of basic units (called modules) connected to the peripheral electronics by flexible printed circuit cables. The complexity of the system impacts on the requirements of having high number of interconnections for the power delivery network, the data-links for the high-speed readout as well as the inputs for the system control. This and other constraints on the topology, the reduced space between disks and mechanical robustness led to the development of a flexible printed circuit cable. We present the design and test of a two-layer flexible cable of a maximum connection distance for the module.

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21

Castillo García, Lucía, Evangelos Leonidas Gkougkousis, Chiara Grieco y Sebastian Grinstein. "Characterization of Irradiated Boron, Carbon-Enriched and Gallium Si-on-Si Wafer Low Gain Avalanche Detectors". Instruments 6, n.º 1 (30 de diciembre de 2021): 2. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6010002.

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Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs) are n-on-p silicon sensors with an extra doped p-layer below the n-p junction which provides signal amplification. The moderate gain of these sensors, together with the relatively thin active region, provides excellent timing performance for Minimum Ionizing Particles (MIPs). To mitigate the effect of pile-up during the High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) era, both ATLAS and CMS experiments will install new detectors, the High-Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) and the End-Cap Timing Layer (ETL), that rely on the LGAD technology. A full characterization of LGAD sensors fabricated by Centro Nacional de Microelectrónica (CNM), before and after neutron irradiation up to 1015 neq/cm2, is presented. Sensors produced in 100 mm Si-on-Si wafers and doped with boron and gallium, and also enriched with carbon, are studied. The results include their electrical characterization (I-V, C-V), bias voltage stability and performance studies with the Transient Current Technique (TCT) and a Sr-90 radioactive source setup.

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22

Imam, H. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector for the Phase-II upgrade of the ATLAS Calorimeter system: detector concept, description and R&D and beam test results". EPJ Web of Conferences 253 (2021): 11012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202125311012.

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The particle flux increase (pile-up) at the HL-LHC with luminosities of L = 7.5 × 1034 cm−2 s−1 will have a significant impact on the reconstruction of the ATLAS detector and on the performance of the trigger. The forward region and the end-cap where the internal tracker has poorer longitudinal track impact parameter resolution, and where the liquid argon calorimeter has coarser granularity, will be significantly affected. A High Granularity Time Detector (HGTD) is proposed to be installed in front of the LAr end-cap calorimeter for the mitigation of the pileup effect, as well as measurement of luminosity. It will have coverage of 2.4 to 4.0 from the pseudo-rapidity range. Two dual-sided silicon sensor layers will provide accurate timing information for minimum-ionizing particles with a resolution better than 30 ps per track (before irradiation), for assigning each particle to the correct vertex. The readout cells are about 1.3 mm × 1.3 mm in size, which leads to a high granular detector with 3 million channels. The technology of low-gain avalanche detectors (LGAD) with sufficient gain was chosen to achieve the required high signal-to-noise ratio. A dedicated ASIC is under development with some prototypes already submitted and evaluated. The requirements and general specifications of the HGTD will be maintained and discussed. R&D campaigns on the LGAD are carried out to study the sensors, the related ASICs and the radiation hardness. Both laboratory and test beam results will be presented.

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23

Allaire, C., J. Benitez, M. Bomben, G. Calderini, M. Carulla, E. Cavallaro, A. Falou et al. "Beam test measurements of Low Gain Avalanche Detector single pads and arrays for the ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector". Journal of Instrumentation 13, n.º 06 (20 de junio de 2018): P06017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/13/06/p06017.

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24

Muzalevsky, I., V. Chudoba, S. Belogurov, O. Kiselev, A. Bezbakh, A. Fomichev, S. Krupko et al. "NeuRad detector prototype pulse shape study". EPJ Web of Conferences 177 (2018): 03003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/201817703003.

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The EXPERT setup located at the Super-FRS facility, the part of the FAIR complex in Darmstadt, Germany, is intended for investigation of properties of light exotic nuclei. One of its modules, the high granularity neutron detector NeuRad assembled from a large number of the scintillating fiber is intended for registration of neutrons emitted by investigated nuclei in low-energy decays. Feasibility of the detector strongly depends on its timing properties defined by the spatial distribution of ionization, light propagation inside the fibers, light emission kinetics and transition time jitter in the multi-anode photomultiplier tube. The first attempt of understanding the pulse formation in the prototype of the NeuRad detector by comparing experimental results and Monte Carlo (MC) simulations is reported in this paper.

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25

Ali, S., H. Arnold, S. L. Auwens, L. A. Beresford, D. E. Boumediene, A. M. Burger, L. Cadamuro et al. "Performance in beam tests of carbon-enriched irradiated Low Gain Avalanche Detectors for the ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 05 (1 de mayo de 2023): P05005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/05/p05005.

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Abstract The High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) will be installed in the ATLAS experiment to mitigate pile-up effects during the High Luminosity (HL) phase of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN. Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs) will provide high-precision measurements of the time of arrival of particles at the HGTD, improving the particle-vertex assignment. To cope with the high-radiation environment, LGADs have been optimized by adding carbon in the gain layer, thus reducing the acceptor removal rate after irradiation. Performances of several carbon-enriched LGAD sensors from different vendors, and irradiated with high fluences of 1.5 and 2.5 × 1015 neq/cm2, have been measured in beam test campaigns during the years 2021 and 2022 at CERN SPS and DESY. This paper presents the results obtained with data recorded by an oscilloscope synchronized with a beam telescope which provides particle position information within a resolution of a few μm. Collected charge, time resolution and hit efficiency measurements are presented. In addition, the efficiency uniformity is also studied as a function of the position of the incident particle inside the sensor pad.

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26

Morenas, M. "Performance of ALTIROC2 readout ASIC with LGADs for ATLAS HGTD picosecond MIP timing detector". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 01 (1 de enero de 2023): C01070. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/01/c01070.

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Abstract ALTIROC2 is a 225-channel ASIC designed in CMOS 130 nm to read out a 15 × 15 matrix of 1.3 mm × 1.3 mm Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (LGAD) for the ATLAS HGTD (High Granularity Timing Detector). The targeted combined time resolution of the sensor and its readout electronics range from 35 ps/hit (initial) to 65 ps/hit (end of operational lifetime). Each ASIC channel integrates a high-speed preamplifier followed by a high speed discriminator and two TDCs for Time-of-Arrival and Time-Over-Threshold measurements as well as a local memory. This front-end must exhibit a small jitter while keeping a challenging power consumption of less than 4.5 mW per channel. This conference proceeding summarizes the ASIC architecture, its measured performances compared to simulation, along with the requirements for the ATLAS HGTD experiments.

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Gatto, Corrado, Gerald C. Blazey, Alexandre Dychkant, Jeffrey W. Elam, Michael Figora, Todd Fletcher, Kurt Francis et al. "Preliminary Results from ADRIANO2 Test Beams". Instruments 6, n.º 4 (22 de septiembre de 2022): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040049.

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A novel high-granularity, dual-readout calorimetric technique (ADRIANO2) is under development as part of the research program of T1604 Collaboration. (Talk Presented at the 19th International Conference on Calorimetry in Particle Physics (CALOR 2022), University of Sussex, Sussex, UK, 16–20 May 2022). The building block of such a calorimeter consists of a pair of optically isolated, small size tiles made of scintillating plastic and lead glass. The prompt Čerenkov light from the glass can be exploited to perform high resolution timing measurements, while the high granularity provides good resolution of the spatial components of the shower. Dual-readout compensation and particle flow techniques can be applied simultaneously to the scintillation and to the Čerenkov section, providing excellent energy resolution as well as PID particle identification. These characteristics make ADRIANO2 a 6-D detector, suited for High Energy as well as High Intensity experiments. A report on the status of the ADRIANO2 project, preliminary measurements of light yield, and current and future R&D plans by T1604 Collaboration are discussed.

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Mastrolorenzo, L. "The CMS High Granularity Calorimeter for HL-LHC". International Journal of Modern Physics: Conference Series 46 (enero de 2018): 1860075. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2010194518600753.

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The High Luminosity LHC (HL-LHC) will integrate 10 times more luminosity than the LHC, posing significant challenges for radiation tolerance and event pileup on detectors, especially for forward calorimetry, and hallmarks the issue for future colliders. As part of its HL-LHC upgrade program, the CMS Collaboration is designing a High Granularity Calorimeter (HGCAL) to replace the existing endcap calorimeters. It features unprecedented transverse and longitudinal segmentation for both electromagnetic (CE-E) and hadronic (CE-H) compartments. This will facilitate particle-flow (PF) calorimetry, where the fine structure of showers can be measured and used to enhance pileup rejection and particle identification, whilst still achieving good energy resolution. The CE-E and a large fraction of CE-H will be based on hexagonal silicon sensors of [Formula: see text] cell size, with the remainder of the CE-H based on highly-segmented scintillators with SiPM readout. The intrinsic high-precision timing capabilities of the silicon sensors will add an extra dimension to event reconstruction, especially in terms of pileup rejection. An overview of the HGCAL project is presented in this paper.

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29

Zhang, X., M. Zhao, L. Zhang, T. Yang, J. Guimarães da Costa, Z. Liang, X. Shi y X. Jia. "Design of AC-coupled low gain avalanche diodes (AC-LGADs): a 2D TCAD simulation study". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 09 (1 de septiembre de 2022): C09014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09014.

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Abstract AC-Coupled Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (AC-LGADs) are a new type of silicon sensors which conceived for experiments at future colliders. As an evolution of the standard Low Gain Avalanche Diodes (LGADs), AC-LGADs have similar fast timing performance. The innovation is that AC-LGADs are available to provide fine temporal and spatial resolution simultaneously, thanks to two key features: AC-coupled readout through the dielectric layer and a continuous resistive n+ implant. The Institute of High Energy Physics (IHEP) High-Granularity Timing Detector group is developing its first version of AC-LGAD sensors. This paper present the impact of following parameters on AC-LGAD sensor performance: n+ dose, dielectric material and thickness, pad/pitch ratio and the distance between pad and cathode. All data are obtained from 2D Technology Computer-Aided Design (TCAD) simulations. The simulations will benefit future design and optimization.

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30

Akchurin, N., C. Cowden, J. Damgov, A. Hussain y S. Kunori. "On the use of neural networks for energy reconstruction in high-granularity calorimeters". Journal of Instrumentation 16, n.º 12 (1 de diciembre de 2021): P12036. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/16/12/p12036.

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Abstract We contrasted the performance of deep neural networks — Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Graph Neural Network (GNN) — to current state of the art energy regression methods in a finely 3D-segmented calorimeter simulated by GEANT4. This comparative benchmark gives us some insight to assess the particular latent signals neural network methods exploit to achieve superior resolution. A CNN trained solely on a pure sample of pions achieved substantial improvement in the energy resolution for both single pions and jets over the conventional approaches. It maintained good performance for electron and photon reconstruction. We also used the Graph Neural Network (GNN) with edge convolution to assess the importance of timing information in the shower development for improved energy reconstruction. We implement a simple simulation based correction to the energy sum derived from the fraction of energy deposited in the electromagnetic shower component. This serves as an approximate dual-readout analogue for our benchmark comparison. Although this study does not include the simulation of detector effects, such as electronic noise, the margin of improvement seems robust enough to suggest these benefits will endure in real-world application. We also find reason to infer that the CNN/GNN methods leverage latent features that concur with our current understanding of the physics of calorimeter measurement.

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31

Zhai, Mingjie, Jie Zhang, Da Xu, Zhenwu Ge, Joao Guimaraes da Costa y Xuai Zhuang. "HGTD DC/DC converter in low temperature and magnetic field operation". Journal of Instrumentation 19, n.º 02 (1 de febrero de 2024): C02006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/19/02/c02006.

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Abstract The BPOL12V is a DC/DC converter designed to supply power to the High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) as part of the ATLAS Phase II upgrade project. The HGTD operates in an environment characterized by low temperatures and a magnetic field. Ensuring the reliable functionality of the BPOL12V under such conditions is of utmost importance. This paper outlines a series of functionality tests for the BPOL12V, including efficiency, ripple, and rise/fall edge assessments across various operational scenarios. The performance of the BPOL12V consistently meets the requirements of the HGTD, whether it operates in low temperatures down to -30 °C or in the presence of a 0.4 T magnetic field.

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32

Lacour, D. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector for the Phase-II upgrade of the ATLAS calorimeter system: detector concept description and first beam test results". Journal of Instrumentation 13, n.º 02 (13 de febrero de 2018): C02016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/13/02/c02016.

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33

Smallwood, J. C., S. Bhasin, T. Blake, N. H. Brook, M. F. Cicala, T. Conneely, D. Cussans et al. "Test-beam demonstration of a TORCH prototype module". Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2374, n.º 1 (1 de noviembre de 2022): 012004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2374/1/012004.

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The TORCH time-of-flight detector is designed to provide a 15 ps timing resolution for charged particles, resulting in π/K particle identification up to 10 GeV/c momentum over a 10 m flight path. Cherenkov photons, produced in a quartz plate of 10 mm thickness, are focused onto an array of micro-channel plate photomultipliers (MCP-PMTs) which measure the photon arrival times and spatial positions. A half-scale (660 × 1250 × 10 mm3) TORCH demonstrator module has been tested in an 8 GeV/c mixed proton-pion beam at CERN. Customised square MCP-PMTs of active area 53 × 53 mm2 and granularity 64 × 64 pixels have been employed, which have been developed in collaboration with an industrial partner. The single-photon timing performance and photon yields have been measured as a function of beam position in the radiator, giving measurements which are consistent with expectations. The expected performance of TORCH for high luminosity running of the LHCb Upgrade II has been simulated.

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34

Sun, Weiyi, Yunyun Fan, Mei Zhao, Han Cui, Chengjun Yu, Shuqi Li, Yuan Feng et al. "Characterization of the response of IHEP-IME LGAD with shallow carbon to Gamma Irradiation". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 06 (1 de junio de 2023): P06031. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/06/p06031.

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Abstract Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGAD) for the High-Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) are crucial in reducing pileups in the High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider. Numerous studies have been conducted on the bulk irradiation damage of LGADs. However, few studies have been carried out on the surface irradiation damage of LGAD sensors with shallow carbon implantation. In this paper, the IHEP-IME LGADs with shallow carbon implantation were irradiated up to 2 MGy using gamma irradiation to investigate surface damage. Important characteristic parameters, including leakage currents, breakdown voltage (BV), inter-pad resistances, and capacitances, were tested before and after irradiation. The results showed that the leakage current and BV increased after irradiation, whereas overall inter-pad resistance exhibited minimal change and remained above 109 Ω before and after irradiation. Capacitance was found to be less than 4.5 pF with a slight decrease in the gain layer depletion voltage (V gl ) after irradiation. No parameter affected by the inter-pad separation was observed before and after irradiation. All characteristic parameters meet the requirements of HGTD, and this design can be used to further optimization.

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35

Grieco, C., L. Castillo García, A. Doblas Moreno, E. L. Gkougkousis, S. Grinstein, S. Hidalgo, N. Moffat, G. Pellegrini y J. Villegas Dominguez. "Overview of CNM LGAD results: boron Si-on-Si and epitaxial wafers". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 09 (1 de septiembre de 2022): C09021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09021.

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Abstract Low Gain Avalanche Detectors (LGADs) are n-on-p silicon sensors with an extra p-layer below the collection electrode which provides signal amplification. When the primary electrons reach the amplification region new electron-hole pairs are created that enhance the generated signal. The moderate gain of these sensors, together with the relatively thin active region, provide precise time information for minimum ionizing particles. To mitigate the effect of pile-up at the HL-LHC the ATLAS and CMS experiments have chosen the LGAD technology for the High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) and for the End-Cap Timing Layer (ETL), respectively. A full characterization of recent productions of LGAD sensors fabricated at CNM has been carried out before and after neutron irradiation up to 2.5 × 1015 neq/cm2. Boron-doped sensors produced in epitaxial and Si-on-Si wafers have been studied. The results include their electrically characterization (IV and bias voltage stability) and performance studies (charge and time resolution) for single pad devices with a Sr-90 radioactive source set-up. The behaviour of the Inter-Pad region for irradiated 2 × 2 LGAD arrays, using the Transient Current Technique (TCT), is shown. The results indicate that the Si-on-Si devices with higher resistivity perform better than the epitaxial ones.

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36

García, L. Castillo. "A High-Granularity Timing Detector for the Phase-II upgrade of the ATLAS Calorimeter system: detector concept, description, R&D and beam test results". Journal of Instrumentation 15, n.º 09 (18 de septiembre de 2020): C09047. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/15/09/c09047.

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37

Beresford, L. A., D. E. Boumediene, L. Castillo García, L. D. Corpe, M. J. Da Cunha Sargedas de Sousa, H. El Jarrari, A. Eshkevarvakili et al. "Destructive breakdown studies of irradiated LGADs at beam tests for the ATLAS HGTD". Journal of Instrumentation 18, n.º 07 (1 de julio de 2023): P07030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/07/p07030.

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Abstract In the past years, it has been observed at several beam test campaigns that irradiated LGAD sensors break with a typical star shaped burn mark when operated at voltages much lower than those at which they were safely operated during laboratory tests. The study presented in this paper was designed to determine the safe operating voltage that these sensors can withstand. Many irradiated sensors from various producers were tested in two test beam facilities, DESY (Hamburg) and CERN-SPS (Geneva), as part of ATLAS High Granularity Timing Detector (HGTD) beam tests. The samples were placed in the beam and kept under bias over a long period of time in order to reach a high number of particles crossing each sensor. Both beam tests lead to a similar conclusion, that these destructive events begin to occur when the average electric field in the sensor becomes larger than 12 V/μm.

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38

Brau, James E., Martin Breidenbach, Alexandre Habib, Lorenzo Rota y Caterina Vernieri. "The SiD Digital ECal Based on Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors". Instruments 6, n.º 4 (23 de septiembre de 2022): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040051.

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The SiD detector concept capitalizes on high granularity in its tracker and calorimeter to achieve the momentum resolution and particle flow calorimetry physics goals in a compact design. The collaboration has had a long interest in the potential for improved granularity in both the tracker and ECal with an application of monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) and a study of MAPS in the SiD ECal was described in the ILC TDR. Work is progressing on the MAPS application in an upgraded SiD design with a prototyping design effort for a common SiD tracker/ECal design based on stitched reticules to achieve 10 × 10 cm2 sensors with 25 × 100 micron2 pixels. Application of large area MAPS in these systems would limit delicate and expensive bump-bonding, provide possibilities for better timing, and should be significantly cheaper than the TDR concept due to being a more conventional CMOS foundry process. The small pixels significantly improve shower separation. Recent simulation studies confirm previous performance projections, indicating electromagnetic energy resolution based on digital hit cluster counting provides better performance than the SiD TDR analog design based on 13 mm2 pixels. Furthermore, the two shower separation is excellent down to the millimeter scale. Geant4 simulation results demonstrate these expectations.

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39

Currás, Esteban, Marcos Fernández, Christian Gallrapp, Lindsey Gray, Marcello Mannelli, Paolo Meridiani, Michael Moll et al. "Radiation hardness and precision timing study of silicon detectors for the CMS High Granularity Calorimeter (HGC)". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 845 (febrero de 2017): 60–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2016.05.008.

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40

Zhang, C., G. Casse, M. Franks, J. Hammerich, N. Karim, S. Powell, E. Vilella y J. Vossebeld. "High-performance HV-CMOS sensors for future particle physics experiments — an overview". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 09 (1 de septiembre de 2022): C09025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09025.

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Abstract HV-CMOS (High Voltage-CMOS) sensors are emerging as a prime candidate for future tracking detectors that have extreme requirements on material budget, pixel granularity, time resolution and radiation tolerance. These sensors have the advantages of full monolithic structure, low manufacture cost, fast charge collection and high radiation tolerance. Confirmed and potential tracking applications in physics experiments include the Mu3e experiment, proton EDM searches, future upgrades of LHC (Large Hadron Collider) and CEPC (Circular Electron Positron Collider). The HV-CMOS group at Liverpool is doing generic R&D to push the boundaries of HV-CMOS sensors performance, especially in terms of single point resolution, fast-timing capability and radiation tolerance. This contribution gives an overview of the latest research by the Liverpool HV-CMOS group and presents the HV-CMOS prototypes developed in Liverpool.

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41

Pantaleo, Felice y Marco Rovere. "The Iterative Clustering framework for the CMS HGCAL Reconstruction". Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2438, n.º 1 (1 de febrero de 2023): 012096. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2438/1/012096.

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Abstract To sustain the harsher conditions of the high-luminosity LHC [1], the CMS Collaboration [2] is designing a novel endcap calorimeter system [3]. The new calorimeter will predominantly use silicon sensors to achieve sufficient radiation tolerance and will maintain highly granular information in the readout to help mitigate the effects of the pile up. In regions characterized by lower radiation levels, small scintillator tiles with individual SiPM on-tile readout are employed. A unique reconstruction framework (TICL: The Iterative CLustering) is being developed within the CMS Software CMSSW to fully exploit the granularity and other significant detector features, such as particle identification and precision timing, with a view to mitigating pile up in the very dense environment of HL-LHC. The TICL framework has been thought of with heterogeneous computing in mind: the algorithms and their data structures are designed to be executed on GPUs. In addition, geometry agnostic data structures have been designed to provide fast navigation and searching capabilities. Seeding capabilities (also exploiting information coming from other detectors), dynamic cluster masking, energy calibration, and particle identification are the main components of the framework. To allow for maximal flexibility, TICL allows the composition of different combinations of modules that can be chained together in an iterative fashion.

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42

Ceravolo, Sergio, Francesco Colao, Camilla Curatolo, Elisa Di Meco, Eleonora Diociaiuti, Donatella Lucchesi, Daniele Paesani et al. "Crilin: A Semi-Homogeneous Calorimeter for a Future Muon Collider". Instruments 6, n.º 4 (11 de octubre de 2022): 62. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040062.

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Calorimeters, as other detectors, have to face the increasing performance demands of the new energy frontier experiments. For a future Muon Collider the main challenge is given by the Beam Induced Background that may pose limitations to the physics performance. However, it is possible to reduce the BIB impact by exploiting some of its characteristics by ensuring high granularity, excellent timing, longitudinal segmentation and good energy resolution. The proposed design, the Crilin calorimeter, is an alternative semi-homogeneous ECAL barrel for the Muon Collider based on Lead Fluoride Crystals (PbF2) with a surface-mount UV-extended Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs) readout with an optimized design for a future Muon Collider.

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43

Cantone, C., S. Ceravolo, F. Colao, E. Di Meco, E. Diociaiuti, P. Gianotti, A. Liedl et al. "R&D status for an innovative crystal calorimeter for the future Muon Collider". EPJ Web of Conferences 288 (2023): 02002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202328802002.

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The measurement of physics processes at new energy frontier experiments requires excellent spatial, time, and energy resolutions to resolve the structure of collimated high-energy jets. Calorimeters, as other detectors, must face this increasing performance demand. In a future TeV-scale Muon Collider, the beam-induced background (BIB) represents the main challenge in the design of the detectors and of the event reconstruction algorithms and can pose serious limitations to the physics performance. However, it is possible to reduce the BIB impact on the Muon Collider calorimeter by exploiting some of its characteristics and by ensuring high granularity, excellent timing, longitudinal segmentation and good energy resolution. The proposed R&D is an innovative semi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeter based on stackable modules of lead fluoride crystals (PbF2) readout by surface-mount UV-extended Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs): the Crilin calorimeter (CRystal calorImeter with Longitudinal INformation). The calorimeter should operate in a very harsh radiation environment, withstanding yearly a neutron flux of 1014 n1MeV /cm2 and a dose of 100 krad. In this paper, the radiation tolerance measured in several irradiation campaigns and the timing performances evaluated during a test beam at CERN-H2 with 120-GeV electron are discussed. A description of the latest prototype Proto-1, that will be shortly tested, is also provided.

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44

Cristella, Leonardo. "A novel reconstruction framework for an imaging calorimeter for HL-LHC". EPJ Web of Conferences 251 (2021): 03013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/epjconf/202125103013.

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To sustain the harsher conditions of the high-luminosity LHC, the CMS collaboration is designing a novel endcap calorimeter system. The new calorimeter will predominantly use silicon sensors to achieve sufficient radiation tolerance and will maintain highly-granular information in the readout to help mitigate the effects of pileup. In regions characterised by lower radiation levels, small scintillator tiles with individual on-tile SiPM readout are employed. A unique reconstruction framework (TICL: The Iterative CLustering) is being developed to fully exploit the granularity and other significant detector features, such as particle identification and precision timing, with a view to mitigate pileup in the very dense environment of HL-LHC. The inputs to the framework are clusters of energy deposited in individual calorimeter layers. Clusters are formed by a density-based algorithm. Recent developments and tunes of the clustering algorithm will be presented. To help reduce the expected pressure on the computing resources in the HL-LHC era, the algorithms and their data structures are designed to be executed on GPUs. Preliminary results will be presented on decreases in clustering time when using GPUs versus CPUs. Ideas for machine-learning techniques to further improve the speed and accuracy of reconstruction algorithms will be presented.

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45

D’Amen, G., W. Chen, G. Giacomini, E. Rossi y A. Tricoli. "Measurements of time and spatial resolution of AC-LGADs with different designs". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 08 (1 de agosto de 2022): C08007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/08/c08007.

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Abstract AC-LGAD sensors are prime candidates for fast and precise measurement of charged particles in a variety of applications. In a fine-pitched pixel or strip AC-LGAD sensor, the signal generated by the passage of a particle is not localized in a limited volume in the sensor, but is shared among multiple electrodes. This signal sharing characteristic allows us to improve the spatial resolution of AC-LGAD sensors beyond the capabilities of common silicon trackers. Since the magnitude of the shared signal depends on the distance between the pixels or strips and the point of passage of the particle, signal sharing is strongly influenced by the geometry of the sensor. The electrode pitch and gap size as well as the shape can be fine tuned to maximize the space resolution, while keeping the detector granularity and the number of channels to be read out under control. Prototypes of AC-LGAD sensors produced at the Brookhaven National Laboratory covering a variety of possible geometries have been studied via Transient Current Technique using an infrared laser, and the signal sharing, spatial resolution, and time resolution of the different topologies have been measured. These results have been compared with measurements performed in test-beams with 120 GeV protons at the Fermilab Test Beam Facility. A time resolution of ∼30 ps can be achieved using AC-LGAD sensors with a thickness of 50 μm, compatible to that of standard DC-coupled LGADs, while presenting a far superior spatial resolution. This combination of high precision, fast timing capabilities, and low material budget makes AC-LGADs an ideal choice for a truly 4D detector.

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46

Lyu, Tianchu, Chen Liang, Jihong Liu, Berry Campbell, Peiyin Hung, Yi-Wen Shih, Nadia Ghumman y Xiaoming Li. "Temporal Events Detector for Pregnancy Care (TED-PC): A rule-based algorithm to infer gestational age and delivery date from electronic health records of pregnant women with and without COVID-19". PLOS ONE 17, n.º 10 (31 de octubre de 2022): e0276923. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0276923.

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Objective Identifying the time of SARS-CoV-2 viral infection relative to specific gestational weeks is critical for delineating the role of viral infection timing in adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, this task is difficult when it comes to Electronic Health Records (EHR). In combating the COVID-19 pandemic for maternal health, we sought to develop and validate a clinical information extraction algorithm to detect the time of clinical events relative to gestational weeks. Materials and methods We used EHR from the National COVID Cohort Collaborative (N3C), in which the EHR are normalized by the Observational Medical Outcomes Partnership (OMOP) Common Data Model (CDM). We performed EHR phenotyping, resulting in 270,897 pregnant women (June 1st, 2018 to May 31st, 2021). We developed a rule-based algorithm and performed a multi-level evaluation to test content validity and clinical validity, and extreme length of gestation (<150 or >300). Results The algorithm identified 296,194 pregnancies (16,659 COVID-19, 174,744 without COVID-19) in 270,897 pregnant women. For inferring gestational age, 95% cases (n = 40) have moderate-high accuracy (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.62); 100% cases (n = 40) have moderate-high granularity of temporal information (Cohen’s Kappa = 1). For inferring delivery dates, the accuracy is 100% (Cohen’s Kappa = 1). The accuracy of gestational age detection for the extreme length of gestation is 93.3% (Cohen’s Kappa = 1). Mothers with COVID-19 showed higher prevalence in obesity or overweight (35.1% vs. 29.5%), diabetes (17.8% vs. 17.0%), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (0.2% vs. 0.1%), respiratory distress syndrome or acute respiratory failure (1.8% vs. 0.2%). Discussion We explored the characteristics of pregnant women by different gestational weeks of SARS-CoV-2 infection with our algorithm. TED-PC is the first to infer the exact gestational week linked with every clinical event from EHR and detect the timing of SARS-CoV-2 infection in pregnant women. Conclusion The algorithm shows excellent clinical validity in inferring gestational age and delivery dates, which supports multiple EHR cohorts on N3C studying the impact of COVID-19 on pregnancy.

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47

Paesani, Daniele, Alessandro Saputi y Ivano Sarra. "Mechanical Design of an Electromagnetic Calorimeter Prototype for a Future Muon Collider". Instruments 6, n.º 4 (14 de octubre de 2022): 63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040063.

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Measurement of physics processes at new energy frontier experiments requires excellent spatial, time, and energy resolutions to resolve the structure of collimated high-energy jets. In a future Muon Collider, beam-induced backgrounds (BIB) represent the main challenge in the design of the detectors and of the event reconstruction algorithms. The technology and the design of the calorimeters should be chosen to reduce the effect of the BIB, while keeping good physics performance. Several requirements can be inferred: (i) high granularity to reduce the overlap of BIB particles in the same calorimeter cell; (ii) excellent timing (of the order of 100 ps) to reduce the out-of-time component of the BIB; (iii) longitudinal segmentation to distinguish the signal showers from the fake showers produced by the BIB. Moreover, the calorimeter should operate in a very harsh radiation environment, withstanding yearly a neutron flux of 1014 n1MeV /cm2 and a dose of 100 krad. Our proposal consists of a semi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeter based on Lead Fluoride Crystals (PbF2) readout by surface-mount UV-extended Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs): the Crilin calorimeter. In this paper, we report the mechanical design for the development of a small-scale prototype, consisting of 2 layers of 3 × 3 crystals.

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48

Ceravolo, S., F. Colao, C. Curatolo, E. Di Meco, E. Diociaiuti, D. Lucchesi, D. Paesani et al. "Crilin: A CRystal calorImeter with Longitudinal InformatioN for a future Muon Collider". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 09 (1 de septiembre de 2022): P09033. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/p09033.

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Abstract The measurement of physics processes at new energy frontier experiments requires excellent spatial, time, and energy resolutions to resolve the structure of collimated high-energy jets. In a future Muon Collider, the beam-induced backgrounds (BIB) represent the main challenge in the design of the detectors and of the event reconstruction algorithms. The technology and the design of the calorimeters should be chosen to reduce the effect of the BIB, while keeping good physics performance. Several requirements can be inferred: i) high granularity to reduce the overlap of BIB particles in the same calorimeter cell; ii) excellent timing (of the order of 100 ps) to reduce the out-of-time component of the BIB; iii) longitudinal segmentation to distinguish the signal showers from the fake showers produced by the BIB; iv) good energy resolution (less than 10%/√E) to obtain good physics performance, as has been already demonstrated for conceptual particle flow calorimeters. Our proposal consists of a semi-homogeneous electromagnetic calorimeter based on lead fluoride crystals (PbF2) read out by surface-mount UV-extended Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs): the Crilin calorimeter. In this paper, the performance of the Crilin calorimeter in the Muon Collider framework for hadron jets reconstruction has been analyzed. We report the characterisation of individual components together with the development of a small-scale prototype, consisting of 2 layers of 3 × 3 crystals each.

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49

Kinoshita, Tatsushi. "Performance evaluation of 3 inch PMT for Hyper-Kamiokande". Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2156, n.º 1 (1 de diciembre de 2021): 012191. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2156/1/012191.

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Abstract Hyper-Kamiokande is a next generation water Cherenkov detector for the study of neutrino oscillations including the search for leptonic CP violation. In order to reduce the systematic uncertainty, a 1 kton scale intermediate water Cherenkov detector (IWCD) is planned to be constructed at around 1 km downstream the J-PARC neutrino beamline. The multi-PMT modules, which consist of 19 3 inch PMTs will be installed in the IWCD to improve the detector performance with their higher granularity. We have measured the characteristics of candidate 3-inch PMTs such as gain, peak to valley ratio, timing resolution and after pulses, and checked the impact to the detector performance.

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50

Della Pietra, M., M. Alviggi, M. T. Camerlingo, C. Di Donato, R. Di Nardo, S. Franchellucci, P. Iengo et al. "High granularity resistive Micromegas for high particle rates environment". Journal of Instrumentation 17, n.º 08 (1 de agosto de 2022): C08002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/08/c08002.

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Abstract The new era of particle physics experiments is moving towards new upgrades of present accelerators (Large Hadron Collider at CERN) and the design of high energy (tens/hundreds TeV scale) and very high intensity new particle accelerators (FCC-ee/hh, EIC, Muon Collider). Cost effective, high efficiency particle detection in a high background and high radiation environment is fundamental to accomplish their physics program. We present a new high granularity resistive Micromegas detector capable to ensure full efficient and stable operation and a good tracking capabilities up to particle fluxes of 10 MHz/cm2. A summary of the detector performances, measured by mean of high intensity X-ray, muon and pion sources, is reported, together with most recent results from test beam activities.

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