Tesis sobre el tema "Health insurance rights"

Malawi reverted to multiparty politics in 1993.1 A new Republican Constitution,2 (the Constitution) with a Bill of Rights was provisionally adopted on 18 May 1994 and it entered into force on 18 May 1995.3 Chapter 3 thereof deals with fundamental principles upon which the Constitution is founded and Principles of National Policy (PNP). Section 13(c) of the Constitution which falls under the PNP deals with health. It is to the effect that ‘the State shall actively promote the welfare and development of the people of Malawi by progressively adopting and implementing policies and legislation aimed at achieving adequate healthcare, commensurate with the health needs of Malawian society and international standards of healthcare’. According to section 14 of the Constitution, PNP are only directory in nature. Courts are obliged to have regard to them in the interpretation and application of the Constitution or any other law or in the determination of the validity of executive decisions. In the light of the foregoing, arguably, the right to health is not justiciable under the Constitution.
Thesis (LLM (Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa)) -- University of Pretoria, 2010.
A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Law University of Pretoria, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Masters of Law (LLM in Human Rights and Democratisation in Africa). Prepared under the supervision of Prof. Ben K. Twinomugisha of the Faculty of Law, University of Makerere. 2010.
http://www.chr.up.ac.za/
Centre for Human Rights
LLM

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Many were the battles fought for all humanity throughout the ages for recognition of various human rights. The 1988 Federal Constitution, inspired by other European legal systems, especially the Portuguese, brought great progress in the recognition of numerous social rights, aside from concern to confer instruments so these rights could be implemented by the state and the whole society in order that the precepts planted in the constitution were not relegated to mere promises. The health rights is among those the constitutional legislator leaned more concern, not limited to grant it as a public subjective right, but also organized a unique system through regionalized and hierarchical network, involving all political federation entities and the society as responsible for its implementation. This paper assumes that health is a public subjective right, allowing this way its judicial protection. Inclusive, from this point of view, the pact's preamble that established the World Health Organization conceives health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, obliging the Brazilian State to guarantee its citizens all means for health preservation or re-establishment. However, the 1988 Federal Constitution opened to private sector the pportunity to participate in the health system, both in its complementary form, working with the public health system through the execution of public contract or celebrating agreement with the administration, as in supplemental way through private services provided by contracting health insurance providers. This pact should be analyzed from the perspective of another fundamental right, as elected by the 1988 Letter, the consumer right. This way, it is essential to establish the distinction between public and private orms for health rights exercise, through harmonisation between the principles of human dignity and the right to health with other constitutional principles as those who consecrate the private autonomy, legal certainty, the property, free enterprise, the separation of powers, among others. This interpretative task with its various technical analysis allows you to extract from the current laws the conformation between the rules and principles that establish the limits of each legal relationship, private and public, demonstrating an improper intervention of judiciary in fields given for legislators
Inúmeras foram as batalhas travadas por toda a humanidade ao longo dos tempos para reconhecimento dos mais diversos direitos do homem. A Constituição Federal de 1988, inspirada em outros ordenamentos europeus, especialmente o português, trouxe imenso avanço no reconhecimento de inúmeros direitos sociais, além de se preocupar em conferir instrumentos para que estes direitos pudessem ser concretizados pelo Estado e por toda a sociedade, a fim de que os preceitos fincados no Texto Maior não fossem relegados a meras promessas. O direito à saúde está dentre aqueles que o legislador constitucional se debruçou com maior preocupação, não se limitando a outorgá-lo como um direito subjetivo público, mas foi além, organizou um sistema único através de rede regionalizada e hierarquizada, envolvendo todos os entes políticos da federação e a sociedade como responsáveis por sua implementação. Este trabalho parte da premissa da saúde como direito subjetivo público, viabilizando, dessa forma, a sua tutela jurisdicional. Inclusive, sob esse prisma, o preâmbulo do pacto que instituiu a Organização Mundial de Saúde concebe a saúde como o estado completo de bem-estar físico, mental e social, obrigando ao Estado Brasileiro assegurar aos seus cidadãos todos os meios para a preservação ou restabelecimento da saúde. No entanto, a Constituição Federal de 1988 franqueou à iniciativa privada participar do sistema de saúde, tanto em sua forma complementar, atuando junto ao sistema público de saúde, através de celebração de contrato público ou convênio com a Administração, quanto de maneira suplementar, através de serviços privados prestados por intermédio da contratação de operadoras de planos de saúde, pacto este que deve ser analisado sob a perspectiva de outro direito fundamental, assim eleito pela Carta de 1988, o direito do consumidor. Dessa forma, é indispensável estabelecer a distinção existente entre as formas pública e privada do exercício ao direito à saúde, através de harmonização entre os princípios da dignidade humana e do direito à saúde com outros preceitos constitucionais como aqueles que consagram a autonomia privada, a segurança jurídica, a propriedade, a livre-iniciativa, a separação de poderes, dentre outros. Essa tarefa interpretativa com a análise de suas diversas técnicas permite extrair do ordenamento vigente a conformação entre as regras e princípios que estabelecem os limites de cada relação jurídica, pública e privada, demonstrando indevida a intervenção do Judiciário em searas afetas ao legislador

The purpose of this thesis is to prove the existence of the right to adequate healthcare through a critical analysis of the law of obligations, constitutional law and international law framed in the wider focal point of South African medical law. The Constitution only makes provision for the right to access to health care. Conclusively this thesis will have to establish a link between a minimum standard in health care and the Constitution. It is submitted that the most efficacious method of establishing this link is with the duty of care, which is intrinsically linked to the doctor-patient relationship. If a critical analysis of the doctor-patient relationship can establish a clear link between the duty of care and state liability then such a link can successfully be applied to the Constitution. If this link is transposed onto the Constitution, a critical evaluation of the rights in the Bill of Rights will then reveal the most applicable right that can house the right to an adequate standard of health care. Such an analysis is only part of the solution however. In order to make this right effective, the international body of medical laws must be critically analysed and juxtaposed against this adequate standard. This carries the dual purpose of adding normative content as well as determining the current state of South Africa’s obligations under international human rights law, and to what extent those obligations have been discharged. Finally, and most significantly, the right to adequate healthcare, as it was forged in the international legal analysis, will be transposed onto the current South African jurisprudence of socio-economic rights. This practical application will then be reflected onto the new National Health Care Insurance to show conclusively that the current governmental approach of effecting health care is wholly inoperable and will ultimately result in significant harm and extensive human rights violations. This is based on the government only considering access to health care sufficient to discharge its duties and being totally incapable of effectively managing its resources. The core outcome for this thesis is to prove the existence of the right to adequate healthcare. Secondary outcomes are tracing the history of medicine to illustrate the creation and evolution of the doctor-patient relationship, a critical analysis of the application of medical ethics to South African law of obligations, a critical analysis of the Constitution and its fundamentals, an exhaustive evaluation of South Africa’s duties and accomplishments under its international obligations and effectively applying the right to adequate healthcare which is diametrically opposed to the current course South Africa is taking to provide health care.
Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2012.
Public Law
unrestricted

Section 27(1)(a) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, entrenches everyone's right of access to health care services. The purpose of this dissertation is to determine the manner in which this right must be interpreted and implemented in order to alleviate poverty to the optimal extent possible, in South Africa. As a point of departure, the relationship between poverty and health, as well as the theoretical basis of poverty, is addressed in terms of soft law. Thereafter, the theoretical basis of the right of access to health care service is analysed and explained from both an international and a South African perspective. This is followed by an investigation into international law. The manner in which the United Nations International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is interpreted and implemented and whether or not this contributes to poverty alleviation, is investigated. This is followed by an analysis of the right in terms of the Constitution and case law. Particular attention is paid to the manner in which the courts interpret the right of access to health care services. It is then determined whether the state is implementing the right in such a manner as to contribute to the optimal alleviation of poverty, in South Africa. Finally, a conclusion is reached and recommendations are made as to ways in which the right can be interpreted and implemented to reduce poverty to the optimal extent possible, in South Africa.
Thesis (LL.M.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Acteur essentiel du droit de la santé, le patient est au cœur du système de santé français. Néanmoins, l'assurance maladie, financeur du système de santé, est très souvent éludée lorsqu'il s'agit de s'interroger sur le patient. Or, c'est la figure même du patient assuré social qui émerge du système de santé. Aussi, les articulations entre le droit de la santé et de l'assurance maladie soulèvent des questions. Par ailleurs, le patient assuré social est également titulaire de droits qui semblent avoir pour corollaire des obligations. La compréhension de l'articulation de ces droits au regard du droit de la santé et de l'assurance maladie paraît inéluctable tout comme la nécessaire recherche et qualification d'obligations. C'est ainsi une certaine vision de notre système de santé qui se dégage de la recherche de ces normes applicables
As an essential character in the health care law, the patient is the cornerstone of the French health care system. But the French Health Insurance, which is the financial base of this system, is often ignored in the studies dedicated to the patient. Nevertheless, a real concept of an insured patient has emerged from the French health care system. Consequently, the connections between health care law and health insurance law have to be questioned. Furthermore, the rights owned by this insured patient seem to have corollary duties ; understanding the combinations between these rights under the health care law and health insurance law is unavoidable, as well as the necessary research and qualification of related duties. In the end, it appears that the research of these rules reveals a particular conception of the health care system

Através do presente estudo analisou-se as decisões judiciais proferidas pelos Tribunais Superiores do Brasil - Supremo Tribunal Federal (STF) e Superior Tribunal de Justiça (STJ) - acerca dos conflitos entre usuários e operadoras de planos de saúde, a fim de verificar se nos julgamentos tem sido considerada a necessidade de preservação do direito à saúde. Na Parte I foram apresentados os pressupostos de compreensão do setor de planos de saúde, colocando-se à disposição informações sobre as denominações e classificações adotadas, histórico de formação e atual configuração. Ainda na primeira parte dissertou-se sobre o foco escolhido para a análise jurisprudencial: o direito à saúde. Evidenciou-se o processo histórico de reconhecimento dos direitos humanos e como o direito à saúde nele se inseriu, a natureza desse direito e sua consagração na legislação internacional e brasileira. Considerada a abordagem contratual que é dada aos planos de saúde, também se discorreu, ainda que brevemente, sobre o Código de Defesa do Consumidor (Lei nº 8.078/90) e a Lei de Planos de Saúde (Lei nº 9.656/98). A pesquisa jurisprudencial, apresentada nos capítulos da Parte II, abrangeu decisões sobre conflitos entre usuários e operadoras de planos de saúde disponíveis nos endereços eletrônicos dos Tribunais Superiores até 3 de junho de 2008 - data em que a Lei de Planos de Saúde completou 10 anos. Verificou-se que o STF não analisou o mérito dos recursos que lhe foram apresentados. A fundamentação adotada para tanto tem relevância na análise do impacto das decisões dos Tribunais Superiores na efetivação do direito à saúde em planos de saúde, mas prejudicou análises complementares. Assim sendo, no capítulo 5 as decisões do STJ e do STF foram analisadas no que diz respeito ao direito à saúde, e ao capítulo seguinte reservou-se a apresentação de aspectos complementares dos Recursos Especiais (STJ), como a natureza dos conflitos, a autoria das ações e os principais procedimentos, insumos e doenças negados aos usuários
Health insurance at Justice: is the right to health being effectived? studies how the Brazilian Superior Courts judge conflicts between health insurance companies and their users/clients. The objective of the study is to investigate whether and how the right to health takes part in the sentences. In the first part of the study the specific characteristics of the health insurance sector are introduced, including its development and its nowadays configuration and data. In the second part the judments of the Superior Courts (Superior Tribunal de Justiça and Supremo Tribunal federal) are presented and analysed.

A partir da Constituição Federal de 1988, são introduzidos novos contornos ao ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. O texto constitucional incorpora diversos direitos sociais e dá caráter normativo a princípios de justiça social. No direito privado, verifica-se, também, a introdução de um conteúdo social por meio da inserção de cláusulas gerais na legislação infraconstitucional, especialmente no que diz respeito aos contratos. Nesse novo quadro institucional, o Poder Judiciário passa a ocupar lugar de destaque, pois há um deslocamento de decisões políticas e sociais dos Poderes Legislativo e Executivo para o Judiciário. Observa-se um crescimento exponencial da judicialização de casos envolvendo os direitos sociais, principalmente no que tange a questões relacionadas à saúde. A judicialização tem atingido também as relações contratuais entre particulares. Todavia, nessa atuação do Judiciário podem ser identificados problemas, como a falta de preocupação com os impactos produzidos pelas decisões na sociedade. Dentro desse contexto, o objetivo do presente trabalho é analisar empiricamente a forma como os ministros do Superior Tribunal de Justiça decidem conflitos contratuais no campo da saúde suplementar. Para tanto, a primeira parte do trabalho é dedicada à caracterização e contextualização do setor da saúde suplementar brasileiro. Após, relato de forma breve o histórico de sua regulamentação. A segunda parte do trabalho aborda os principais aspectos jurídicos e econômicos que envolvem os contratos de plano de saúde. Na terceira parte, são apresentados os resultados quantitativos obtidos a partir de coleta e sistematização de dados das decisões judiciais analisadas. Por fim, na quarta e última parte do trabalho, é feito um esforço de reflexão crítica acerca dos argumentos trazidos pelos ministros do STJ, a luz, principalmente, da literatura de análise econômica do direito, sendo verificado se há alguma relação, ainda que hipotética, entre a forma de decidir dos juízes e possíveis efeitos socioeconômicos apontados pela doutrina.
From the 1988 Brazilian Constitution, are introduced alterations in the Brazilian legal system. The Constitution incorporates many social rights and gives normative character to principles of social justice. In private law, there is also the introduction of a social content through insertion of general terms in the infra-constitutional legislation, especially as regards contracts. In this new institutional framework, the Judiciary holds a prominent place, because there is a shift of political and social decisions of the Legislative and Executive to the Judiciary. There is an exponential growth of judicialization of cases involving social rights, especially in regard to health issues. The judicialization has also reached the contractual relations among individuals. However, problems can be identified in this proceeding of the Judiciary, such as lack of concern about the impacts of the decisions in society. In this context, the aim of this study is to analyze empirically how the justices of the Superior Court of Justice decide contract disputes in the private healthcare sector. In order to do such, the first part of the work is dedicated to the characterization and contextualization of Brazilian private healthcare sector. After, it is briefly presented the history of its regulation. The second part addresses the main legal and economic aspects involving health insurance contracts. In the third part, I present the quantitative results obtained from data collection and systematization of judicial decisions analyzed. Finally, in the fourth and final part of the work, a critic effort is made to analyze the arguments brought by justices of the Superior Court of Justice, in the light of the economic analysis of law, and also examined whether there is any relationship, even though hypothetical, between how the judges decide possible socioeconomic effects pointed by doctrine.

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The present dissertation will present an overview about private health assistance in Brazil, having as its central theme the responsibility of Health Insurance Companies and credentialed Hospitals. It will be demonstrated the constitutional view, with the approach of the dignity principle of the human being, the main pillar of the right to health. The ways of health assistance provided by State will be discussed focusing on the activity rendered by private companies. The analysis of the context of Civil responsibility will be deepened, making a parallel between the subjective and objective responsibility, as well as a brief study on the transformation of the law in the post-modern society. Furthermore, it shall be detailed the legal nature of health insurance contracts and the applicability of the Consumer Defense Code , in which the objective responsibility by the risk of the supplier activity will prevail. The hospital activity and the extension of the health insurance companies responsibility for such services will also be discussed, considering that the hospital is chosen by the company, thus making a tripartite among ``Health Insurance Company-Hospital-Beneficiary´´. It shall be observed the sympathy among the suppliers, by demonstrating that the patient is supported by the laws of consumers protection and defense, aiming to guarantee full and effective assistance to their health
O presente estudo traça um panorama sobre a assistência privada à saúde no Brasil, tendo como tema central a responsabilidade das operadoras e dos hospitais credenciados. Será demonstrada a visão constitucional, com a abordagem do princípio da dignidade da pessoa humana, alicerce do direito à saúde. Serão mencionadas as formas de prestação de assistência à saúde pelo Estado, focando na atividade prestada pela iniciativa privada, por meio das operadoras. A análise do contexto da responsabilidade civil será aprofundada, traçando paralelo entre a responsabilidade subjetiva e objetiva, assim como um breve estudo sobre a transformação do Direito na sociedade pós-moderna. Em seguida, serão detalhadas a natureza jurídica do contrato de planos de saúde e a aplicabilidade do Código de Defesa do Consumidor às suas relações, em que prevalece a responsabilidade objetiva pelo risco da atividade do fornecedor. Também serão abordadas as atividades hospitalares e a extensão da responsabilidade da operadora por tal serviço, considerando que o hospital foi por ela escolhido, formando a relação tripartite entre Operadora-Hospital-Beneficiário . Observar-se-á a solidariedade entre os fornecedores, com a demonstração de que o paciente está amparado pelas leis de proteção e defesa do consumidor, com objetivo de garantir atendimento pleno e eficaz à sua saúde

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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)
Nos últimos vinte e cinco anos, houve muitos avanços institucionais nas políticas de saúde, como investimento em recursos humanos, em ciência e tecnologia, a priorização da atenção básica, além de um grande processo de descentralização da oferta, a ampliação da participação social e a maior conscientização sobre o direito à saúde. No entanto, as relações entre o SUS e a ANS impõem importantes desafios para o futuro do sistema universal. Quais as relações sociais e político-institucionais que levaram à atual configuração – de complementariedade ou de dualidade – entre o direito à saúde individual versus a saúde coletiva, segundo a perspectiva da individualização? Os fundamentos teóricos e metodológicos dessa abordagem podem ser encontrados em ―A Sociedade de Risco: rumo a uma outra modernidade‖, de Ulrich Beck (2010). Segundo a teoria social desse autor, o aprofundamento do processo de individualização torna os indivíduos sujeitos da construção de sua própria identidade e biografia, ou seja, as estruturas que constituem limites para os indivíduos, segue a imposição da responsabilidade individual sobre as velhas exigências sistêmicas, a saber: o ajuste à lógica do mercado de trabalho para assegurar o direito social à saúde. Convive-se com uma dinâmica de dificuldades institucionais e de ―sofrimento organizacional‖ que desregula as práticas sociais e bloqueia as ações da sociedade civil e, diante disso, esta dissertação procura examinar o depoimento de usuários dos planos de saúde para a qual são decisivas a configuração e alteração das condições de vida, a partir dos relatórios da CPI dos Planos de Saúde, que vigorou entre junho e novembro de 2003. A despeito dos avanços institucionais recentes nas políticas de saúde, os planos de saúde no Brasil ainda carecem de uma regulamentação, especialmente na relação público/privado. Sobre as bases da individualização da sociedade, será possível assegurar o direito à saúde no mercado, retomando os princípios do interesse público?
In the last twenty-five years there have been many advances in institutional health policies as an investment in human resources in science and technology, the prioritization of primary, plus a large decentralization of supply, increasing social participation and greater awareness about the right to health. However, the relationship between the SUS and the ANS impose important challenges for the future of the universal system. What are the social and institutional policy that led to the current configuration - complementarity or duality - between the right to health individual versus collective health, from the perspective of individualization? The theoretical and methodological foundations of this approach can be found in the ―Risk Society: towards another modernity‖, Ulrich Beck (2010). According to social theory that author , the deepening of the process of individualization makes individuals subjects of the construction of their own identity and biography, the structures that constitute limits for individuals, following the imposition of individual liability on the old systemic requirements, namely adjusting the logic of the labor market to ensure the social right to health. Living with a dynamic institutional difficulties and "organizational distress" that deregulates social practices and blocks the actions of civil society and, before that, this paper seeks to examine the testimony of members of health plans for which are crucial to setting and changing conditions of life, from the reports of the CPI of Health Plans, which ran between June and November 2003. Despite recent advances in institutional health policies, health plans in Brazil still lack of regulation, especially in the public/ private relationship. On the basis of the individualization of society, you can ensure the right to health in the market, resuming the principles of public interest?

O presente trabalho versa sobre a relação presente e futura dos planos de saúde com os idosos. Tem como pressupostos iniciais a existência de uma janela demográfica de oportunidades que será encerrada, conforme estimativa do IBGE, em 2020 e o fato de o modelo de atenção à saúde por planos de saúde se encontrar em expansão. Diante da realidade de envelhecimento populacional, pergunta-se: Os planos de saúde são um modelo viável para a garantia da atenção à saúde dos idosos? As respostas a essa questão foram construídas adotando-se como método de trabalho a análise de doutrina, jurisprudência, legislação e, quando necessário, fontes não tradicionais do Direito como os dados de órgãos de pesquisa demográficos e econômicos, a imprensa e as associações setoriais. Inicialmente tratou-se do funcionamento do setor de planos de saúde, desde a sua origem, indicando-se que historicamente sempre manteve uma relação simbiótica com o Estado, em especial com os recursos públicos. Para tanto, foram explorados temas como o ressarcimento ao SUS, o uso da estrutura dos hospitais públicos pelos planos de saúde e a existência de subsídios, abatimentos e outras formas de financiamento público das atividades deste setor. No capítulo seguinte se detalhou a questão do envelhecimento populacional, apresentando-se a legislação pertinente, os dados que revelam a composição presente e estimada da população brasileira, os principais problemas de saúde que afetam os idosos e os impactos da mudança de perfil demográfico para a política de saúde. No capítulo 3 evidenciou-se a já problemática relação dos planos de saúde com os idosos, permeada por discriminações na contratação, cobrança de mensalidades proibitivas e reajustes expulsivos, presença de cláusulas abusivas em contratos antigos, judicialização dos reajustes por mudança de faixa etária e conflitos decorrentes da prevalência da contratação na forma coletiva. Por fim, no derradeiro capítulo concluiu-se que o modelo de planos de saúde não é viável para a garantia da atenção à saúde do idoso, sendo urgente que haja uma discussão sobre qual modelo de saúde o país deseja sob pena de que as conquistas decorrentes da afirmação da saúde como direito fundamental se percam. Há características inerentes ao setor que o aparta dos idosos e, portanto, da nova realidade demográfica do país, como a prática da seleção de risco, a cobrança de mensalidades com preços insustentáveis para os idosos, o foco no modelo curativo de atenção à saúde e o afastamento da prevenção. Por outro lado, o cenário se agrava por conta das recorrentes falhas na regulação e na regulamentação, e pelo tratamento cindido, na prática, da política de saúde como se não fosse una e não devesse funcionar em harmonia, independentemente da fonte de financiamento. Há, portanto, um alto risco de que a situação dos idosos nos planos de saúde se torne insustentável, dando margem a medidas imediatistas ampliadoras dos subsídios públicos aos planos de saúde. A contrarreforma sanitária, entendida como o retrocesso das ações e dos serviços de saúde ao modelo anterior à Constituição Federal, é um perigo a ser considerado e combatido.
This paper discusses the present and future relationship between healthcare insurances companies and the elderly population. Initially, it is considered that a demographic window of opportunity exists - which will be closed, as estimated by IBGE in 2020 - and that the healthcare insurance model is expanding. Faced with the reality of an aging population, one asks: Healthcare insurances are a viable model for ensuring health care for the elderly? The methodology adopted for the construction of answers to this question are analysis of doctrine, jurisprudence, legislation and, where appropriate, non-traditional sources such as data on demographic and economic research institutions, the press, and sectorial associations. At first, the functioning of the health insurance sector was studied, from its origins which historically maintained a symbiotic relationship with the State, particularly with public resources. For this, themes were explored such as the reimbursement to SUS, the use of the structure of public hospitals by health insurance, and the existence of subsidies, rebates and other forms of public funding of the activities of this sector. The next chapter detailed the issue of population aging, presenting the relevant legislation, the present and projected data about the composition of the population, the main health problems that affect the elderly, and the impacts of demographic change for health public policy. Chapter 3 showed the already problematic relationship between healthcare insurance companies and the elderly population which involves discrimination when hiring, prohibitive fees and expulsive adjustments, unfair terms in old contracts, judicial discuss of adjustments for age and conflicts arising from the prevalence of collective contracts. Finally, the last chapter concludes that the health insurance model is not viable for the guarantee of health care for the elderly. There is an urgent need for a public discussion about which health model Brazil wants to otherwise, the achievements of the proclamation of health as a fundamental right are in dangerous. There are inherent characteristics of the health insurance sector that not considerers the elderly needs, as the practice of risk selection, the charging of unsustainable prices for the elderly, the focusing on the curative model of health care and the removal of prevention. On the other hand, the scenario worsens because of recurrent failures in regulation, and the split treatment of the health public policy as if it was not only one and should not work in harmony, regardless of funding source. There is therefore a high risk that the situation of older people in health insurance becomes unsustainable, giving rise to the investment of more public money in the sector. The retreat to the previous model of health attention, adopted before the promulgations of the Federal Constitution of 1988, is a danger to be considered and dealt with.

Mayotte département d’outre-mer français depuis 2011, fait partie de l’archipel des Comores ; elle est séparée des îles de l’État de l’Union des Comores depuis 1975. L’instauration d’un visa en 1995 et l’ordonnance n° 2002-688 du 12 juillet 2004 entréeen vigueur le 1er avril 2005 relative à l’extension de la sécurité sociale à Mayotte exclut les malades étrangers du système de santé mahorais. Ceci entraine des processus d’évacuation sanitaire par la voie d’une immigration clandestine qui provoque des naufrages et des violations des droits du patient. L’attrait de Mayotte et de la France métropolitaine pour les populations défavorisées occasionne des situations de conflits et de concurrence pour l’accès à la protection sanitaire et sociale. Les populations défavorisées de Mayotte, qui se battent pour combler leur retard par rapport à la métropole, vivent mal cette concurrence ; tandis que les populations immigrées vivant dans la clandestinité et sous la menace d’une expulsion imminente, rencontrent des difficultés pour faire valoir leur droit aux soins et au bénéfice à l’assistance du système social. Les obstacles sont nombreux et souvent considérables, dus notamment à la discrimination, à une disparité de difficultés sociales et économiques et à leurs conditions de vie généralement très difficiles. La maîtrise des flux migratoires et la lutte contre l’immigration irrégulière demeurent des priorités de la politique du gouvernement français en matière d’immigration. Laspécificité de la situation du département de Mayotte ainsi que l’importance des flux migratoires qui y sont constatés ont conduit les autorités sanitaires à gérer les flux migratoires liés aux évacuations sanitaires par la voie illégale. La France mène une politique sanitaire en continuant de soutenir l’Union des Comores dans l’amélioration de l’accessibilité et de laqualité des soins, à travers les programmes d’appui au secteur de la santé. Ces programmes auront pour finalité l’amélioration de la santé des mères et des enfants, notamment la réduction des mortalités maternelle et néonatale. La France à travers son organisme Agence française de développement (AFD) entend appuyer le ministère de la Santé dans l’élaboration et la mise en oeuvre des politiques publiques et contribuer au renforcement du cadre institutionnel et juridique du secteur. Il s’agira notamment d’appuyer l’État comorien dans la mise en place de mécanismes de régulation du service privé dans le secteur public et de réformer la pharmacie nationale. Cette recherche pointe les enjeux liés au droit de la protection sociale et au droit de la santé des étrangers sur le territoire national, aussi bien en France métropolitaine qu’à Mayotte. La diversité des droits nationaux applicables à Mayotte constitue une entrave sérieuse face aux dispositifs locaux relatifs à l'accompagnement sanitaire et social. Il est donc indispensable de chercher des solutions juridiques relatives à l’uniformisation de ce droit sanitaire et social afin d’améliorer le système de santé. Les résultats de cette recherche ont montré que les dispositifs locaux tels que le « bon rose » et le « bon AGD » ne sont pas du tout équivalents aux dispositifs nationaux (l'AME et la CMUc)
Mayotte a French overseas department since 2011, is part of the comorian archipelago from which it was separated from the State of Union of the Comoros islands since 1975. The introduction of a visa in 1995 and the order n° 2002-688 delivered on 12 july 2004 and entered into force on April 1st 2005 with regard to the extension of social security in Mayotte exclude the foreign sick from Mayotte's health system. This leads to a process of medical evacuation following an illegal immigration way that causes shipwrecks and the violation of the patient's rights. The attraction of Mayotte and Mainland France for disadvantaged populations lead to conflict situations and competition in the access to health and social protection. Mayotte's disadvantaged populations, who are struggling to catch up with the mainland, do not get along with that competition. At the same time the illegal immigrants living clandestinely and with the threat of expulsion are facing difficulties to assert their right to health care and to benefit from social system assistance. Obstacles are numerous and most of the time considerable, mainly because of discrimination, because of their judicial status, of disparity in their social and economical difficulties and because of their generaly very hard living conditions. The control of migratory flow and the fight against illegal immigrant remain the top priorities of the French government policy as far as immigration is concerned. The singularity of the situation in the department of Mayotte and the huge migratory flows that have been observed led healthcare authorities to handle migratory movements related to illegal medical evacuations. France has a healthcare policy and continues to support the Union of Comoros in the effort to improve healthcare access and quality, through support programs to health sector. These programs aim at improving the health of mothers and children, mainly in reducing maternal mortality. Through its organisation AFD, France aims at supporting health ministry in elaborating and implementing public policies and helping comorian state to put in place regulatory mechanisms of a private service within public sector and to reform the national pharmacy. This work focus on the issues related to the right to social protection and the health law for foreigners on the national territory, in mainland France and in Mayotte as well. Diversity of national laws applicable in Mayotte is a significant barrier to local devices in terms of medical and social assistance. It is necessary to seek legal solutions related to standardization of this health and social law in order to better the healthcare system. During our field research we observed that local devices such as the "pink warrant" and the "good AGD" are not at all equivalent to the national devices (AME and CMUc)

碩士
國立陽明大學
衛生福利研究所
87
The National Health Insurance (NHI) protected people’s health rights, but on the other hand some policies of the NHS also limited people''s rights of health care (or “rights of patients and health care”). For example, Article 11-1 limited people’s right to choose anout not to subscribe to the NHS, Title 1 of Article 33 limited people’s right of freedom to choose in receiving the health services, and Subtitle 1 and Subtitle 2 of Article 11 limited military‘s and criminal’s right to subscribe to the NHS. So the analysis of the NHS system should not only in the perspective of efficiency or welfare, but also in the perspective of people’s rights. This study intends to explore the impact of NHI on the rights of health care, and to discuss the process of conflicts between different rights as well as the conflict between rights and efficiency. This research is based on literature review and law analysis. The discussion and analysis are conducted by two part. First, this research established a system of freedom rights, social rights, rights of health care and etc. Second, this research used this system to discuss the impact of the NHS on the rights of health care in the perspective of policy and law. In the first part, because the rights of health care are new concept of rights, there is no clear demarcation to explain it. After collecting and analyzing the international laws, the domestic laws and the discussion of the scholars, this research demarcates the rights of health care as ''"the rights that people can not only request the government to do something about health, but also admit or refuse to receive health care services with dignity, freedom, and equality". In the second part, the coverage of this research only focused on the Article 11-1 (Mandatory Insurance), the Article 6 (State Monopolized Insurance Organization), the Article 11 (Exclusion of Insurance Eligibility), and the Article 33 (Incremental Copayment) of National Health Insurance Act. After analyzing the relationship between the rights of health care and the NHS system, it was found that policymakers seemed to ignore the perspective of the rights of health care in the process of policy decision making. When analyzing with “Gesetzesvorbehalt”, some actions of the government might violate the Article 33. When analyzing with “Geeignetheit” (or “Tauglichkeit od. Zwecktauglichkeit”), the Article 11-1, the Article 6, the Article 11, and the Article 33 might not ruin this principle. When analyzing with “Erforderlichkeit” (or “Prinzip des geringstoglichen Eingriffs”), the Article 6, the Article 11, and the Article 33 might ruin this principle and the policymakers should think and debate more thoroughly. The Article 11-1 might not ruin this principle, but the policymakers should think other policy to replace the former so the strength of limitation can be eased. When analyzing with “verhaltnismaβigkeit im engeren Sinne”, the Article 6, the Article 11, and the Article 33 might ruin this principle. Only Article 11-1 had the right and proper relationship between the limited rights and public interests. On the other issues, this research found that the design of the Committees under the NHS might influence the rights of due process, the design of copayment in emergency services might influence the rights of health, the design of the Fee Schedule for Medical Services might Influence the rights of medical quality, and the system of NHS might not protect the rights of confidentiality. The concluding remark of this research is that the government shall not limit the rights of people unless the issue involved have been fully discussed and debated, and the limitation of rights should be checked by taking into the principle of law in order to adequately protect the health care rights of the people.

The 2009 reform of China’s health care system attempts to lower the burden of medical costs and provide universal access to health care. This thesis focuses on a particular access and equity gap within the health care system that faced by internal migrants, and explores the potential value of a legally enforceable and justiciable right to health care in the Chinese context to address such gaps. Despite recent advances in the health care reform, lack of a framework of health care rights could be a limiting factor to current health care initiatives which are falling short of their promises of universality in some way. In the long run, establishment of such framework could be a direction that deserves further research.

碩士
國立成功大學
法律學系
101
The Taiwanese government originally planned to implement the National Health Insurance program in 2000; however, Taiwan’s National Health Insurance Act was enacted hastily in 1994 due to political considerations. After it implementation, the obstacle of medical care for the general public was removed, the convenience and accessibility of medical care was increased, and the general populace was given a national health insurance program with an extremely excellent reputation. The international media also agree that the National Health Insurance in Taiwan is a good model for health insurance. Considering the triangular relationship among the Bureau of National Health Insurance, the insured, and the healthcare providers, both the Bureau of National Health Insurance and the insured approve the National Health System. However, the healthcare providing agency and its healthcare personnel complain that the system’s design is unreasonable and outdated. In particular, after the National Health Insurance began operating, the oppressive and unreasonable work environment that the healthcare providers encountered created the so-called “healthcare collapse,” which resulted in the phenomenon of emptiness in the medical profession. The purpose of the report is, with physicians as the main subject and from the standpoint of the Constitution, to examine the effect on a physician’s rights under the National Health Insurance system, and to attempt to investigate the protection of and the limitations in the worker’s rights of physicians under the constitution. In addition, in view of the Council of Labor Affairs exclude physicians outside the protection of the Labor Standards Law, it’s the Bureau of National Health Insurance that becomes the sole contract organization and possesses monopoly power over the entire healthcare market. Facing such a powerful single buyer as the Bureau of the National Health Insurance, even the worker’s rights of physicians are limited despite constitutional protection. To expect the physician himself alone to face the powerful Bureau of National Health Insurance makes impossible the fulfillment of the constitutional protection of worker’s rights. Therefore, the possibility of fulfilling and protecting the physician’s work rights depends on the physicians’ right to form a group with the same level of power as the Bureau of National Health Insurance. The National Health Insurance has an important function in the protection of citizen’s health. The triangular relationship among the Bureau of National Health Insurance, the insured and the healthcare provider would certainly not operate if the healthcare provider could not provide healthcare due to the collapse of the healthcare environment resulting from the National Health Insurance system. Only under the frame of Constitution, with the protection of healthcare providers’ constitutional rights and with respect for human dignity, can the healthcare providers possibly achieve self-fulfillment. Also, only with the healthy and balanced triangular relationship among the Bureau of National Health Insurance, the insured and the healthcare providers, could the National Health Insurance system be well-managed, operated continuously, and create a three-winner condition.

In my thesis, I deal with the issue of perception of health insurance companies in the South Bohemian Region. That is, how South Bohemian citizens perceive health insurance companies and whether they are satisfied with the services that health insurance companies provide. In the theoretical part, I present basic information about public health insurance system in the Czech Republic. I mention the history of health insurance evolution, its systems, and principles of its operation. I also deal with legislature which is the cornerstone of this system. Most of the laws were passed in the 1990?s when the Czech Republic began to develop the current version of health insurance. Since its inception, these laws have been amended several times. Public health insurance system in our country is based on the Bismarck model, which is based on the existence of multiple health insurance companies and contractual relationships between health insurance companies and health care facilities. Furthermore, the theoretical part refers about health insurance companies as such, whose activities are governed by Act No. 551/1991 Coll., on the General Health Insurance Company, and Act No. 280/1992 Coll., on departmental, professional, occupational and other health insurance companies. The practical part describes the results of my research focused on the aforementioned issue of perception of health insurance companies in the South Bohemian Region. The results have been obtained through quantitative analysis. The method of questioning, the technique of questionnaires, was used. In this research, two of three assumed hypotheses have been confirmed. The research shows that health insurance clients in the South Bohemian Region are satisfied with local and time availability of their health insurance company subsidiaries. Furthermore, the research carried out shows that citizens respect the opinion of their general practitioners on the selection of their health insurance company. In contrast, what good (preventive) programs health insurance companies offer is not crucial for citizens when selecting a health insurance company. The knowledge gained can form the basis for further research, but it can also serve to health insurance companies themselves to improve their services. The issue of health care and health insurance companies is still a topic of current concern, both in the political field and for the general public.

碩士
中國醫藥大學
醫務管理學研究所碩士班
95
The purposes of this research are three: First, compare each hospital strategies under the global budget payment systems of national health insurance. Second, compare the impacts of each hospital strategies on patients` rights under global budget payment systems of national health insurance. Third, compare each hospital on impacts of patients` rights under global budget payment systems of national health insurance. This research regards medical staffs of four hospitals in the central Taiwan and the patient family members as the samples , and enumerate separately hospital strategies under global budget payment systems of national health insurance and patients` rights, in order to derive each hospital management and administration strategies. and the patient family members with feeling of strategies to their. According to the surveys, the researcher tries to get the impacts of each hospital strategies on patients` rights. The result of this research shows: First, There are differences of showing that strategies under the global budget payment systems of national health insurance in different hospitals.Specific doctor''s budget payment, enhancement impatient''s screening, and controlling serious disease patient''s transfering to other hospital. B hospital implement is obviously lower than other three hospitals.Second, The hospitals increase the medical treatment at one''s own expense under the global budget payment systems of national health insurance that increase people spending indirectly. Each hospital reduces night and vacation outpatient services that influence people seek medical advice access and convenience. The doctor prescribes the medicines reduce that influence the people to use the medicines quality. The dropping autonomy of the ways doctors treats the patient and Medical staff human resources to drop that influence the medical quality directly.Third, There are differences of showing that patients in different hospitals waiting for examining and treats, and once proposed Hi-Tech medical treatment and accepted the medical treatment at one''s own expense and having difference of showing the patient in difference hospitals.

The diploma thesis "Ethical aspects of migrants' access to healthcare in the Czech Republic" focuses on healthcare accessibility for migrants in the Czech Republic and looks at the issue from an ethical perspective. It identifies and describes the main problematic aspects of foreigners' access to Czech healthcare and analyses them from a moral standpoint. The principals of Christian social ethics, basic tenets of Christian anthropology and biblical imperatives, including those focusing on the biblical concept of a foreigner and its approach to them are used as bases for the analyses. The thesis further concentrates on healthcare access in relation to human rights and asks whose responsibility it is to respect and fulfill them. The thesis refers to the broader context of the issue in question and specifies further ethical challenges it entails. The thesis aims to suggest possible solutions of the presented problems and to identify those most ethically adequate. This involves presenting key actors of the possible changes as well as describing the current legal development. Keywords Christian social ethics, equity in health, healthcare, health insurance, human rights, immigration, integration, migration.

Литвиненко М. В. Охорона та реалізація права на охорону здоров`я за законодавством України : кваліфікаційна робота магістра спеціальності 081 "Право" / наук. керівник О. О. Бичківський. Зaпорiжжя : ЗНУ, 2020. 114 c.
UA : Робота викладена 114 сторінках друкованого тексту. Перелік посилань включає 81 джерело. Об’єктом дослідження даної кваліфікаційної роботи є суспільні відносини в сфері охорона та реалізація права на охорону здоров`я за законодавством України. Предметом дослідження є особливості охорони та здійснення права на охорону здоров`я за законодавством України. Актуальність теми зумовлена важливістю для життя та якості життя здоров’я людини. Саме тому ст. 3 Конституції визнано, що людина, її життя і здоров'я, честь і гідність, недоторканність і безпека визнаються в Україні найвищою соціальною цінністю, а ст. 49 Конституції закріпила право кожного на охорону здоров'я, медичну допомогу та медичне страхування. Дежавою прийнято обов’язок створення умов для ефективного і доступного для всіх громадян медичного обслуговування та безоплатне надання медичної допомоги у державних та комунальних закладах охорони здоров'я. Забезпечення права на охорону здоров’я здійснюєтсья шляхом державного фінансуванням відповідних соціально-економічних, медико-санітарних і оздоровчо-профілактичних програм. На превеликий жаль, стан забезпечення права людини на охорону здоров’я не відповідає потребам людей. Це зумовлене кількома причинами: відсутністю належного рівня фінансування діяльності медичних закладів та закупівлі необхідних ліків, станом підготовки та забезпечення фаховості медичних працівників, недостатністю медичного обладнання та ін. Організаційне вирішення цих питань шляхом проведення медичної реформи, запровадження системи медичного страхування та багато іншого пов’язане з загальним станом економіки країни та рівнем правового забезпечення цих реформ та права людини на охорону здоров’я. Метою кваліфікаційної роботи є встановлення змісту права людини на охорону здоров’я, особливостей його охорони, здійснення та правового забезпечення, стану забезпечення права в сучасних умовах, розробці рекомендацій та пропозицій до чинного законодавства з питань забезпечення здійснення права людини на охорону здоров’я.
EN : The work outlines 114 pages of printed text. The list of links includes 81 sources. The subject of research of this qualification work is public relations in the field of health care and realization of the right to health care according to the legislation of Ukraine. The subject of the study is the features of protection and exercise of the right to health care under the legislation of Ukraine. The relevance of the topic is due to the importance for life and quality of life of human health. That is why Art. 3 of the Constitution recognizes that a person, his life and health, honor and dignity, integrity and security are recognized in Ukraine as the highest social value, and Art. 49 of the Constitution enshrined everyone's right to health care, medical assistance and health insurance. Dejawa has an obligation to create conditions for effective and accessible health care for all citizens and to provide free medical care at state and municipal health care facilities. The right to health care is provided through state funding of relevant socio-economic, health and wellness programs. Unfortunately, the state of human rights protection for health care does not meet the needs of people. This is due to several reasons: the lack of adequate level of financing of the activities of medical institutions and the purchase of necessary medicines, the state of training and professionalism of medical workers, the lack of medical equipment, etc. Organizational resolution of these issues through health reform, introduction of health insurance and more is related to the general state of the country's economy and the level of legal support for these reforms and the human right to health. The purpose of the qualification work is to determine the content of the human right to health care, the features of its protection, implementation and legal support, the state of law in modern conditions, to develop recommendations and proposals for the current legislation on the implementation of human rights to health care.

博士
國立中央大學
哲學研究所
102
The planning and implementation of National Health Insurance（NHI）policy of Taiwan is a gradual shift from elite to pluralistic participations. The process is closely related to the course of democratization in Taiwan. It means that government policy decision have to meet more feed backs from civilians in implementation. This thesis aims to discuss the right of policy participation of NHI from the perspectives of the right to receiving health care and social justice, in order to construct principles and procedures of popular policy participation, and to promote equitable distribution of health care resources. NHI policy, facing the difficulties of limited resources and unlimited demand, coupled with lack of policy participation, easily result in inequitable distribution of health care resources. This thesis analyses the insufficiency of civilian participation of Taiwan's NHI in policy decision-making, citizen participation and citizen autonomy according to the benchmark of public accountability formulated by Norman Daniels. The whole health care system needs to be reformed and, at the same time, it also need be reset upon the moral basis for policy participation from the right to health and health care, in order to strengthen the reasonableness of the right for popular participation in the health insurance policy. In view of policy participation’s procedure of NHI is a kind of imperfect procedural justice（John Rawls）, it is difficult to become a procedure to fully achieve the goal of complete justice. Therefore, the principles involved in procedures of policy participation should be more specific. In this thesis I propose, according to the principles of open procedure, citizen participation and citizen autonomy, a pattern of policy participation of NHI decision-making and the principles and courses of practice for the three aspects. This would develop into a more reasonable way for policy participation of NHI. In addition, for the sustainable operation of NHI, in needs concept of the value of citizen participation, which I present according to the traditional Confucian culture of person as person. Together with the individual’s right to health promotion, it could improve the social justice of NHI’s policy.

Thesis title: Right to health and legitimate expectations in perspective of the standards and above-standards in Czech health care system This diploma thesis deals with the legal regulation of the right to health as a social right. In the first chapter, the genesis of the social rights, their specific characteristics and the social rights' role in relation to civil and political rights are analysed for the purpose of interpretation of the right to health. The actual problematics of legitimation crisis based on the states' inability to fulfil the obligations and expectations rising from social rights are later discussed. In relation to the socio-legal context, the international legislation as well as some specific national legislation of the right to health are analysed in detail within subsequent chapter. With this regard, the practice of the courts as well as the practice of the quasi-judicial bodies is considered in the following chapter, especially with respect to the right to health and its relation to some civil and political rights. The standardization process of right to health within this decision-making practice is also examined. Moreover, the right to health is explored in perspective of the Czech legislation. The diploma thesis deals with the content and the protection of the...

Olga Davidová - Abstrakt DP - AJ Abstract Diploma thesis "Globalization and Health - access to health care for children of foreigners in the Czech Republic" addresses the issue of availability of health care for children of foreigners in the Czech Republic as development of legal framework in the Czech Republic and human rights issues. The main objective of this work is a critical reflection on the cause of discrimination against children of foreigners from third world countries (non-EU countries) in their access to health care. This is a retrospective case study which is selected by the institutional analysis of the key events of public policy focusing on the development of health insurance legislation. There are different mechanisms of protection of human rights at local, national, and international level in the availability of health care for children of foreign nationals from third world countries; unfortunately national legislation is not fully in line with international requirements in the area of health law. Although international documents are binding for the Czech Republic, they are not sufficiently applied in the Czech constitutional right to prevent violations of human rights.

Thesis (LLM. (Labour Law)) -- University of Limpopo, 2013
The South African government gazzetted the Green Paper introducing the NHI on 12 August 2012. This policy seeks to progressively realize the right of access to quality health care services for everyone. Those who cannot provide for themselves will be assisted by government at the expense of the elite. The NHI was first recommended by the Taylor Commission and it has been under the discussion since then. Since this announcement, there has been growing pressure for mandatory health insurance to be included in the development of a comprehensive social security system, as was envisaged by the Taylor Committee of Inquiry. This discussion was further debated at the 52nd conference of the African National Congress (ANC) in Polokwane in December 2007 where numerous resolutions were taken with regard to the NHI. The Freedom Charter of 1955 and also section 27 and 28 also provided some guidance.

Medical expenses refer to all medical and related expenditure reasonably incurred in respect of bodily injuries sustained. This then constitutes the primary loss in incidences of bodily injuries. However, it is accepted that bodily injuries infringe in the main the non-patrimonial aspects of the individual’s bodily integrity which is a personality right. Notwithstanding this trite provision of our law, the dissertation contends that medical expenses as a head of damages is inherently patrimonial. In essence, the true nature of medical expenses as a loss that ultimately affects both the patrimonial and non-patrimonial interests of the individual, is considered. Furthermore, the dissertation analyses the assessment and quantification mechanisms in our law, and makes a comparative study with the corresponding positions in England and Australia. The intended outcome of this dissertation is to provide clear guidelines for the award of damages, particularly where future loss is involved.
Private Law
LLM

and key words ! Thesis: Constitutional limits of statutory regulation of the provision of health care ! Abstract ! The main goal of this thesis is to characterize and analyse the legal regulation concerning the provision and payment of health care under Czech law. This analysis is based mainly on the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms as the foundation for the constitutional perspective. The thesis therefore begins with the constitutional limits of the provision and payment of health care. The right to health care is provided by Article 31 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms, which is the basis for its constitutional provision. As the Charter is a complex document, Article 31 must therefore not be seen as isolated, which is why other Articles are taken under consideration. This provides a complex view of the right to health care in the Czech constitution. The thesis then focuses on the characterization of statutes and executive regulations, which provide the basic right to health care. This part of the thesis is focused mainly on the Public Health Insurance Act, as the most important statue in this area and also on executive regulations based on the Act, which imminently regulate the right to health care. Both of these parts of the thesis serve as a precise...

With the dawn of democracy, the South African social security system was in dire need of change. The right of access to social security was for the first time entrenched as a fundamental right in the 1995 Constitution. Since then, many changes have been effected to the present formal social security system, but these were mostly ad hoc and lacked a comprehensive approach. The past history of the country led to the exclusion of the majority of the population from formal social security protection. The excluded and marginalised had to rely on informal social security measures to provide social protection. This resulted in a system of co-existence between formal and informal social security. Although informal social security is increasingly recognised as part of the social security landscape, the role and importance of informal social security have largely been ignored in all reforms to improve the protective scope of the present social security system. The thesis aims to change this. Informal social security has been denied a rightful place in the South African social security landscape. The thesis recommends a model as to how the divide between formal and informal social security can be bridged. This model will, it is hoped, serve as a baseline for stimulating debate and generating new innovative ideas as to how to improve the present social security system in South Africa.
Jurisprudence
LLD