Tesis: "Greywater"

1

Ottosson, Jakob. "Hygiene Aspects of Greywater and Greywater Reuse." Licentiate thesis, KTH, Land and Water Resources Engineering, 2003. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-1551.

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Greywater is domestic household wastewater without inputfrom the toilet, i.e. wastewater from sinks, the shower,washing machine and dishwasher in a home. Source separation ofgreywater can be a strategy to enhance recirculation of plantnutrients and/or improve water use. The risk for transmissionof disease when reusing greywater is largely dependent on thecross-contamination by faeces. High levels of faecalindicators, mainly thermotolerant coliform bacteria, have beenreported in greywater, indicating substantial faecal pollution.However, growth of indicator bacteria within the system leadsto an overestimation of thefaecal input and thus the hygienerisk. The faecal input of the greywater in Vibyåsen,Sollentuna, North of Stockholm, was estimated to be 0.04 ±0.02 g faeces person-1 day-1 from the quantification of thefaecal sterol coprostanol, compared to 65 g, 5.2 g and 0.22 gp-1 d-1 using E. coli, enterococci and cholesterolrespectively.Prevalence of pathogens in the population and the faecalload based on coprostanol concentrations were used to form thebasis of a screening-level quantitative microbial riskassessment (QMRA) that was undertaken for rotavirus, Salmonellatyphimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia intestinalis andCryptosporidium parvum, looking at the treatment required to bebelow an acceptable level of risk (10-3) for reuse or dischargeof the greywater. The different exposure scenarios simulatedgroundwater recharge, direct contact, irrigation andrecreational watershowed that a reduction of 0.73.7 log was needed for rotavirus, with the measured level offaecal load in Vibyåsen. The other pathogen of concern wasCampylobacter, where a 2.2 log reduction was needed forgroundwater recharge. The infectious dose of Salmonella is highand the excretion numbers of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidiumoocysts low, resulting in no treatment requirements for theseorganisms under these circumstances. Pathogen input fromcontaminated food via the kitchen sink had a minor effect onthe microbiological quality of the greywater. Studies on virusoccurrence in greywater as well as validation of the faecalload of greywater at another site would give valuable input forfuture QMRAs.Greywater treatment efficiency studies, especially on virusremoval, are scarce and more investigations are warranted.Active sludge may not be a suitable technique for greywater dueto the low carbon content in this flow. Chemical precipitationhas the advantage of removing phosphorus as well as virusesefficiently and it is suggested as one possible method fortreating greywater. Otherwise the most common practice forgreywater treatment in Sweden is soil infiltration. However, itis suggested that the recommendations for wastewaterinfiltration also be observed for greywater, despite the lowfaecal load, due to the simulated results on virus reductionneeded.Key words:greywater, greywater reuse, greywatertreatment, microbial risk assessment, groundwater recharge,irrigation, recreational water, faecal contamination, indicatorbacteria, index organisms, faecal sterols, bacteriophages,enteric pathogens, rotavirus, Salmonella, Campylobacter,Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Legionella

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2

Denis, Achu. "Greywater Treatment systems' assessment." Thesis, Linköping University, Department of Water and Environmental Studies, 2007. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-9732.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the various types of onsite greywater treatment facilities available at two housing communities (Hull Street and Moshoeshoe Eco Village) in Kimberley, South Africa. The objective was to undertake a close observation through personal experience of the installations, measure water consumption and greywater produced, do an inventory of household cleaning chemicals and conduct interviews of different stake-holders of the Housing Project to find out their views on greywater and Ecosan issues. The study was conducted between June and August 2006.The average water consumption per household per day during the study period was 272 L and 170 L in Eco Village and Hull Street respectively. The average greywater produced per household per day was 190 L and 119 L in Eco Village and Hull Street respectively. In Hull Street, the average water consumed and greywater produced per person per day during this study was 51L and 36L respectively. Three main types of treatment systems were installed in the study area; sandfilters, infiltration pits and resorption trenches. The sandfilters were poorly designed and were not functioning properly. The infiltration pits though working they were experiencing problems of poor infiltration and required constant draining and maintenance in many homes, especially those that have high water consumption and produce much greywater. The resorption trenches that make use of aerobic mulch media followed by infiltration had been installed in one house unit and after about 7 months had not presented problems to the user. Close monitoring done on this facility for about 4 weeks showed proper functioning according to its design.Quite a lot had been done over time to improve on the installations in Hull Street and Eco village. The toilet installations have been exchanged and a number of alternatives to improve on the treated greywater have been attempted. The users and the housing company’s personnel feel one of the major problems being encountered is in treating greywater. Appropriate ways to compost faecal matter are still being sought. Hence use of greywater, urine and composted faeces in urban agriculture by residents is yet to be visible and will need encouragement.Generally, the residents at Hull Street and Eco Village like the community life, house structures and location. However, they wish that improvement be made in some areas to make life in these areas more comfortable. The residents of both Hull Street and Eco Village expect better greywater treatment facilities. The community in Hull Street requests shopping centres, sport facilities, fence around the area, and taxi services among others. It is important to note that many people did not ask for further improvements on the toilet systems which might indicate they are coping with the urine diversion alternative sanitation.The user perception on whole was good, but the need for constant attention and maintenance seems to offer a hurdle to the infiltration and sand filter facilities to treat greywater.

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3

Weingärtner, Dorothea Elisabeth [Verfasser], and H. H. [Akademischer Betreuer] Hahn. "Greywater - Characteristics, Biodegradability and Reuse of some Greywaters / Dorothea Elisabeth Weingärtner. Betreuer: H. H. Hahn." Karlsruhe : KIT-Bibliothek, 2013. http://d-nb.info/1045663727/34.

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4

Partanen, Sarah Bonnie. "Greywater reuse in agritourism destinations." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/52725.

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Though Canada has a perceived abundance of fresh water resources, they can be affected by localized drought, changing weather patterns and aging infrastructure. Greywater collected from sinks, baths, showers and washing machines can provide an alternate source of non-potable water, improving the security of fresh water resources in Canada. The agriculture sector is one area where greywater could be put to beneficial use. Farming at the rural-urban interface has been growing in popularity within North America, and provides farmers with new opportunities as they attract more visitors to the farm. Greywater reuse is one way farmers can address the challenge of how to manage the associated increased influx of wastewater. However, there is a lack of integrated research that explores the feasibility of using greywater as a water resource on farms at the rural-urban interface. There is also a lack of knowledge regarding farmers' perceptions and opinions of greywater reuse. Without this information, the barriers to greywater reuse on farms are unknown. This research undertook a feasibility study into the reuse of greywater at the UBC Farm in British Columbia, Canada. It explored feasibility from a technical, regulatory, and economic standpoint. A questionnaire was also developed and administered to farmers across BC as a way to discover the barriers to greywater reuse. It was found that the UBC Farm could generate enough greywater through produce washing operations to flush all the toilets in the proposed new farm centre throughout the summer months. The farm centre's roof provides the opportunity to capture enough rainwater to flush the toilets throughout the remainder of the year. The greywater treatment and distribution system becomes more economically feasible as the price of potable water increases. The questionnaire responses also highlighted that cost is a significant barrier to farmers' adoption of greywater reuse on their own farms. While most farmers saw the benefit of reusing water, they couldn't predict their customers' view of the practice. Farmers are unlikely to adopt a practice having the potential to hurt their business, so an awareness of customer perceptions will be required prior to their consideration of greywater reuse. Applied Science, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Graduate

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5

Dinama, Desmond, and s3084691@student rmit edu au. "Greywater Systems: Barriers for Builders." RMIT University. Property, Construction and Project Management, 2008. http://adt.lib.rmit.edu.au/adt/public/adt-VIT20090119.142338.

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Australia is one of the driest continents in the world with changing climatic conditions continuing to put a strain on potable water sources. The use of water saving technologies such as greywater systems in residential properties is an important water conservation tool in order to reduce the consumption of the finite potable water resources in Australia. To this end, Master Builders Association Victoria with the assistance of RMIT University investigated the current barriers that builders face with regard to the installation of greywater systems in residential properties. Builders like other property and construction professionals have a part to play in promoting the use of sustainable technologies. The main aims of the project were to firstly find out or identify barriers that are inhibiting builders from installing greywater systems and secondly to identify and formulate strategies to reduce or eliminate the barriers identified. The main barriers for builders are; high cost, government regulations, lack of builder awareness or knowledge, and low client demand. The potential solutions for the reduction or elimination of the barriers identified as part of the research include; economic and reliable greywater systems, creation of a website with link on greywater systems and educating the general public.

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6

Wickstead, Frank Anthony. "Quantifying the benefits of greywater systems." Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/39626.

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This thesis offers a decision support framework to establish the economic feasibility associated with considering the installation of a greywater system. Because of the potential dangers and lack of widespread knowledge of greywater systems, the study begins by providing an explanation of current greywater technology to include the history of the technology, an explanation of greywater as opposed to reclaimed water, the potential risks of greywater use, and the necessary components of a greywater system. This decision support framework can be used with any scale of greywater system to be installed within any scale of facility. The example of an typical Atlanta, Georgia, USA multifamily rental development is used within the study to explain the framework by showing a working model. The need for water conservation in Georgia is shown and how greywater use dovetails with the need to lower overall usage. The legality of greywater use in Georgia along with the specific legal uses is also shown. The findings are then made State of Georgia and use specific to a multifamily development. The decision support framework provided is a viable tool. The sample framework in chapter 5 shows that the implementation of a greywater unit in the sampled facility would save 5,060,739.6 gallons of potable water per year with a 10.49 year payback cycle.

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7

Laine, Anu Talvikki. "Technologies for greywater recycling in buildings." Thesis, Cranfield University, 2001. http://dspace.lib.cranfield.ac.uk/handle/1826/1205.

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The potential of four pilot-scale wastewater treatment processes for in-building greywater recycling has been assessed. The evaluation of three membrane bioreactors (MBRs) and a biological aerated filter (BAF) was principally with reference to the non-potable water reuse quality standards. In the steady-state trials the feedwater quality was changed from synthetic greywater to blackwater (primary sewage influent) simulating the variability of domestic wastewater. The submerged MBR met both the chemical and microbiological water reuse quality standards independent of the feedwater strength. The BAF mostly achieved a significant reduction in organic pollutants but failed to meet the microbiological water quality criteria. Greywater treatment by the side-stream MBR resulted in a very good effluent quality whilst the membrane aeration bioreactor (MABR) had the most limited capacity to remove the pollutants measured. The unsteady-state trials were carried out on the submerged MBR and the BAF. The performance of the former remained relatively unchanged in the feedwater transitions and the intermittent operation of feed and/or air with synthetic greywater. These tests on the BAF resulted in a loss of performance such that in some cases the recovery took several days. In the supplementary experiments nutrient deficiency, variability in strength and degradation during storage were found typical of both real and synthetic greywater, hence potentially affecting the treatability of greywater. A survey on behavioural patterns in households indicated that perceived harmfulness of a substance did not necessarily affect the frequency with which it was discharged. Laboratory experiments suggested that some substances discharged with the greywater may increase the risk of failure of the biological treatment process.

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8

Abed, S. N. "Floating treatment wetlands for synthetic greywater remediation." Thesis, University of Salford, 2017. http://usir.salford.ac.uk/42227/.

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Aggravation of water scarcity, eutrophication and pollution, has led to treatment and/or recycling of the major fraction of domestic wastewater, which is grey wastewater, for non‒potable options. The major aim of this study was to evaluate the performance of FTWs for remediation of various pollutants from synthetic greywater. In the present study, a novel synthetic greywater composition has been proposed with respect to the composition of organics, nutrients, heavy metals and other trace elements. As an imitation of bio‒physiochemical treatment technology, mesocosm‒scale retention ponds were artificially retrofitted with floating reedbed Phragmites australis to introduce, what is known as, floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) for improving the removal efficiency of soluble contaminations from synthetic greywater (SGW) in such systems. As a corroboration to the phytoremediation, pelletised ochre (acid mine wastewater sludge) was added into those FTWs for its capacity to adsorb phosphorus and other trace elements. Mainly, four operational variables were designated for the experimental design set‒ups of the FTWs, namely: pollutant strength (high‒ (HC) and low‒ (LC) concentrations), contact time (2‒ and 7‒day), presence of P. australis and presence of cement‒ochre pellets. The findings revealed that dissolved (DO), and biochemical and chemical oxygen demands (BOD5 and COD) decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in all FTWs. The concentrations of NO3‒N were significantly (p < 0.05) higher, and of PO4‒P were significantly (p < 0.05) lower than those concentrations of inflow, however, there were no significant (p > 0.05) changes in NH4‒N concentration in FTWs using a combination of ochre pellets with floating P. australis. Presence of ochre pellets in combination with P. australis significantly (p < 0.05) decreased Al, B, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mg, Ni and Zn, while increasing Al, Ca, Fe and K contents in the outflow. Accumulation of all considered elements was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in P. australis of all treatment systems (T) than in control systems (C), except for sodium (Na) contents which had significantly (p < 0.05) lower accumulations. The statistical analysis showed that accumulated concentrations of all considered elements in ochre pellets after the end of the treatment experiment were significantly (p < 0.05) higher, except for Ca concentrations which were significantly (p < 0.05) lower, than those in ochre pellets before commencing the experiment.

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9

Kaduvinal, Varghese Jeslin. "The effects of the implementation of grey water reuse systems on construction cost and project schedule." Thesis, [College Station, Tex. : Texas A&M University, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/ETD-TAMU-1447.

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10

Mars, Ross. "Using the submergent Triglochin huegelii for domestic greywater treatment." Thesis, Mars, Ross (2001) Using the submergent Triglochin huegelii for domestic greywater treatment. PhD thesis, Murdoch University, 2001. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/180/.

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In recent years, there has been increased interest in alternative and innovative technologies which are used in the treatment of wastewaters, with the aim of developing efficient systems which are low-cost and low maintenance. However, greywater reuse from domestic houses appears to have received very little attention and the role of indigenous wetland plants, especially submergents, in contributing to nutrient reduction in wastewater is largely unknown. Species of Triglochin, commonly known as water ribbons, are fast growing submergent macrophytes. In Western Australia, Triglochin huegelii is mainly a submergent plant but as water recedes, the leaves become emergent. Triglochin huegelii can tolerate a range of water regimes and high nutrient concentrations, and this is useful in wastewater treatment applications. The aims of this present study were to examine the use of Triglochin huegelii for domestic greywater treatment, to compare the effectiveness of this plant with other better known, and more frequently used, emergent macrophytes, and to investigate why Triglochin huegelii is so successful in nutrient accumulation. A series of investigations using Triglochin huegelii in greywater treatment experiments showed that Triglochin has consistently removed more nitrogen and phosphorus, in all parts of the plant - leaves, tubers and roots, than most other indigenous emergent macrophyte species, including those of Schoenoplectus, Baumea and Juncus which are commonly used for wastewater nutrient-stripping. In some cases, such as in the leaves, twice as much nitrogen (N) and one and a half times more phosphorus (P) is assimilated in the Triglochin tissue. In all parts of the plant there has been an increase in Total N and Total P. Investigations were conducted using different environmental conditions for the plants. A comparison was made between root zone (substrate-only) and complete pond conditions, with some changes to loading rate and retention times. Triglochin huegelii has many practical applications in wastewater management, especially if the level of influentlwastewater can be controlled, thus allowing sufficient time for Triglochin huegelii to respond with changed structure and morphology. Proline, a substance known to be produced by plants under stress (such as changing water levels), was detected in Triglochin huegelii. In a pond, the leaves of Triglochin can be directly involved in nutrient absorption and assimilation. A study of leaf structure and other aspects of its biology showed that nutrients can easily pass into leaf tissue and then into other regions in the plant. In Triglochin huegelii, nitrogen was primarily stored or found in leaves then tubers then roots, while levels of phosphorus were higher in tubers then roots then leaves. The above-ground:below-ground (AG:BG) ratio of Triglochin huegelii also depends on the water regime. For all samples, whether pond or substrateonly, the ratio was 0.84. However, when consideration is given to pond conditions the ratio increases to 1.11. It appears that in pond conditions, and especially with long retention times, proportionally more above-ground growth (leaves) occurs and in substrate-only conditions, proportionally more biomass is found below-ground, with the number and size of leaves reduced in these plants. The highest nutrient levels recorded for Triglochin huegelii were 11.74 mgP/g and 35.7 mgN/g dry weight. Triglochin huegelii has been found to have a protein content of at least 1.7 g/100 g wet weight in the leaves, and less in roots and tubers. Triglochin huegelii could have potential as a fodder source because of its high protein content, similar to that of lucerne. Triglochin huegelii seems to remove nitrogen and phosphorus at a greater rate than many other types of aquatic macrophytes. Other parameters such as BOD, Suspended Solids and fecal coliforms were also examined, with reductions of up to 90%, 84% and 99% respectively. The implication is that instead of only planting the perimeter of lagoons, artificial wetlands and constructed basins we should be planting the bulk of the waterway with submergent species such as Triglochin spp which are far more effective in stripping nutrients than emergents currently used for that purpose. In addition, systems need to be designed that mimic natural ecosystems, and yet are economical and functional. This current research can be used as a basis for further study to establish the extent of nutrient removal by Triglochin huegelii and its interactions with other macrophytes in polyculture systems.

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11

Mars, Ross. "Using the submergent Triglochin huegelii for domestic greywater treatment." Murdoch University, 2001. http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/view/adt-MU20070830.144808.

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In recent years, there has been increased interest in alternative and innovative technologies which are used in the treatment of wastewaters, with the aim of developing efficient systems which are low-cost and lowmaintenance. However, greywater reuse from domestic houses appears to have received very little attention and the role of indigenous wetland plants, especially submergents, in contributing to nutrient reduction in wastewater is largely unknown. Species of Triglochin, commonly known as water ribbons, are fast growing submergent macrophytes. In Western Australia, Triglochin huegelii is mainly a submergent plant but as water recedes, the leaves become emergent. Triglochin huegelii can tolerate a range of water regimes and high nutrient concentrations, and this is useful in wastewater treatment applications. The aims of this present study were to examine the use of Triglochin huegelii for domestic greywater treatment, to compare the effectiveness of this plant with other better known, and more frequently used, emergent macrophytes, and to investigate why Triglochin huegelii is so successful in nutrient accumulation. A series of investigations using Triglochin huegelii in greywater treatment experiments showed that Triglochin has consistently removed more nitrogen and phosphorus, in all parts of the plant - leaves, tubers and roots, than most other indigenous emergent macrophyte species, including those of Schoenoplectus, Baumea and Juncus which are commonly used for wastewater nutrient-stripping. In some cases, such as in the leaves, twice as much nitrogen (N) and one and a half times more phosphorus (P) is assimilated in the Triglochin tissue. In all parts of the plant there has been an increase in Total N and Total P. Investigations were conducted using different environmental conditions for the plants. A comparison was made between root zone (substrate-only) and complete pond conditions, with some changes to loading rate and retention times. Triglochin huegelii has many practical applications in wastewater management, especially if the level of influentlwastewater can be controlled, thus allowing sufficient time for Triglochin huegelii to respond with changed structure and morphology. Proline, a substance known to be produced by plants under stress (such as changing water levels), was detected in Triglochin huegelii. In a pond, the leaves of Triglochin can be directly involved in nutrient absorption and assimilation. A study of leaf structure and other aspects of its biology showed that nutrients can easily pass into leaf tissue and then into other regions in the plant. In Triglochin huegelii, nitrogen was primarily stored or found in leaves then tubers then roots, while levels of phosphorus were higher in tubers then roots then leaves. The above-ground:below-ground (AG:BG) ratio of Triglochin huegelii also depends on the water regime. For all samples, whether pond or substrateonly, the ratio was 0.84. However, when consideration is given to pond conditions the ratio increases to 1.11. It appears that in pond conditions, and especially with long retention times, proportionally more above-ground growth (leaves) occurs and in substrate-only conditions, proportionally more biomass is found below-ground, with the number and size of leaves reduced in these plants. The highest nutrient levels recorded for Triglochin huegelii were 11.74 mgP/g and 35.7 mgN/g dry weight. Triglochin huegelii has been found to have a protein content of at least 1.7 g/100 g wet weight in the leaves, and less in roots and tubers. Triglochin huegelii could have potential as a fodder source because of its high protein content, similar to that of lucerne. Triglochin huegelii seems to remove nitrogen and phosphorus at a greater rate than many other types of aquatic macrophytes. Other parameters such as BOD, Suspended Solids and fecal coliforms were also examined, with reductions of up to 90%, 84% and 99% respectively. The implication is that instead of only planting the perimeter of lagoons, artificial wetlands and constructed basins we should be planting the bulk of the waterway with submergent species such as Triglochin spp which are far more effective in stripping nutrients than emergents currently used for that purpose. In addition, systems need to be designed that mimic natural ecosystems, and yet are economical and functional. This current research can be used as a basis for further study to establish the extent of nutrient removal by Triglochin huegelii and its interactions with other macrophytes in polyculture systems.

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12

Byrt, Kathleen Marie. "Performance assessment of a greywater recycling experimental test rig." Thesis, Byrt, Kathleen Marie (2016) Performance assessment of a greywater recycling experimental test rig. Honours thesis, Murdoch University, 2016. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/50483/.

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In the past decade, the world has witnessed a huge expansion at a progressive rate of its population, its urban density, and its water use. As the world’s population steadily grows, so too does global understanding of finite resources, with society increasingly looking towards technology to facilitate the epic task of managing natural resource usage. This increasing pressure on finite water resources clearly manifests itself in today’s context of increasing water restrictions and rising water costs. In order to meet future water demands, it is essential that potable water usage levels be reduced to a sustainable rate. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to explore viable alternative sources of water that offer the potential to improve water use and significantly contribute to the overall reduction in potable water consumption. One such source is greywater (GW). GW reuse systems are a common feature of many households in other developed countries, but the benefits of GW reuse has yet to be properly demonstrated in Australia. Water Corporation consumption data shows that nearly 40% of Western Australian households total water consumption is used on gardens and landscapes. As the average Perth household currently consumes around 254 kL of scheme water per year, implementing greywater reuse technology could potentially reduce the average household water bill by 30%, providing a significant cost saving. However, there is a recognised gap in available residential water use data related to GW generation and reuse where it occurs. Existing water meter technology performs poorly in the task of accurately measuring GW volumetric discharge. The reason for this is the design of the traditional water meter and its inability to provide accurate readings over time with GW due to clogging. This clogging can occur as a result of the presence of cleaning chemicals and suspended solid and foreign matter found in GW from a domestic environment. This thesis will investigate whether an alternative way to accurately measure household GW being captured and discharged to the garden can be developed from the energy consumption of the pump in a greywater recycling system (GWRS). The results would provide an accurate means of evaluating the potential financial savings of greywater reuse systems.

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13

Turner, Ryan D. "Environmental implications of greywater irrigation within an urban development." Thesis, Queensland University of Technology, 2017. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/106951/2/Ryan_Turner_Thesis.pdf.

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This doctoral thesis examined the sustainability of greywater irrigation in an urban setting with particular focus on environmental impacts on the terrestrial (back yard) and local aquatic environments. The findings will help to strengthen the long-term sustainability of greywater irrigation, foster the known benefits in urban water use savings, improve guidelines for installation of greywater systems and enhance water reuse policy by providing data to minimise the impacts on the environment. Data from this thesis is already being used by the Queensland Government to assist with future guidance on greywater reuse management policy.

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14

Wee, Hong Chin, and weehong_chin@yahoo com au. "Greywater treatment by Fenton, Photo-Fenton and UVC/H2O2 processes." RMIT University. Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, 2009. http://adt.lib.rmit.edu.au/adt/public/adt-VIT20091127.145052.

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Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have been used to treat drinking water and wastewater but their application to greywater is limited to photocatalysis. Therefore, three homogeneous AOPs were investigated in this project: Fenton, photo-Fenton, and UVC/H2O2 processes. Alum and ferrous sulphate coagulation were also compared and their supernatants were treated by UVC/H2O2. The process comparisons were based on the removal of chemical oxygen demand (COD), treatment type (physical separation versus chemical oxidation), sludge formation, complexity in operation, required pH, visual aesthetic of effluent and energy requirement. Treating greywaters collected from the researcher's home or laboratory, alum coagulation achieved 73% COD removal and was more effective than ferrous sulphate coagulation (49%) and the Fenton process (45%). The photo-Fenton process removed 83% COD, compared with 87% by overnight settlement and subsequent UVC/H2O2 treatment. Using ferrous sulphate and alum, sequential coagulation and UVC/H2O2 treatment removed 91% and 98% COD, respectively. Overnight settlement generated little sludge and the subsequent UVC/H2O2 treatment removed most organic contaminants by oxidation. All other processes produced a large quantity of chemical sludge from coagulation which requires appropriate disposal. Also, the residual iron in some treated water was not aesthetically desirable. The Fenton and photo-Fenton processes were complex and involved the optimisation of multiple parameters. Their requirement for different procedures according to the greywater type presents a major challenge to process design and operation. Due to the non-selectivity of the hydroxyl radicals (●OH), the UVC/H2O2 process was capable of treating all greywaters collected by the researcher, and its operation was moderate in complexity. The COD removal was modelled as a pseudo first-order reaction in terms of H2O2 dosage: The rate constant (k´) increased linearly up to 10 mM H2O2, above which the excess H2O2 scavenged the ●OH and reduced the rate. The overall kinetics of COD removal followed a second-order equation of r = 0.0637 [COD][H2O2]. In contrast to the literature, operation of UVC/H2O2 in acidic conditions was not required and the enhanced COD removal at the initial pH of 10 was attributed to the dissociation of H2O2 to O2H-. Maintaining the pH at 10 or higher resulted in poorer COD removal due to the increased decomposition rate of H2O2 to O2 and H2O. The performance of the UVC/H2O2 treatment was unaffected for initial pH 3 - 10 with the initial total carbonate concentration (cT) of 3 mM. For initial cT ≥ 10 mM, operating between pH 3 and 5 was essential. After 3 hours of the UVC/H2O2 treatment, the effluent met the requirement of Class B reclaimed water specified by the Environment Protection Authority of Victoria, and less than 1 org/100 mL of Escherichia coli survived. A subsequent treatment such as filtration may be required to meet more requirements for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), turbidity and total suspended solids. Since the biodegradability (as BOD5:COD) of the greywater was increased from 0.22 to 0.41 with 2 hours of UVC/H2O2 treatment, its integration with a subsequent biological treatment may be viable to reduce the costs and energy consumption associated with the UVC/H2O2 process.

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15

Finley, Sara. "Reuse of domestic greywater for the irrigation of food crops." Thesis, McGill University, 2009. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=32610.

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As global water resources decline, reuse of domestic greywater for the irrigation of home gardens is quickly becoming widespread in many parts of the world. However, the sanitary implications of reusing greywater to water edible crops remain uncertain. This study examined the benefits and risks associated with domestic greywater reuse for the purposes of vegetable garden irrigation. Untreated (settled only) and treated (settling and slow sand filtration) greywater collected from a family home was analyzed for basic water quality parameters, over a period of eight weeks. During that time, both greywaters were used to irrigate individually potted plots of lettuce, carrots and peppers in a greenhouse. Tap water was used as control. Upon maturity, plants were harvested and the edible portions tested for fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci, common indicators for the presence of pathogenic microorganisms. Heavy metals were not detected in the greywater, but both fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci were present in high levels, averaging 4 x 105/100mL and 2 x 103/100mL of greywater, respectively. Despite these high counts, no significant difference in contamination levels was observed between crops irrigated with tap water, untreated and treated greywaters. Fecal coliform levels were highest in carrots and fecal streptococcus levels highest on lettuce leaves. However, contamination levels for all crops were low and do not represent a significant health risk. Plant growth and productivity were unaffected by the water quality, owing to the low N, P and K levels of the greywater. These results reinforce the potential of domestic greywater as an alternative irrigation source Dans le contexte d'un déclin et d'une perte de fiabilité des ressources hydriques du globe, la réutilisation des eaux grises (eaux le lavage) domestiques pour les fins d'irrigation devient une option populaire pour les ménages un peu partout dans le monde. Pourtant, les implications sanitaires d'une telle pratique pour l'irrigation des plantes comestibles ne sont pas encore bien comprises. Cette étude vise à examiner les bénéfices et risques associés à la réutilisation des eaux grises pour arroser les jardins potagers domestiques. Il met son focus sur la possibilité de contamination des légumes par des organismes pathogéniques et les métaux lourdes qui peuvent être présents dans les refuts domestiques. Les eaux grises d'une famille montréalaise ont été collectionnés et analysés pour des paramètres de base, y inclut les pathogènes et les métaux lourds, sur une période de 8 semaines. Pendant ce temps, ces eaux grises ont été utilisés à irriguer des plantations individuels de laitues, carottes, et poivrons rouges dans une serre de recherche. L'eau du robinet a servi comme contrôle. À la maturité, les plantes ont étés cueillis et les portions comestibles testés pour la présence des coliformes et des streptocoques fécaux, deux bactéries normalement utilisés pour indiquer la présence d'organismes pathogéniques. Puisque les métaux lourds n'étaient pas présents dans les eaux grises, ils n'ont pas étés testés dans les légumes. Les résultats ont indiqué un niveau élevé de bactéries indicateurs dans les eaux grises, mais la différence de contamination entre les légumes irrigués avec les eaux de robinet et ceux irrigués ave

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16

Mzini, Loyiso Lloyd. "The effects of greywater irrigation on vegetable crops and soil." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/6609.

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Research on greywater irrigation has mainly focused attention on the reuse of greywater in relation to its quality and crop biomass but not on quality of edible vegetable crops. Thus a field experiment was established at the Umtata Dam Research Station where combinations of cabbages and onions; spinaches and beetroots; and carrots and lettuce were planted in to coincide with four different planting seasons (from October 2009 to December 2010). Crops were irrigated with greywater generated from bathing and dishwashing. Greywater was collected from a number of households in the vicinity of the Umtata Dam, in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. In the field experiment, vegetables were planted in three plots of the same composition of soil properties and then drip irrigated separately either with greywater, potable water, or with diluted greywater at a ratio of 1:1. The greywater quality, yield, aesthetical appeal, plant chemical analysis and soil chemical analysis were measured. Irrigation from diluted greywater showed a significant increase in yield, in the head mass and in appeal of cabbages. Onion yields were significantly higher when irrigated with greywater. Spinach also obtained significantly higher yields when irrigated with greywater, however many leaves from this treatment were infested with leaf-spot disease. Beetroot yield and quality was not affected with greywater irrigation, instead yield was reduced by 47% (4.686 tons/ha). Carrots did not show any significant difference in yield and root girth, but carrots irrigated with potable water were more appealing and longer in length. Lettuce irrigated with dilute greywater was significantly more appealing than other treatments. Sodium (Na) ions were elevated in cabbage, onions and were significantly higher in the case of lettuce and carrots when irrigated with greywater. Crude protein (CP) was observed to be significantly elevated on cabbages and lettuce when irrigated with diluted greywater whereas CP of onions and carrots were significantly lower due greywater irrigation. Significant increases in iron (Fe) were observed on cabbages and spinach when irrigated with diluted greywater, whereas lettuce Fe content was significantly elevated by greywater irrigation. There was no significant difference in cadmium (Cd) caused by irrigating spinach and lettuce with greywater, also those heavy metals that were significantly higher, were within the accepted threshold leaving the conclusion that lower levels of heavy metals posed no health risks to humans. In conclusion, greywater used in this study does not appear to cause an accumulation of salts and heavy metals in plants and soil, which suggests in this instance, that greywater does not pose a threat to plants and soils.

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17

Radin, Mohamed Radin. "Environmental impacts of greywater use for irrigation on home gardens." Thesis, Radin Mohamed, Radin (2011) Environmental impacts of greywater use for irrigation on home gardens. PhD thesis, Murdoch University, 2011. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/8482/.

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This study focuses on the feasibility and environmental impacts of using raw domestic greywater from laundry and bathroom after only primary treatment, e.g. coarse filtration for irrigating lawns and gardens. The use of greywater for landscape irrigation requires careful management, especially in regions with sandy soils and shallow groundwater levels. There is the possibility that excessive nutrients and other contaminants will leach into surrounding water bodies. This has been a major concern with greywater use in ecologically sensitive environments, such as on the Swan Coastal Plain of Perth, Western Australia. Proper management is essential to ensure environmental risks from greywater irrigation are avoided. The main purpose of the first stage of the study was to develop a new zero-tension lysimeter (ZTL) as a leachate sampler in a greywater irrigation plot. The new ZTLs were tested to compare the quantity and quality of leachate collected with that from the conventional pan lysimeter, in a pilot-scale study. The results indicate that the new lysimeter designated as ZTL (N1), was effective at collecting leachate and was suitable to install at household sites. The lysimeter ZTL (N1) design offers significantly improved performance, was cost-effective and required limited effort to install using an auger, which also minimizes soil disturbance. Since the lysimeter was practical and inexpensive it was established to facilitate the monitoring of greywater irrigation. The second stage of the study was to monitor the use of primarily treated greywater by using diversion system from bathrooms and laundries at four Perth houses: two houses at the Bridgewater Lifestyle Village (BWLV), one each at White Gum Valley and Hamilton Hill. Each house had different characteristics: different house types, occupants, cleaning product preferences and presence, or not, of household pets. Water use activities, soil and vegetation were monitored and were sampled for physical and chemical characteristics. Groundwater samples at the BWLV site were also collected. This site has 389 houses with a greywater diversion system installed in each, is located close to the Peel-Harvey estuary and a wetland, and has a shallow aquifer. Monitoring results showed that the groundwater samples were within the ANZECC guidelines. Greywater quality showed high variability depending on water consumption by washing machines, use of detergents and fabric softeners, as well as individual lifestyles. Land activities such as fertilizers and pets were expected to contribute to high amounts of nutrients in the leachate. Mulching and fertilizer used by householders in conjunction with greywater irrigation improved the function of soil and condition of plants. The third stage of the study was to determine the effects of raw laundry and bathtub greywater irrigation on the growth of couch grass (Cynodon dactylon L.) sod on a sandy soil in a 24-week study, from October 2009 to March 2010. In Perth, the use of greywater is significant during these months as rainfall is at its lowest and irrigation demand at its highest. Couch grass is a common lawn used in Western Australia with excellent drought tolerance, water efficiency and relatively low maintenance requirements. Three irrigation treatments were applied using a modified aquarium tank: (i) 100% scheme water as a control (TW), (ii) untreated full cycle laundry water (LGW), (iii) untreated bathtub water (BGW). Salts and nutrients Na, Cl, P, Ca, Mg, K, B, Zn and Al were chosen for measuring because they are dominant constituents in greywater and have a beneficial role in turf grass growth. Their dynamics and mass balance were assessed by measuring the irrigation (input) and leachate (output) volumes and concentrations of element concentration in both input and output water of the tank. Irrigation using LGW and BGW in sand resulted significant leaching of some Mg and Al beyond the 30cm root-zone depth. The mass balance showed an increased amount of stored Na, Cl, P and K in the soil at the end of the study. The accumulation of salts and nutrients in the soil has resulted in the infiltration rate, K, gradually declining. The final stage of the study was to investigate further the significant reduction of K in the tank test. Another soil hydraulic property, capillary rise (Pc), was also measured. The soil samples were collected from greywater-irrigated plots at the case studies and the tank test, as mentioned previously. In addition, the study examined the changes in soil properties from the use of an anionic surfactant, linear alkylbenzene sulphonate (LAS) which is known to be the main ingredient in detergent formulation. A commercially available surfactant-based wetting agent to alleviate water repellency in household gardens was also considered. Irrigation with raw laundry and bathtub greywater, application of LAS and a wetting agent made a significant reduction on infiltration rate, K, and on Pc. At the case study sites, the changes were difficult to quantify owing to various land activities that influenced the result. The results of the extensive experimental on-site program indicated that the use of primarily treated greywater is a viable option to conserve water for irrigation during times of drought and water restrictions. The sustainable use of raw greywater would vary with specific site conditions and householder practices. Soil and plant quality parameters are significantly affected after continuous irrigation with greywater. This is mainly determined by the management regime of greywater irrigation and its composition. In addition, continuous irrigation with greywater may lead to accumulation of salts, plant nutrients and some nutrients beyond plant tolerance levels. Therefore, these concerns should be essential components of any management plan for greywater irrigation. On the other hand, plant growth, soil fertility and productivity can be enhanced with properly managed greywater irrigation, through increasing levels of plant nutrients and soil organic matter. It is suggested that proper management of greywater irrigation with periodic monitoring of soil fertility and quality parameters are required to ensure successful and safe long-term use of greywater for irrigation. The adequate assessment of any environmental risks will require further research.

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Meehan, Katharine. "Greywater and the grid: Explaining informal water use in Tijuana." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/194038.

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Cities in the global South are confronting unprecedented challenges to urban sustainability and equitable development, particularly in the realm of water provision. Nearly 1.5 billion people worldwide suffer from a lack of safe access to drinking water and sanitation -an increasing proportion of whom reside in cities. Meanwhile, in the gaps of the grid, a diversity of water harvesting and reuse techniques, infrastructures, and institutional arrangements has emerged to provision poor households. Despite the burgeoning presence of the informal water sector, little is known about its institutional character, environmental impact, or relationship with state provision and private supply. Drawing on qualitative and quantitative data collected during nearly 13 months of fieldwork in Tijuana, Mexico, this dissertation queries how informal water use is managed, whether informal water use constitutes an alternative economy and sustainable environmental practice, and to what degree informal water use redefines urban space and alternative development possibilities. Findings reveal that: 1) despite historical efforts in Mexico to federalize and centralize the control of water resources, state action opens 'gaps' in the hydrosocial cycle, and informal institutions manage these 'extralegal' spaces; 2) informal water use is widespread across socioeconomic levels in Tijuana, predominantly managed by household-based institutions, and conserves a surprising degree of municipal water; and 3) the spatiality of contemporary water infrastructures and economies is highly diverse-ranging from bottled water markets to non-capitalist, self-provisioning greywater reuse-and is in fact constitutive of 'splintered urbanism' and alternative modes of development.

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19

Castle, Danielle. "Greywater as a Method of Water Conservation in Arroyo Grande." DigitalCommons@CalPoly, 2010. https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/theses/352.

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The purpose of this professional project is to address the practical implications of decentralized greywater usage in the City of Arroyo Grande. This professional project consists of two products: a brief greywater guide for the City and a background report. The greywater guide is intended for city planners to use for general information about greywater systems. The guide addresses Arroyo Grande’s potable water shortage; what greywater is; advantages and concerns about greywater use; plants that are tolerant and intolerant of greywater irrigation; appropriate detergents to use with a greywater system; and a summary of California greywater law. The background report discusses the City of Arroyo Grande’s potable water conditions and how water supply will be affected by growth projections for 2030. It is estimated that by the year 2030, Arroyo Grande’s water demand will outgrow its water supply by 283 acre feet. Future water shortages are a concern at a local level and also on a global level. Three case studies examine how water scarcity has prompted the successful use of greywater. These studies examine the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan; the Casa del Agua project in Arizona; and a local study in Santa Barbara, California. The report concludes with California greywater law, and how the recent change in August, 2009 has greatly increased the legal accessibility of greywater reuse as an obtainable method of water conservation. In combination with education and outreach among city officials and residents, greywater has potential to play a main role in water conservation in Arroyo Grande.

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20

Okalebo, Susan, University of Western Sydney, of Science Technology and Environment College, and School of Engineering and Industrial Design. "Development and trial of a low-cost aerobic greywater treatment system." THESIS_CSTE_EID_Okalebo_S.xml, 2004. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/814.

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This study was undertaken to examine the feasibilty of a low-cost aerobic system to treat greywater for reuse.Its purpose was to provide a system that would be easy to maintain, flexible and be affordable for households and small communities in developing countries. This thesis outlines and evaluates the key biological and chemical hazards associated with greywater reuse. It discusses the performance of a variety of wastewater treatment options in use. It presents details of the components of the greywater system,namely, an aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter. Reference is made to the evaporation and treatment bed and ultraviolet disinfection components, but these are not examined. The incorporation of vermitechnology in the preliminary stages of the system for reduction of organics in greywater is reviewed. This study takes the traditional approach to water quality assessment with the measurement of physical, chemical and biological indicators. Assessment of the system involved examining the input characteristics of the greywater, monitoring the vermiculture system and sampling the liquid discharge from the aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter for analysis of the quality indicators. The results obtained under the framework of this study have provided recommendations for further use of the aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter, while propsing an approach for an appropriate long-term monitoring program. Master of Engineering (Hons)

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21

Thompson, Kyle A. "Evaluating Treatment Approaches for Sustainable Reuse of Greywater, Wastewater, and Stormwater." Thesis, University of Colorado at Boulder, 2018. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10792035.

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Water is becoming increasingly scarce; approximately 2 billion people currently live in annual water scarcity, and 3 to 4 billion people are expected to live in water scarcity by 2050 due to population growth alone. Therefore, there is need to determine suitable alternative drinking water sources. Alternative sources present different advantages in terms of supply, initial contamination, and variability. Different technologies may be most effective or sustainable for treating these alternative source waters depending on scale and application (e.g., toilet flushing, irrigation, or potable reuse). Previous reuse research has focused on biological treatment of greywater, passive treatment of stormwater, and reverse osmosis or advanced oxidation for wastewater effluent. The objectives of this dissertation were to (i) study the effectiveness of conventional drinking water treatment (CDWT) for potable reuse of alternative source waters and blends, (ii) compare the environmental sustainability of novel sorbents for micropollutant removal from wastewater effluent, (iii) develop an improved synthetic bathroom greywater that closes matches the characteristics and treatability of real bathroom greywater, and (iv) compare activated carbon and biochar for dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal from raw and pretreated greywater. Bench-scale experiments simulating CDWT achieved high turbidity removal in alternative source waters. Average maximum TOC removal with CDWT was 19%, 27% and 37% for greywater, wastewater effluent, and stormwater, respectively. However, no wastewater effluents and only one stormwater met drinking water regulations for disinfection byproduct formation control. Environmental sustainability was assessed using life cycle methodology. For micropollutant removal from wastewater effluent, wood-based biochar was more sustainable than activated carbon in most environmental impact categories. Higher adsorption capacity was associated with greater environmental benefits. A new synthetic bathroom greywater (SynGrey) was developed that closely matches the median characteristics of forty-nine real bathroom greywaters, and matched the treatability of real bathroom greywater in chlorination, biodegradation, and sorption. Five biochars were screened for greywater treatment, and activated carbon removed more DOC than the best biochar from raw, coagulated, aerated, and rainwater-blended greywater. This research will contribute to the selection and design of effective, sustainable treatment systems for potable and nonpotable reuse of alternative source waters.

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22

Kruger, E. M. "Grave expectations : participatory greywater management in two Western Cape shack settlements." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/8941.

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Includes bibliographical references (leaves 161-180). South Africa faces enormous challenges in the face of burgeoning urbanisation and the growth of underserviced shack settlements. Waste water disposal is but one of many aspects of basic services that are lacking. This anthropological dissertation is focused upon a Water Research Commission funded project, conducted by University of Cape Town academics from the departments of Civil Engineering, Social Anthropology and Environmental and Geographic Sciences, and carried out in two shack settlements in the Western Cape, South Africa. The project's aim was to engender community-level greywater management through participatory methods in the two shack settlements. The dissertation involves close analyses of participatory methods, the legislation and policy which governs service delivery to shack settlements in South Africa, and ethnographic accounts of shack settlement residents' experiences of service delivery. This information is compared with the assumptions upon which the project was predicated, to argue that the project's participatory aims were challenged from the outset by the political and socio-economic context within which the project was carried out. Moreover, in line with enduring criticisms of participatory development - in spite of a professed adherence to the methodologies - was unable to achieve its participatory goals.

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23

Okalebo, Susan. "Development and trial of a low-cost aerobic greywater treatment system." Thesis, View thesis, 2004. http://handle.uws.edu.au:8081/1959.7/814.

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This study was undertaken to examine the feasibilty of a low-cost aerobic system to treat greywater for reuse.Its purpose was to provide a system that would be easy to maintain, flexible and be affordable for households and small communities in developing countries. This thesis outlines and evaluates the key biological and chemical hazards associated with greywater reuse. It discusses the performance of a variety of wastewater treatment options in use. It presents details of the components of the greywater system,namely, an aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter. Reference is made to the evaporation and treatment bed and ultraviolet disinfection components, but these are not examined. The incorporation of vermitechnology in the preliminary stages of the system for reduction of organics in greywater is reviewed. This study takes the traditional approach to water quality assessment with the measurement of physical, chemical and biological indicators. Assessment of the system involved examining the input characteristics of the greywater, monitoring the vermiculture system and sampling the liquid discharge from the aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter for analysis of the quality indicators. The results obtained under the framework of this study have provided recommendations for further use of the aerobic grease trap and slow sand filter, while propsing an approach for an appropriate long-term monitoring program.

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24

Okalebo, Susan. "Development and trial of a low-cost aerobic greywater treatment system." View thesis, 2004. http://library.uws.edu.au/adt-NUWS/public/adt-NUWS20040618.154218/index.html.

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Thesis (M.Eng.) -- University of Western Sydney, 2004. A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Engineering at the University of Western Sydney. Includes bibliography.

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25

Ciuk, Karlsson Susanna. "Modeling of bark-, sand- and activated carbon filters for treatment of greywater." Thesis, Energi och Teknik, 2012. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-187078.

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ABSTRACT Modeling of bark-, sand- and activated carbon filters for treatment of greywater Susanna Ciuk Karlsson The part of the waste water produced in a household, originating from showers, dish - and wash water, is called greywater. It is possible to treat the greywater separately from the black water (toilet water) as it is less polluted and then use it for purposes such as garden irrigation. There are various methods for purifying greywater. Here, the possibility to purify greywater using three column filters with different materials (activated carbon, pine bark and sand) was examined through modeling in the computer program HYDRUS. A set-up with physical filters was available, where flow measurements were performed. These measurements were used to validate the model that was developed in HYDRUS. When a flow model had been produced that could replicate the measured flow, a module of HYDRUS was used to also model the reactive transport of nutrients and organic matter in the filters. The complete model was used for evaluation of the treatment performance of the filters during a default scenario where they were loaded with 1 liter of water per day containing pollutant concentration corresponding to typical greywater. REFERAT Modellering av bark-, sand- och kolfilter för rening av BDT-vatten Susanna Ciuk Karlsson I ett hushåll används vatten som då blir till avloppsvatten. Detta avloppsvatten består till stor del av bad, disk och tvättvatten (BDT-vatten). Det är möjligt att behandla BDT-vattnet separat från klosettvattnet då det är mindre förorenat, låta det genomgå rening och sedan använda det för till exempel bevattning av trädgårdar. Det finns olika metoder för att rena BDT-vatten. Här studerades möjligheterna att rena BDT-vatten med hjälp av tre filter av olika material; aktivt kol, tallbark och sand, genom modellering i datorprogrammet HYDRUS. En praktisk experimentuppsättning med filterkolonner fanns att tillgå, där ett experiment med flödesmätningar genomfördes. Mätningarna användes för att validera modellen som utvecklades i HYDRUS. Efter att en flödesmodell som stämde överrens med uppmätta värden utvecklats, modellerades reaktiv transport av näringsämnen och organiskt material i filtren med en modul tillhörandes HYDRUS. Med hjälp av modelleringen kunde filtertypernas reningsförmåga utvärderas för ett iscensatt standardscenario där filtrena belastades med 1 l vatten/dag innehållandes föroreningar motsvarandes ett typiskt gråvatten.

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26

Dixon, Andrew Martin. "Simulation of domestic water re-use systems : greywater and rainwater in combination." Thesis, Imperial College London, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10044/1/8134.

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Moslemi, Zadeh Sara. "Sustainability evaluation of shared greywater recycling in urban mixed-use regeneration areas." Thesis, University of Birmingham, 2013. http://etheses.bham.ac.uk//id/eprint/4672/.

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Greywater (GW) recycling for non-potable uses (e.g. urinal and toilet flushing) provides an urban water management strategy to help alleviate this risk by reducing mains water demands. The research described in this thesis proposes scenarios for an innovative cross-connected system that collects GW from residential buildings and recycles it for toilet/urinal flushing in both residential and office buildings. The capital cost (CAPEX), operational cost (OPEX), the carbon costs (embodied and operational), and water saving potential are calculated for individual block of residential and office buildings and shared GW recycling system between both building blocks in an urban mixed-use regeneration area in the UK assuming two different treatment processes; a membrane bioreactor (MBR) and a vertical flow constructed wetland (VFCW). The Net Present Value (NPV) method was used to compare the financial performance of each considered scenario from where it was found that over a 15 year period a shared GW recycling system (MBR) was the most economically viable option with an NPV of £213.11k and potable water savings of almost 27% (compared with mains water only system); 12% (compared with individual block GW recycling system). However, over the same time period it was shown that shared CW treatment had the lowest carbon emissions, saving up to 11% (compared to conventional mains supply), whereas a shared MBR increased carbon emissions by up to 27%. The sensitivity of this financial and emission model was assessed considering six parameters (i.e. water supply and sewerage charges, discount rate(s), electricity charges, service life, building description, user behaviour and improved technological efficiency).

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28

Garcia, Jose Daniel. "Characterization of greywater heat exchangers and the potential of implementation for energy savings." Thesis, KTH, Installations- och energisystem, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-191123.

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Buildings account for up to 32% of the total energy use in different countries. Directives from the European Union have pointed out the importance of increasing energy efficiency in buildings. New regulation in countries like Sweden establishes that new buildings should fulfill regulations of Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB), opening an opportunity for new technologies to achieve these goals. Almost 80-90% of the energy in domestic hot water use is wasted from different applications with almost no use and with a lot of potential energy to be recovered. The present work studied the characteristics of greywater heat exchanger as a solution to recuperate heat from greywater to increase efficiency in buildings. This study explored the fluid mechanics involved in the vertical greywater heat exchangers, analyzing the falling film effect present in drain pipes and the effects of the secondary flow generated in the external helical coil. A heat transfer model from a theoretical approach was proposed and validated. In addition, this study explored the different variables influencing the economic feasibility of the technology and an economic analysis was performed. A theoretical comparison between a greywater heat exchanger application and a reference case without it was evaluated highlighting the importance of all the variables involved in the potential of implementation of the technology. The technology shows big potential in households with high water consumptions, especially with electric boilers.

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29

COSTAMAGNA, ELISA. "Investigating green walls for greywater treatment and visualising enzymatic activity in constructed wetlands." Doctoral thesis, Politecnico di Torino, 2022. https://hdl.handle.net/11583/2972556.

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30

Hilmersson, Alvin, Fanny Norén, Alexander Ullén, and Lucas Wiik. "It Takes Water and Energy in a Block." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för teknikvetenskaper, 2016. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-295050.

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This report investigates sustainable solutions for electricity and water savings in an urban neighbourhood consisting of a block of buildings in Sege Park, Malmö. The solutions were evaluated in terms of sharing, producing, recycling and saving. The proposed solution includes a solar panel system on the available rooftop area for electricity production. Recycling and water savings includes collecting rainwater and reusing greywater for daily water demand in terms of flushing toilets, laundry and irrigation. Energy savings are achieved by using heat exchangers for space and water heating. Results from simulations in MATLAB and Excel showed that the electricity production reached a coverage ratioof 20% of the yearly consumption with hourly matching. However, the block has an excess electricity production, a total of 17,400 kWh, that does not correlate with the demand. Water demand for flushing toilets, laundering and irrigation during an average day can be matched by the reuse of greywater alone. Collection of rainwater is not required, although possible. The amount of reusable water, 18,540 litres a day, can cover the greywater need for three blocks equivalent to the one investigated. The conclusion is that water demand can be covered by greywater but electricity demand is too high for self-sustainability, even with the best solar panels available today.

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31

Corron, Ashley, and Ashley Corron. "Energy Generation with Greywater Reuse Systems: The Case of Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/622898.

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At the rate the population is growing it is important to find ways to be more efficient with the energy and water we use. The increase in population increases the need for electricity and water, but the way we are using our sources will not leave us with enough for future generations. The constant use of "dirty energy", energy that emits CO2 and other chemicals into the atmosphere, will continue to harm our environment. A new system is needed to help preserve water and produce green energy that will not harm the only earth we have.

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32

Nasello, Antonio. "Greywater source heat pump system for heating purposes in a newly built Dutch dwelling." Master's thesis, Alma Mater Studiorum - Università di Bologna, 2018.

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Around 15% of the thermal energy delivered to buildings is lost through the drain and ends up warming wastewater in the sewer system. A promising solution in reducing the energy consumption of buildings is to recuperate heat from wastewater and using it to produce space heating & domestic hot water by means of heat pumps. Wastewater source heat pumps (WWSHPs) have been largely discussed in existing literature, although a lack of scientific studies in small-scale applications such as detached dwelling has been noted. The purpose of this study is to design a wastewater source heat pump system able to satisfy both space heating & domestic hot water demands. The present work proposed a fully greywater source heat pump and a greywater-air dual source heat pump for heating purposes in a newly built Dutch dwelling. Ten different configurations have been modelled, evaluated, and finally compared to a fully air source heat pump. More specifically, the yearly performances were evaluated hour-by-hour taking into account the climate data from the Dutch reference year with the aid of CoolPack and Microsoft Excel. Methods for the COP enhancement have been proposed, the effects of the variations in size of the greywater storage tank have been evaluated, and the optimal control strategy has been found. Results in seasonal COP obtained from the fully greywater source heat pump systems are lower than the ones obtained from fully air heat pump systems. Instead, greywater-air dual source heat pumps perform better than fully air source heat pumps. On the other hand, the introduction of a secondary heat source would increase the cost and the complexity of the system. Nevertheless, several systems present, albeit slight, saving in energy consumption. In particular, up to 1.10 GJ per year can be saved developing this kind of heat pump system.

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Scheumann, René [Verfasser], and Matthias [Akademischer Betreuer] Kraume. "Greywater Treatment with a Submerged Membrane Sequencing Batch Reactor / René Scheumann. Betreuer: Matthias Kraume." Berlin : Technische Universität Berlin, 2010. http://d-nb.info/106825565X/34.

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Corron, Ashley. "Energy generation with greywater reuse systems| The case of organ pipe cactus national monument." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2017. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10252103.

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At the rate the population is growing it is important to find ways to be more efficient with the energy and water we use. The increase in population increases the need for electricity and water, but the way we are using our sources will not leave us with enough for future generations. The constant use of “dirty energy”, energy that emits CO2 and other chemicals into the atmosphere, will continue to harm our environment. A new system is needed to help preserve water and produce green energy that will not harm the only earth we have.

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35

Khalaphallah, Rafat. "Greywater treatment for reuse by slow sand filtration : study of pathogenic microorganisms and phage survival." Phd thesis, Ecole des Mines de Nantes, 2012. http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00735857.

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In recent decades, most countries of the world have experienced a shortage of water and increase its rate of consumption. Today, every country in the world are interested in this problem by trying to find alternatives to address this shortage. One solution is reuse greywater (GW) for irrigation after treatment. GW is all water generated from Household except toilet water. The risks associated with the reuse of these waters are the presence of pathogens that can infect humans, animals and plants. In this thesis focused on studying treatment by slow sand filtration and the survival of representatives of pathogens, such as E. Coli, P. aeruginosa , E. Faecalis and Bacteriophage MS2 which could be found in the greywater. The study factors was a physico-chemicals factors such as; temperature (6±2,23±2,42±2°c), salinity (1.75 and 3.5% Nacl), oxygen (aerobic and anaerobic condition), nutrient ( rich media , 50%: 50% salt and poor media ), light with photocatalysis ( UV and Visible lights) and slow sand filter (Egyptian desert sand and swimming pool sand). A combination of high temperature, sunlight and photocatlysis are mainly responsible for the rapid decline of bacteria and MS2 coliphage. Slow sand filter have clearly less influence on the survival of bacteria in the greywater, but it effective to decline turbidity and COD for short times.

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36

Skår, Ingrid Frogner. "Removal of Triclocarban (TCC) and Diethyl Phthalate (DEP) from Greywater by Adsorption onto Activated Carbon." Thesis, Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet, Institutt for vann- og miljøteknikk, 2014. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:no:ntnu:diva-24792.

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This Thesis is based on the findings from my specialization project, where an investigation of priority micropollutants in greywater from PCPs was conducted (Skår, 2013). The objective of the Master Thesis was to select two or three compounds from the list of priority compounds that was suitable for analyzing and monitoring in a greywater recycling scheme, and investigate the removal of those compounds with adsorption onto activated carbon. This was done by performing kinetic and isotherms study in greywater and pure water. An analytical method for detection and quantification in greywater had to be developed for the chosen compounds.

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37

Santillan, Steven Gabriel, and Steven Gabriel Santillan. "Creating Renewable Energy in a Residential High-Rise by Utilizing Greywater in a Hydropower Turbine." Thesis, The University of Arizona, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/620705.

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Across the world, it is becoming increasingly obvious that we must change the way we live as human beings. Our population is over seven billion, and the natural world simply cannot sustain this large of a population unless we learn to live within its means. Buildings, the structures that house us and provide us with shelter every day, are responsible for nearly half of the energy consumption across the United States (eai.gov, 2008). As cities continue to grow and available land diminishes, buildings will only get taller and consume even more energy. This energy requires vast amounts of water, so as our population grows, we are using more energy and more water, two of the most critical components of human prosperity. Renewable and sustainable energy production is now more of a reality than ever, especially as people become aware of the impending shortage of natural resources.I propose to offer a modified renewable energy source in a new environment. The use of hydropower turbines for renewable energy generation is something common to many places across the globe, but the use of hydropower turbines in a building is not. In this paper I propose a system that utilizes greywater from high-rise residential buildings to create energy with hydropower turbines at the base of the building. Calculations show the system can produce energy, but improvements and changes need to be considered for this to be a commercially viable renewable energy source.

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38

Muanda, Christophe. "Investigation of anaerobic up-flow batch reactor for treatment of greywater in un-sewered settlements." Thesis, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11838/1037.

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Masters Thesis Un-sewered settlements are provided with the basic water and sanitation systems that comprise, in most cases, of dry sanitation and standpipes. Substantial amounts of wastewater (including greywater) generated from households are discarded untreated into streets, open spaces between shacks, streams and rivers due to the lack of adequate disposal or treatment infrastructures. The negative impacts from unsafe disposal of greywater generated in un-sewered settlements affect both human health and the general environment. Several treatment technologies ranging from the simplest to the more sophisticated have been developed and made available for consideration to deal with the adverse impacts caused by the unsafe discharge of greywater. Some of these treatment technologies have been implemented successfully in certain developing countries worldwide. Amongst these is the anaerobic up-flow batch reactor (AnUBR) which was successfully used for the first time to treat greywater from sewered areas in Jordan, Lebanon and Sri Lanka. The AnUBR has emerged as a localised greywater treatment technology alternative to conventional treatment methods in areas not served by sewer networks. This technology holds promise because of its simplicity of design, high pollutant removal efficiency, absence of energy or chemical consumption, ease with which it can be implemented, cost effectiveness, and low operation and maintenance costs. This technology was originally developed for treating sewage and high strength greywater from hotels. Recently it was further pioneered by INWRDAM (Inter-Islamic Network on Water Resources Development and Management) in the treatment of greywater from sewered areas of developing countries. This technology has not been tested in un-sewered settlements of developing countries which are characterised by the lack of disposal infrastructures despite being suitable for tropical countries. This treatment system is able to produce effluent that meets the quality standard for discharge and irrigation. However, new applications of the AnUBR require further investigation in order to ascertain its feasibility and evaluate its performance in the un-sewered settlement context. Given the promising results reported for the AnUBR application for greywater treatment, this study aims to investigate the performance of the AnUBR as an alternative technology for the treatment of greywater generated in un-sewered settlements and its application in developing countries. A laboratory scale plant encompassing the AnUBR was designed, constructed and investigated using influent greywater collected from two selected case study settlements representing sewered and un-sewered areas. The plant was operated for 20 consecutives days using greywater from both selected sites separately. The influent greywater was analysed prior to feeding the plant and fed intermittently by batch as per designed feeding schedule. The performance of the AnUBR was evaluated mainly by analysing the quality of effluent produced, while the typical application was recommended based on the ability of the plant to produce effluent complying with local regulations and ability to treat greywater regardless of its source. The daily characteristics of influent greywater from both sites during the period of investigation were found to be as follows: temperature: 24 – 29ºC, pH: 7.1 – 7.2, TSS: 117.72 – 2,246.6mg/l, TN: 5.66 – 12.29mg/l, TP: 12.27 – 116.46mg/l, COD: 223.17 – 1,135.32mg/l, BOD5: 98.0 – 383.6mg/l, O&G: 52.22 – 475.29mg/l, e-coli: 8.87x104 – 2.17x107cfu/100ml, and Faecal coliform: 1.49x105 – 2.41x107cfu/100ml. The AnUBR managed to treat greywater to a quality that comply with the general standards for discharge into natural water resources. The final effluent showed a significant decrease in the level of pollutants from the initial values presented above to the following: temperature: 27 – 29 ºC, pH: 7.1 – 7.2, TSS: 5.12 – 12.82mg/l, TN 0.91 – 1.09mg/l, TP: 0.93 – 7.47mg/l, COD: 24.67 – 40.45mg/l, BOD5: 8.59 – 16.0mg/l, O&G: 1.15 – 1.72mg/l, e-coli: 213.3 – 1.12x103cfu/100ml, and Faecal coliform: 461.6 – 1.5x103cfu/100ml. Results obtained showed that the quality of influent greywater (from un-sewered settlements) is similar regardless of the water and sanitation technology. Following the operation of the AnUBR, significant removal of pollutants was observed in all processes. The overall removal efficiency averaged 80 to 95% for O&G and TSS respectively and 50 to 85% for TN and TP. The COD and BOD5 removal averaged 70 to 85% while that of micro-organisms averaged 90 to 99%. However, despite the high removal efficiency recorded the AnUBR may still require a post treatment step in order to improve the quality of effluent. It was concluded that the AnUBR is a viable alternative greywater treatment technology for un-sewered settlements, households or businesses such as hotels and restaurants. The AnUBR is able of treating high polluted greywater to effluent of quality that meets the standards for discharge or reuse provided a post treatment to ensure the complete killing of pathogenic organisms. The result of this study confirms the performance of the AnUBR for the treatment of greywater and provides an understanding of its concept as an alternative to conventional treatment and its application in un-sewered settlements based on local practical investigations.

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39

Carden, Kirsty. "Understanding the use and disposal of greywater in the non-sewered areas of South Africa." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/14591.

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Includes bibliographical references. There is currently a strong drive from the South African government to attain adequate water and sanitation coverage throughout the country as a basic level of service. To meet this requirement the majority of authorities in urban and rural areas are implementing on-site dry latrines (VIPs or similar) and 25 litres of potable water per capita per day (lied) within a 200m eartage distance. The connection of low-income settlements to municipal water sources has subsequently occurred on a massive scale, frequently without giving adequate attention to greywater management in those areas that are non-sewered. Recent estimates show that there are approximately 20 million people in South Africa (SA) without access to on-site waterborne sanitation (Statistics South Africa, 2005). In the absence of suitable conveyance systems, greywater is generally disposed of onto the ground outside the dwellings and the resulting total pollution load, particularly from densely populated settlements, has the potential to create a host of environmental and health impacts. It is likely that the problems related to the disposal and management of greywater will increase as basic water and sanitation services are attained and improved, and solutions are therefore required to circumvent this. This thesis describes the results of a two-year investigation into the use and disposal of greywater in the non-sewered areas of SA. The main aim of the research was to quantify the greywater problem and develop options for the management thereof, both in terms of reducing health and environmental risks by eliminating inappropriate disposal of greywater, as well as possibly providing benefits to some communities through controlled use. Greywater is deï¬ ned as the wastewater that is produced from household processes (e.g. washing dishes, laundry and bathing) without input from toilets. Non-sewered areas are deï¬ ned as those areas without on-site waterborne sanitation. On-site surveys of selected communities in six of the nine provinces of SA (39 sites in total) were conducted through the use of standardised questionnaires to assess current greywater management and recycling activities. The total volume of greywater currently being generated in the non-sewered areas of South Africa has been estimated by applying an average factor of 75% to the amount of water consumed per household and multiplying this with the number of non-sewered households in each province (using modiï¬ ed Census 2001 ï¬ gures). It is estimated that a total volume of just over 490,0O0m3 per day of grey-water is generated in non-sewered areas on a daily basis in SA. This amounts to approximately 180 million m3 per year - equivalent in volume to a medium sized dam such as Voelvlei near Cape Town, or approximately 50% of the current annual water demand of this city. This illustrates the relatively limited potential for the use of greywater from non-sewered areas as an alternative water resource at a country-wide scale, and suggests that the main beneï¬ ts from greywater use in these areas will be from irrigation at household level to supplement nutrition requirements. On the other hand, these ï¬ gures highlight the fact that greywater disposal in non-sewered areas is likely to result in signiï¬ cant health and environmental impacts, particularly in dense urban environments where large volumes of greywater are generated in relatively small areas. Limited water quality sampling of typical greywater and source water was undertaken during the surveys to try and get a general understanding of the overall quality of the greywater emanating from non-sewered areas, particularly in respect of its nutrient loading and oxygen demand. The results suggested that greywater is generally unï¬ t for use except under controlled conditions. In particular, not enough is known at present about the health challenges that may be faced by the use of greywater for the irrigation of food crops, and the management of any recycling practice is therefore crucial. Unrestricted use of greywater without education on the risks involved and supervision of the practice to ensure adherence to safety precautions is likely to increase the disease burden on those who can least afford it. The determination of typical volumes of greywater generated per hectare for non-sewered settlements and the likely impact of changes in service levels with respect to water supply have been calculated by using average water consumption data determined from on-site surveys and updated settlement data from Census 2001. A model has been developed in which greywater management options for non-sewered areas are determined by way of a series of rule-based ï¬‚ow diagrams which raise relevant questions for each of the criteria in order to assess various alternatives for greywater management and disposal. Two main outputs have therefore resulted from the research; one at a strategic level and the other at an implementation level. Recommendations have been made to assist government policy makers in the development of strategies for the management of greywater, and greywater management options have been identiï¬ ed so that communities and municipal planners can implement the solutions required to reduce any negative impacts.

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Assayed, Almoayied Khalil. "Development of a new and innovative greywater treatment technique for urban agriculture: drawer compacted sand filter." Thesis, University of Surrey, 2013. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.616951.

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Rapid urbanization in the developing world is one of the greatest challenges of the 21st century. Rates of urban poverty and food insecurity are increasing: whereas agricultural and urban water demand is exceeding supply leading to scarcity in many regions. Meanwhile, the speed of urban growth is outpacing the provision of water and sanitation infrastructure. This fact requires innovative interventions that could mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization. Urban agriculture is presented as one significant measure to increase the food self-reliance and improve the livelihood of urban inhabitants, patiicularly poor. Given that freshwater provision in cities of most developing countries is already below standard, covering the water requirements for urban agriculture has been extremely difficult. Greywater is seen as a good option for urban agriculture. Greywater is less polluted than blackwater, thereby; treatment of greywater to make it suitable for local-food production tends to be safer, easier and less controversial. This study developed and tested a new treatment method for grey water called the Drawer Compacted Sand Filter (DCSF). This is a modified sand filter design in which the sand filter is broken down into several layers approximately 10 cm high, each of which is placed in a movable drawer that is stacked veliically, with each drawer separated by 10 cm of space. This treatment unit is seeking to overcome the problems commonly found in traditional sand filter designs, such as clogging, emission of bad odours and need for a large land area to house the filter. The new design was proposed and developed to be suitable in urban communities and could produce good quality water that matches the requirements of food production in urban areas. The response of drawer sand filters to variable hydraulic and organic loading rates in terms of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD5), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Total suspended Solid (TSS), pH, Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Escherichia coli (E.coli) reductions was tested in laboratory under controlled conditions. Hydraulic Loading Rate (HLR) was studied by increasing it stepwise from 72 to 142 L m-2 day-l and Organic Loading Rate (OLR) was studied by increasing it fi'om 24 to 30 g BOD5 m-2 dail while keeping the HLR constant at 142 L m-2 day-I. Each loading regime was applied for 110 days. Results showed that DCSF was able to remove > 90% of organic matter and Total Suspended Solids for all doses. No significant difference was noticed in terms of overall filter efficiency between different loads for all parameters. Significant reduction in BOD5 and COD (P<0.05) was noticed after water drained through the third drawer in all tested loads. Based on the laboratory tests, nine pilot DCSF units were operated at different locations in Jordan during the period of 2011-2013. Composite water samples from the inlet and outlets of the DCSF over a period of 16 months were taken periodically and tested for BOD5, COD, TSS, pH, EC and E.coli. A socio-economic study was conducted to evaluate the validity and feasibility of the DCSF. The results showed that DCSF removed 78-96% ofBOD5 and COD and 98% of TSS and up to 6 logs reduction in E.coli. The socio-economic study and the costbenefit analysis showed that DCSF unit was a feasible and reliable treatment method for greywater with a very low land footprint and minimal maintenance requirements, thus making it suitable for a wide range of geographical settings. ii

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41

Komvuschara, Kanyarat. "UV disinfection in comparison with other small scale disinfection technologies for the treatment of domestic greywater." Thesis, University of Hertfordshire, 2002. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.247322.

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Ferguson, Jennifer L. "Substituting Residential Rainwater Harvesting and Greywater Reuse for Public Water Supply: Tools for Evaluating the Public Cost." DigitalCommons@CalPoly, 2009. https://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/theses/109.

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The intent of this project is to provide tools for public administrators to implement and evaluate the cost of an alternative on-site residential water supply using rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse in their jurisdiction. These tools are then applied to the city of San Luis Obispo (SLO), California as a case study to demonstrate how rainwater harvesting and greywater reuse could be implemented to supply all residential potable and non-potable water needs, completely replacing the current centralized publicly-managed water system. Further, energy and direct fiscal costs of the alternative system are compared with the current system. A cost analysis is crucial given that sustainability is heavily linked to appropriately valuing a resource and increasing the visibility of same to the public. Pursuing sustainable water supply options is particularly important given critical water shortages and the need to decouple the energy/water equation in pursuit of reducing energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. A decision tree and other tools were developed as part of this project for use by public administrators to determine the site-specific scope of an alternative residential water supply system. For example, a key question is the capacity of such a system to supply both potable and non-potable water needs. These tools were applied to single family (SF) residences in the case study city of SLO and resulted in an alternative residential system capable of completely substituting for public water supply. Implementation requires a major adjustment of indoor water demand from the SLO average of 55 gallons per capita per day (gpcd) to a ‘best practice’ water conservation mode of 27 gpcd, including a greywater reuse system for irrigation and toilet flushing. With demand held constant, the costs of the alternative on-site residential water supply system were then compared to the costs of the current centralized public water system for both the municipality and the consumer in SF residences in SLO. The public water supply costs were based on overall budgeted costs, including implementing a new project the city is partially financing for conveying Nacimiento Reservoir water to SLO. Consumer-billed costs include expected price increases proposed for the next year by the City largely due to the addition of the Nacimiento project. The volumetrically apportioned municipal water supply cost ($0.0049/gallon) is 37% lower than that billed to the consumer ($0.0078/gallon), but the wastewater processing cost for the City ($0.0125/gallon) is 39% greater than that billed to the consumer ($0.0076/gallon). Thus the combined water supply and wastewater processing costs for the City are only 4% greater than that billed to residential customers. It is notable that the City intends to significantly increase water prices billed to customers over the next several years which would shift the cost analysis in favor of the alternative system. The alternative system costs were based on operating costs (such as electricity) and the cost of the installed components of the system averaged yearly according to the life of the parts (10-50 years). The municipal cost for water supply ($0.0049/gallon) was 55% less than the cost for the alternative system ($0.0111/gallon), but the cost savings of wastewater processing using the alternative system ($0.0086/gallon) is 31% less than the municipal cost ($0.0125/gallon). The alternative systems savings are mostly a result of on-site greywater reuse for irrigation and indicate the scope of the immediate fiscal benefit to the municipality to substitute residential greywater systems for current public wastewater services. To calculate the overall cost difference in terms of both water supply and wastewater costs, the total costs used are as if all SF residences in SLO used the system. Overall, the municipal costs for combined water supply and wastewater processing ($4,137,598/yr) were 20% less than the alternative decentralized on-site system ($5,376,735/yr). The cost to the consumer for current water supply through the public water system ($0.0078/gallon) is 29% lower than the proposed alternative system ($0.0111/gallon). The wastewater processing cost to the consumer ($0.0076) is also 11% less than that of the alternative system ($0.0086/gallon). On this basis, the consumer cost using expected billing rates ($4,137,598) is 23% lower using the public water system than the cost of the alternative system ($5,376,735). Expected water and sewer rate increases may skew these results in favour of the alternative system where it is viable for the consumer to completely replace their water system and remove their household off the public water system to their financial benefit. The overall energy for water supply and wastewater processing used by the public water system was 34% lower (1,216,849 kWh/yr) than the alternative system (1,855,894 kWh/yr). The alternative on-site system’s electrically-driven pump is mostly responsible for this energy use and could be virtually eliminated by using gravity feed, as is common in many parts of the world currently using rainwater harvesting technology. Solar energy is also an effective solution to eliminate fossil-fuel based electricity. From a fiscal perspective, the alternative system costs are inflated given that an expected drop in supply cost would likely ensue with the economies of scale gained if an entire city was purchasing equipment for the alternative systems. This could override the results of the study showing the alternative system’s 20-23% higher fiscal cost than current public water system. Considering the ‘no fossil-fuel’ energy alternatives and the expected significant drop in supply cost with large scale purchasing, the alternative system provides a promising alternative residential water supply for SLO.

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43

Monk, Emma. "The removal of phosphorus and faecal coliforms from greywater using a sandy soil, bauxite residue, and humus." Thesis, Monk, Emma (1995) The removal of phosphorus and faecal coliforms from greywater using a sandy soil, bauxite residue, and humus. Honours thesis, Murdoch University, 1995. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/38383/.

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Of the total amount of domestic potable water used in Perth, 43% is used for irrigation (MWA, 1985). Some people have suggested the reuse of greywater to reduce the use of potable water. Greywater is wastewater that originates from bathroom and laundry sinks, showers, and in some cases, the kitchen sink (Rose et al., 1987). A community garden project in South Fremantle called King William Park (KWP) was begun in 1994. Part of the project involves the sub-surface irrigation of two areas in the park by greywater from two nearby houses. My project therefore involved assessing the environmental and health impacts of the greywater reuse at the park and to obtain information that could be used in other greywater reuse systems. The first part of the project involved the characterisation of the greywater for certain chemical and biological parameters (EC, pH, TSS, BOD, P04-P, T-P, N03-N02, K-N, T-N and faecal coliforms). The reviewed literature and the characterisation showed that greywater is not the harmless product which many people believe it to be. In particular, phosphorus (P) and faecal coliform (FC) levels are very high. The second part of the project involved the use of soil columns containing the sandy soil from KWP, the 85% red sand/15% red mud (with 5% of the red mud being gypsum) (RS-M) used in one irrigation field in KWP, and a humus (the second irrigation field contains organic matter which will form a humus in the future). Greywater was applied to the columns and tested for EC, pH, flow rate, P and FC. The EC and pH levels of the effluent from all three soil types should not pose environmental problems for nearby waterbodies. The flow rate was reduced when greywater was added to the columns and to soil containing finer particles (RS-M). The sandy soil had minimal P removal capacity and would result in the pollution of waterbodies if used as an irrigation field. The RS-M had excellent P removal capacity and would not result in the pollution of waterbodies. The humus added P to the effluent and could not be used as an irrigation field. The sandy soil and the RS-M mix reduced FC numbers in the greywater, and the humus often added FC's to the effluent. However, the FC numbers remaining in the effluent from all three soils was much higher than the standards for above-ground irrigation. Although, no solid conclusions could be drawn about the FC removal capacities of the sandy soil and the RS-M until longer soil columns are used. A batch P sorption experiment was conducted using the RS-M. This test underestimated the P removal capacity of the soil when compared to the column experiment.

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44

Evans, Ceri. "Greywater reuse: An assessment of the scheme water savings that can be achieved at a household scale." Thesis, Evans, Ceri (2009) Greywater reuse: An assessment of the scheme water savings that can be achieved at a household scale. Honours thesis, Murdoch University, 2009. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/40800/.

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In Perth, domestic irrigation constitutes over 50% of the total urban scheme water demand and at a time when urban water resources are diminishing, greywater reuse has the potential to enable significant reductions in scheme water consumption to be achieved. Greywater technology has been slow on the uptake in Western Australia as there has been greater focus from State government and Water Corporation on large scale water supply augmentation, such as seawater desalination. Some debate exists as to how useful greywater reuse can be in contributing to scheme water savings as limited studies have been carried out which collect real data. Monitoring was carried out at 9 case studies in the Perth Metropolitan area between 1st October 2008 and 31st March 2009. Water meters and data loggers were installed to monitor scheme water input, rainwater input (if applicable), greywater output, and exterior tap consumption. The objective of the study was to determine the scheme water savings that could be achieved through greywater reuse and to investigate factors that influence the level of savings. The factors investigated were: the volume of greywater generated, greywater technology and system, and irrigation as the end use application. Scheme water savings ranged from 9% - 37% across the case studies. Each of the factors investigated influenced the level of savings achieved, however those of most significant impact were: 1) an irrigation and landscape design that was in balance with the volume of greywater generated; 2) correct system maintenance; and 3) connection of both bathroom and laundry fixtures to the greywater system. Greywater reuse provides an opportunity for domestic scheme water consumption to be reduced, however for this opportunity to be fully realized, further guidance is required to enable homeowners to design an effective system. For greywater reuse to become an effective water conservation tool, modifications to the Code of Practice for Reuse of Greywater in WA, are required, to extend beyond safe disposal of greywater. Recommendations include incorporation of a site specific analysis to enable irrigation demand through calculation of plant water requirements to be balanced with estimated greywater volumes. This would increase the beneficial use of greywater and enable maximum scheme water savings to be achieved.

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45

au, S. Dallas@murdoch edu, and Stewart Dallas. "Reedbeds for the treatment of greywater as an application of ecological sanitation in rural Costa Rica, Central America." Murdoch University, 2005. http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/view/adt-MU20060505.100927.

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The widespread practice in Latin America of separating greywater from blackwater at the domestic level lends itself to the application of Ecological Sanitation, or Ecosan. In this research simple, low-cost subsurface flow wetlands, or reedbeds, were investigated not only for their potential in treating the greywater component but also to evaluate their acceptance as an appropriate Ecosan technology in rural Central America. The hypothesis for this thesis is that Ecological Sanitation, namely via reedbeds for the treatment of greywater can improve sanitation in rural Central America. The first aim of this research determined that untreated greywater was having a significant negative impact on the water quality of the local streams of Monteverde in Costa Rica (the site of this research) and that the associated public health risks will continue to increase in line with population growth. Local residents expressed strong dissatisfaction with the current situation and were supportive of any means to improve it. The second aim of this research was to determine if reedbeds designed according to the principles of Ecosan could provide a healthier, affordable and more sustainable sanitation alternative suitable for rural areas. As a result five case study reedbed systems were designed and installed. All these reedbeds made use of locally available materials and incorporated low-maintenance design features, and research with a local plant species determined a robust macrophyte suitable for use in these systems. The ability of low-cost reedbed systems to successfully treat greywater was demonstrated. The Costa Rican guidelines for wastewater reuse were found to be overly restrictive in regards to fecal coliform limits (<1,000cfu/100mL) and may inhibit the wider uptake of reedbed systems if enforced. Despite this the uptake of the reedbed technology was strong and more than ten systems were installed in Costa Rica as a result of this research. An innovative environmental services contract, the first of its kind in Costa Rica, was developed to ensure on going funding for operation and maintenance of a four-household reedbed system. The third aim was to specifically investigate the use of waste plastic (PET) bottle segments as an alternative media in reedbeds to conventional crushed rock, or gravel. Twelve mini-reedbeds, or cells, incorporating PET media and plants as the two variables, were monitored through wet and dry seasons. This experiment demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating PET segments were able to achieve comparable removal of fecal coliform and BOD when compared to conventional media reedbeds, and at a significantly reduced cost. The local plant species Coix lacryma-jobi enhanced the performance of all reedbeds, most notably in the PET-based reedbeds, which was attributed to the considerably greater root biomass achieved in these systems as compared to conventional media systems. This research has demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating simple, low-maintenance design features are able to provide an affordable and appropriate technology for the treatment of greywater in rural Latin America.

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46

Dallas, Stewart C. "Reedbeds for the treatment of greywater as an application of ecological sanitation in rural Costa Rica, Central America /." Access via Murdoch University Digital Theses Project, 2005. http://wwwlib.murdoch.edu.au/adt/browse/view/adt-MU20060505.100927.

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47

Van, Der Walt Johannes Tinus. "Development of a sustainability index for South African dwellings incorporating green roofs, rainwater harvesting and greywater re-use." Thesis, Stellenbosch : Stellenbosch University, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10019.1/20138.

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Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South African water service providers experience major problems with providing adequate water services to consumers. Water service providers in South African urban areas rely on traditional centralised infrastructure, such as bulk supply networks, to provide water services. Alternative supply and stormwater drainage methods should be encouraged to help mitigate these problems. The researcher thus aims to quantify the potential impact that three alternative methods may have on a given dwelling in terms of its dependence on traditional bulk water services. The three alternatives considered in this thesis are the construction of green roofs, rainwater harvesting and greywater re-use. An efficiency of dwelling water use index (EDWI) was developed during this research project. It was designed in such a way as to show what portion of municipal water services could be replaced within the given dwelling by using the proposed techniques. The final EDWI-rating is obtained by using the EDWI-software tool developed as a part of this research. The derived EDWI-rating ranges from 0 to 100, with a rating of 100 indicating a dwelling requiring only the removal of a portion of sewage by a municipality, but no external water supply. Such a dwelling would also not require any water from a municipal network to meet domestic demand and all stormwater from its roof would be utilised within the plot boundaries. Results presented in this thesis illustrate how different geographical regions require different system specifications to obtain optimal EDWI-ratings, thereby lowering their dependence on the respective municipal water services. Validation of the EDWI-system proved difficult as no similar index could be found during the literature review. It was therefore decided to benchmark the EDWI-system using three model dwellings with nine configurations producing a total of 27 analyses. The EDWI-system provides a conceptual foundation for sustainable water services to South African households in serviced urban areas. Future work could further improve the EDWI-system by testing its practical application so that it may be extended to act as a national barometer, used to compare decentralised water services in terms of sustainability. AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING:Suid-Afrikaanse waterdiensverskaffers ondervind groot probleme met die voorsiening van voldoende waterdienste aan verbruikers. Waterdiensverskaffers in Suid-Afrikaanse stedelike gebiede maak staat op tradisionele gesentraliseerde infrastruktuur, soos grootmaatvoorsienings netwerke, om waterdienste te verskaf. Alternatiewe voorsienings- en stormwater dreineringsmetodes moet aangemoedig word om hierdie probleme aan te spreek. Die studie poog dus om die potensiële impak wat drie alternatiewe moontlikhede kan hê op 'n gegewe woning in terme van sy afhanklikheid van die tradisionele waterdienste te kwantifiseer. Die drie alternatiewe moontlikhede wat in hierdie studie ingesluit word is die konstruksie van groendakke, reënwater oes en grys water hergebruik. 'n Huishoudelike water gebruik doeltreffendheids indeks (EDWI) is ontwikkel gedurende hierdie navorsingsprojek. Die indeks is ontwerp om aan te dui watter gedeelte van munisipale waterdienste deur die voorgestelde tegnieke vervang kan word. Die finale EDWI-gradering is verkry deur gebruik te maak van die EDWI-programmatuur wat ontwikkel is gedurende die navorsing. Die afgeleide EDWI- gradering wissel tussen 0 en 100, met 'n telling van 100 wat ‘n woning voorstel wat slegs die verwydering van 'n gedeelte van die riool deur die munisipaliteit vereis, maar wat geen eksterne watervoorsiening benodig nie. So 'n woning vereis dus geen water van ‗n munisipale netwerk nie, en alle stormwater van die dak word binne die erf gebruik. Resultate wat in hierdie studie voorgelê word illustreer hoe verskillende geografiese streke ander stelsel spesifikasies vereis om optimale EDWI-gradering te verkry. Die navorser kon geen indeks kry wat soortgelyk is aan die EDWI-stelsel om dit mee te vergelyk nie. Dit was gevolglik besluit om die indeks te standardiseer deur gebruik te maak van drie model huise met nege samestellings van alternatiewe, waardeur 27 ontledings ontwikkel was. Die EDWI-stelsel bied 'n konseptuele grondslag vir volhoubare waterdienste vir Suid-Afrikaanse huishoudings in gedienste stedelike gebiede. Toekomstige navorsing kan die EDWI-stelsel verder verbeter deur die praktiese toepassing te toets. Die stelsel kan uitgebrei word om ‗n nationale barometer vorm wat gebruik kan word om desentralisasie van waterdienste te meet in konteks van volhoubaarheid.

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48

Dallas, Stewart. "Reedbeds for the treatment of greywater as an application of ecological sanitation in rural Costa Rica, Central America." Thesis, Dallas, Stewart ORCID: 0000-0003-4379-1482 (2005) Reedbeds for the treatment of greywater as an application of ecological sanitation in rural Costa Rica, Central America. PhD thesis, Murdoch University, 2005. https://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/33/.

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The widespread practice in Latin America of separating greywater from blackwater at the domestic level lends itself to the application of Ecological Sanitation, or Ecosan. In this research simple, low-cost subsurface flow wetlands, or reedbeds, were investigated not only for their potential in treating the greywater component but also to evaluate their acceptance as an appropriate Ecosan technology in rural Central America. The hypothesis for this thesis is that Ecological Sanitation, namely via reedbeds for the treatment of greywater can improve sanitation in rural Central America. The first aim of this research determined that untreated greywater was having a significant negative impact on the water quality of the local streams of Monteverde in Costa Rica (the site of this research) and that the associated public health risks will continue to increase in line with population growth. Local residents expressed strong dissatisfaction with the current situation and were supportive of any means to improve it. The second aim of this research was to determine if reedbeds designed according to the principles of Ecosan could provide a healthier, affordable and more sustainable sanitation alternative suitable for rural areas. As a result five case study reedbed systems were designed and installed. All these reedbeds made use of locally available materials and incorporated low-maintenance design features, and research with a local plant species determined a robust macrophyte suitable for use in these systems. The ability of low-cost reedbed systems to successfully treat greywater was demonstrated. The Costa Rican guidelines for wastewater reuse were found to be overly restrictive in regards to fecal coliform limits (> <1,000cfu/100mL) and may inhibit the wider uptake of reedbed systems if enforced. Despite this the uptake of the reedbed technology was strong and more than ten systems were installed in Costa Rica as a result of this research. An innovative environmental services contract, the first of its kind in Costa Rica, was developed to ensure on going funding for operation and maintenance of a four-household reedbed system. The third aim was to specifically investigate the use of waste plastic (PET) bottle segments as an alternative media in reedbeds to conventional crushed rock, or gravel. Twelve mini-reedbeds, or cells, incorporating PET media and plants as the two variables, were monitored through wet and dry seasons. This experiment demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating PET segments were able to achieve comparable removal of fecal coliform and BOD when compared to conventional media reedbeds, and at a significantly reduced cost. The local plant species Coix lacryma-jobi enhanced the performance of all reedbeds, most notably in the PET-based reedbeds, which was attributed to the considerably greater root biomass achieved in these systems as compared to conventional media systems. This research has demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating simple, low-maintenance design features are able to provide an affordable and appropriate technology for the treatment of greywater in rural Latin America.

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49

Dallas, Stewart. "Reedbeds for the treatment of greywater as an application of ecological sanitation in rural Costa Rica, Central America." Dallas, Stewart (2005) Reedbeds for the treatment of greywater as an application of ecological sanitation in rural Costa Rica, Central America. PhD thesis, Murdoch University, 2005. http://researchrepository.murdoch.edu.au/33/.

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The widespread practice in Latin America of separating greywater from blackwater at the domestic level lends itself to the application of Ecological Sanitation, or Ecosan. In this research simple, low-cost subsurface flow wetlands, or reedbeds, were investigated not only for their potential in treating the greywater component but also to evaluate their acceptance as an appropriate Ecosan technology in rural Central America. The hypothesis for this thesis is that Ecological Sanitation, namely via reedbeds for the treatment of greywater can improve sanitation in rural Central America. The first aim of this research determined that untreated greywater was having a significant negative impact on the water quality of the local streams of Monteverde in Costa Rica (the site of this research) and that the associated public health risks will continue to increase in line with population growth. Local residents expressed strong dissatisfaction with the current situation and were supportive of any means to improve it. The second aim of this research was to determine if reedbeds designed according to the principles of Ecosan could provide a healthier, affordable and more sustainable sanitation alternative suitable for rural areas. As a result five case study reedbed systems were designed and installed. All these reedbeds made use of locally available materials and incorporated low-maintenance design features, and research with a local plant species determined a robust macrophyte suitable for use in these systems. The ability of low-cost reedbed systems to successfully treat greywater was demonstrated. The Costa Rican guidelines for wastewater reuse were found to be overly restrictive in regards to fecal coliform limits (> <1,000cfu/100mL) and may inhibit the wider uptake of reedbed systems if enforced. Despite this the uptake of the reedbed technology was strong and more than ten systems were installed in Costa Rica as a result of this research. An innovative environmental services contract, the first of its kind in Costa Rica, was developed to ensure on going funding for operation and maintenance of a four-household reedbed system. The third aim was to specifically investigate the use of waste plastic (PET) bottle segments as an alternative media in reedbeds to conventional crushed rock, or gravel. Twelve mini-reedbeds, or cells, incorporating PET media and plants as the two variables, were monitored through wet and dry seasons. This experiment demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating PET segments were able to achieve comparable removal of fecal coliform and BOD when compared to conventional media reedbeds, and at a significantly reduced cost. The local plant species Coix lacryma-jobi enhanced the performance of all reedbeds, most notably in the PET-based reedbeds, which was attributed to the considerably greater root biomass achieved in these systems as compared to conventional media systems. This research has demonstrated that reedbeds incorporating simple, low-maintenance design features are able to provide an affordable and appropriate technology for the treatment of greywater in rural Latin America.

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50

Surendran, Sundaralingam S. "The development of an in house greywater and roof water reclamation system for large institutions during 1994 to 1998." Thesis, Loughborough University, 2001. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/6894.

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For sustainable water management, here is a necessity to consider alternatives, in addition to conventional systems. The aim of this research is to develop and demonstrate a sustainables, from and greywater reclamation system for WC flushing and it was started in 1994. In the UK there are no water quality standards for WC flushing water use. There were no design guidelines for greywater water reclamation and no published study on the supply-dernandb alance, in detail, for water recycling in institutions such as universities. The research has shown the feasibility of planned direct grey and storm water reclamation and recycling system to manage growing water and wastewater problems. This thesis is based on the information gathered from 4 universities, 3 hotels and 3 recreational centres, and experiences gained at Loughborough University during the development and demonstration of the full scale "in-house grey and roof water" reclamation and recycling systems. The water use, greywater quality and roof water characteristics were studied in detail and this information was used for the development of the reclamation and recycling system. The studies showed that the water usage at the university halls were not similar to usage in households. Unlike large water supply schemes, small in-house systems generate a large peak factor for water use. To avoid deficit, in addition to personal washing waters, a top-up of laundry wastewater or roof water, and a well-designed balancing tank is necessary. The demonstration study shows that there was no standby mains' water used, which means that the water reclaimed was sufficient for reuse. The quality characterisation study shows that the greywater and first flush storm water roof runoff were polluted. The characteristics of combined grey and roof water are suitable for biological treatment. Based on the infomation, a lab-scale unit was developed; the reactor characteristics and performance such as head losses and removal efficiency were monitored; and the unit was refined. Two novel multi-barrier reclamation systems were developed to achieve sufficient quantity and near potable quality of water with minimum maintenance and cost. During 1997 the grey and roof water recycling system with laboratory tested physical and biological reclamation processes without the use of coagulants and disinfection were installed. The performance of the treatment system was closely monitored until 1998. This provided benefits in near potable quality of reclaimed water, low head loss, reliability, failure free operation and simple maintenance. The reclaimed effluent from Project I and 2 met the UK/EU bathing water standards and was also able to meet the US EPA standards for WC flushing. The microbial (using coliform as an indicators) quality of reclaimed water without disinfection is acceptable for controlled recycling systems (carefully monitored and fully informed). There were no odour problems in the treated water or sludge blockages. Comparatively, Project I was more efficient at removing coliform, turbidity, solids (suspended, dissolved, volatile), and Project 2 better at removing carbon (organic and inorganic). A simple cost benefit analysis done for the recycling system at Royce Hall of Residence showed 10 years pay back. More detailed cost-benefit analysis including comparisons of new built and retrofit recycling system and fife cycle analysis are recommended. This study shows that most of the people questioned were accepted and were willing to consider using the recycling system for toilet flushing, if the water was clear, colourless, odour free, carried no risk and gave cost-benefits. During the demonstration stage the users willingly accepted non-potable grey water reuse.

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