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Costa, Roger Vinícius da Silva. "Suicide: “intentional” act of killing oneself? A review of nineteen theoretical arguments and fifty-eight definitions in seven natural languages". Scripta 26, n.º 57 (21 de noviembre de 2022): 101–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5752/p.2358-3428.2022v26n57p101-134.
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Perhaps intentionality is the most problematic category in the definition of suicide, however there still seems to be no literature review of relevant theoretical arguments and main dictionaries of different languages. Given this situation, the general objective of this study was to understand how to treat the category of intentionality in the definition of suicide. A qualitative, quantitative, exploratory and bibliographic methodology was used. A narrative review based on 27 authors from different areas included 19 theoretical arguments, organized on a matrix. 7 arguments are applicable in defense of the thesis that suicide is intentional, another 7 to defend the opposite thesis that this phenomenon is not intentional and the remaining 5 apparently in favor of either of the two. Moving forward to an integrative review guided by 8 criteria, 58 definitions of noun and/or verb were extracted from 36 monolingual, digital dictionaries of Portuguese, Spanish, English, French, Italian, German and Russian. 72.22% of the selected dictionaries refer to suicide as intentional, and 27.78%, including all Portuguese ones, do not characterize it as such. In the first group, intentionality was referred mostly by lexical items equivalent to “intentional”, “voluntary” and “deliberate”, as well as adverbs based on them. The conclusion is that it is not feasible to include intentionality in the definition of suicide, because academic and lexicographic sources lack consensus. It is recommended to overcome the qualitative and quantitative limitations of this study, as well as to consult more than one definition of suicide and in different languages.
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Mondonico-Torri, Cécile. "Les réfugiés en France sous la Monarchie de Juillet : l'impossible statut". Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 47, n.º 4 (2000): 731–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/rhmc.2000.2042.
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The years from 1830 to 1848 constitute a turning point in the history of political asylum in France. During this period, for the first time ever, the political authorities were obliged to reflect on asylum and to establish a large-scale policy in order to cope with the arrival of almost 20,000 Polish, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and German refugees. The impossibility of defining this section of the population in conformity with juridical criteria or with well established frontiers is clearly reflected in the dictionaries of the French language, in the debates in the parliamentary assemblies as well as in the legislation adopted and its inapplicability. In view of the absence of a definition of a refugee, could the asylum policy under the July Monarchy be perceived as if it were based on law ? Wouldn't it be more accurate to argue that what prevailed should rather be defined as charitable measures ? This article aims at answering these questions and thereby understanding the nature of the principles that governed the treatment of refugees in France in this period.
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Billero, Riccardo y María Carlota Nicolás Martínez. "Nuove risorse per la ricerca del lessico del patrimonio culturale: corpora multilingue LBC". CHIMERA: Revista de Corpus de Lenguas Romances y Estudios Lingüísticos 4, n.º 2 (20 de febrero de 2018): 203–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.15366/chimera2017.4.2.003.
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As a result of the wealth of artistic expression that Italy has produced over the centuries, the Italian cultural heritage lexicon has become a crucial object of interest for scholars of varied disciplines. However, while monolingual art dictionaries are currently available, there are no multilingual tools that offer the same level of quality and comprehensiveness. The present work moves in that direction. In particular, the aim of this paper is to describe the work done to date in designing and implementing the LBC database, a resource for constructing a multilingual art dictionary in nine languages (Chinese, French, English, German, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish and Turkish). This database, made up of nine corresponding corpora, will contain texts whose subject is cultural heritage, ranging from technical texts on art history to books on art appreciation, such as tour guides, and, lastly, travel books highlighting Italian art and culture. Below is a summary of the decisions taken during the work process and the challenges that lie ahead for its future development.
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Orlando, Maximiliano Eduardo. "A comparative analysis of online English language dictionaries and online Portuguese language dictionaries from the perspective of learning Portuguese as a foreign language". DIGILEC: Revista Internacional de Lenguas y Culturas 10 (23 de octubre de 2023): 74–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.17979/digilec.2023.10.0.9886.
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There are studies that have analysed Portuguese language dictionaries and that have highlighted the importance of the presence of examples in dictionaries (Santiago, 2012; Lu, 2018). Owing to this importance, it was decided to compare the frequencies of examples of two sets of words, namely, contrastive words and verbs that may convey recommendation or advice. These frequencies were obtained from a sample of the main body of Portuguese language dictionaries that are available online and from a sample of the main body of online English language dictionaries that have an orientation towards learning English as a foreign language. This comparison was carried out by using a search bar and a software application created by the author. From the analyses of the data which had been collected, it was argued that, in some cases, learners of Portuguese as a foreign language would have to make use of other sources of examples to learn to use the target words. On the other hand, in similar cases, the need to use sources of examples apart from those presented in the main body of the target English language dictionaries, while learning the English language, could be reduced. The pedagogical implications of this argument for learning and teaching Portuguese as a foreign language were presented. The limitations of the present study and future research possibilities were also discussed.
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Sadivakasovna, Rahimova Shaxlo. "DESCRIPTION OF GERMAN LANGUAGE DICTIONARIES". European International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Management Studies 4, n.º 4 (1 de abril de 2024): 179–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.55640/eijmrms-04-04-28.
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The functioning of language is associated with the disappearance of certain words, with the emergence of new ones, with the change in the meaning or stylistic status of words. Each of the ways of developing the vocabulary of the German language has its own characteristics. The paper draws attention to these features. The paper describes verbal neoplasms not registered in dictionaries until the middle of the 20th century, selected from the texts of the German newspapers “Süddeutsche Zeitung”, “Frankfurter Allgemeine”, “Der Spiegel”, “Joe”, “Alles für die Frau”, “GEO” and others. The study considers the linguistic material of some dictionaries published in the second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, including dictionaries of colloquial youth vocabulary. So, the main idea of this article is to highlight the peculiarities of word formation in German linguistics through the history.
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Sadivakasovna, Rahimova Shaxlo. "DESCRIPTION OF GERMAN LANGUAGE DICTIONARIES". European International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Management Studies 4, n.º 4 (1 de abril de 2024): 183–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.55640/eijmrms-04-04-29.
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The paper defines the ways and peculiarities of word formation in modern German language. The paper deals with one of theways of enriching the verb vocabulary in the modern German language, in particular wordbuilding. In the result of the analysis of the language material, the most productive models and means of the word-building of the verbs are emphasized including word-building models borrowed from other languages. The vocabulary of the language, being a system, is in constant motion. The functioning of language is associated with the disappearance of certain words, with the emergence of new ones, with the change in the meaning or stylistic status of words. Each of the ways of developing the vocabulary of the German language has its own characteristics. The paper draws attention to these features. The paper describes verbal neoplasms not registered in dictionaries until the middle of the 20th century, selected from the texts of the German newspapers “Süddeutsche Zeitung”, “Frankfurter Allgemeine”, “Der Spiegel”, “Joe”, “Alles für die Frau”, “GEO” and others. The study considers the linguistic material of some dictionaries published in the second half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, including dictionaries of colloquial youth vocabulary. So, the main idea of this article is to highlight the peculiarities of word formation in German linguistics through the history.
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Alves, Ieda Maria y Bruno Oliveira Maroneze. "The presence of Brazilian neologisms in dictionaries". International Journal of Lexicography 34, n.º 3 (7 de junio de 2021): 315–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecab011.
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Abstract This article aims at describing how Brazilian Portuguese dictionaries register lexical innovations by making a comparison between two Portuguese language general-purpose dictionaries which offer recent online versions: Houaiss and Aulete. In order to carry out this comparison, some morphological elements (morphemes and bound bases) and lexical units were chosen. Such elements have recently undergone changes in meaning and usage which may be noticed from the systematic observation of neologisms in Brazilian Portuguese. Our study has revealed that both dictionaries introduce new words and new grammatical usages; they differ in the manner they present the grammatical structures corresponding to these new words.
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Akhmetsagirova, Leysan I. "Phonetic information in Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries compiled in Germany in the 19th century". Voprosy leksikografii, n.º 23 (2022): 49–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.17223/22274200/23/3.
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The article presents the results of the study of phonetic information provided in Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries which were compiled in Germany in the 19th century. The relevance of this research is determined by the lack of metalexicographic works on a detailed analysis of this issue. According to their title pages and prefaces, most of the Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries were addressed equally to Germanspeaking and Russian-speaking users. The comparative study applied in this research shows how German lexicographers meet the need of both target groups for pronunciation information. In the course of the research, we studied the bilingual Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries in relation to the formats of presenting phonetic information, the sound composition of Russian and German words, and of recording their prosodic characteristics (stress). The research reveals that German lexicographers of the 19th century paid considerable attention to the elaboration of phonetic information which was presented in the analyzed dictionaries in two formats. Information on pronunciation was either shown in dictionary entries or given separately outside the lemma list in the surrounding text (in phonetic appendices and tables). The most commonly used format is the presentation of the pronunciation directly in dictionary entries. By the end of the century, phonetic information was additionally introduced in the macrostructure of the dictionaries in the form of phonetic appendices/notes or alphabet tables with pronunciation rules. The problem of the accurate representation of the sound composition of words was not acutely posed in the dictionaries. Apparently, the reason is that pronunciation in Russian and German was quite in line with spelling so that why this type of information could be basically left out. Nevertheless, in some dictionaries, this phonetic parameter found some elaboration. In most cases, the sound composition was represented only for Russian words. All Russian-German and German-Russian dictionaries indicated word stress. But in most dictionaries, stress is placed only on Russian words. Only in three dictionaries, lexicographers indicated the position of stress on words of both languages. The analysis shows that information on pronunciation recorded for Russian words was slightly more elaborated than for German ones. It means that the main target group of these dictionaries were still German-speaking users. Based on the results of the research, a conclusion is made that German lexicographers tried in their own way to meet the requirements of the users and to make their dictionaries as user-friendly as possible. This experience is very valuable and of undoubted interest for contemporary lexicography. Therefore, there is a need in further special investigations dealing with these dictionaries. The author declares no conflicts of interests.
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Eleutério, Samuel, Helena Freire, Elisabete Ranchhod y Jorge Baptista. "A System of Electronic Dictionaries of Portuguese". Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 19, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 1995): 57–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.19.1.04ele.
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In this paper we present the state of development of DIGRAMA, a system of electronic dictionaries and grammars of Portuguese. We describe briefly the general characteristics of the system, concentrating then on the analysis of two dictionary modules: DIGRAS and DIGRAF. The former is a dictionary of simple words, the latter is a dictionary of inflected forms. To each lexical entry of DIGRAS has been associated a code corresponding to the formal description of the morphological properties of the entries. This information constitutes the basis for a program of automatic generation of inflected forms. DIGRAF is made up of all the inflected forms from the words of DIGRAS.
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Ranchhod, Elisabete. "Ressources linguistiques du portugais implémentées sous INTEX". Lingvisticæ Investigationes. International Journal of Linguistics and Language Resources 22, n.º 1-2 (31 de diciembre de 1999): 263–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/li.22.1-2.16ran.
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Large-coverage dictionaries and grammars have been built for Portuguese using ladl methods and formats. They are now used by intex in general text processing operations. We present the main features of such linguistic data, and we refer to their maintenance and extension. The presentation is illustrated by various examples of automatic text parsing based on those dictionaries and grammars.
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Bukies, Gudrun. "Die Größe ‚Gewicht‘ im deutsch-italienischen Sprachvergleich". Linguistik Online 111, n.º 6 (11 de diciembre de 2021): 105–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.13092/lo.111.8242.
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The topic of this article is ‘weight’ in the German-Italian language comparison. Which linguistic means are used to refer to weight in German (Gewicht) and what are the Italian equivalents? The material which has been collected is based on monolingual German and Italian dictionaries, reference works and text corpora as well as on bilingual German-Italian dictionaries and text excerpts.
The classification of the so-called weight designations including derivatives, composites and word combinations is carried out from an etymological and lexical perspective. In addition to the dictionary entries, German-Italian translation examples show further equivalents of terms and expressions with regards to ‘weight’ in this language pair.
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Villalva, Alina y Esperança Cardeira. "The Compass Rose Names: Portuguese Data from Early Dictionaries and Textual Sources". Dictionaries: Journal of the Dictionary Society of North America 44, n.º 1 (2023): 27–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/dic.2023.a904540.
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ABSTRACT: This paper explores the origins and evolution of cardinal point names in Portuguese. The authors draw on historical dictionaries and corpora to hypothesize that the shift from Latin to Germanic names was due to the changing paradigm of navigation across the Atlantic Ocean. The text discusses the history of the compass rose and the succession of borrowings in nautical terminology, as well as the importance of studying early dictionaries and corpora to understand lexical change over time. Ultimately, the authors conclude that the adoption of Germanic names was necessary due to the inadequacy of the old names for a new world.
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Hartmann, R. R. K. "On some discrepancies in our German dictionaries." International Journal of Lexicography 3, n.º 3 (1990): 218–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/3.3.218.
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ten Hacken, Pius y Maria Koliopoulou. "Dictionaries, Neologisms, and Linguistic Purism". International Journal of Lexicography 33, n.º 2 (27 de mayo de 2020): 127–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecaa011.
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Abstract A discrepancy between the perceptions of the dictionary as gatekeepers and the dictionary as a description of the language can be observed among the general public and lexicographers. This discrepancy is particularly obvious when we consider the inclusion of neologisms. Linguistic purism is generally seen by its advocates as an effort to protect a language. It is particularly relevant when we consider borrowings. These considerations serve as a background for the special issue on New Words and Linguistic Purism, which consists of an article on the background theory, three case studies focused on German, Italian, and Slovak, and a contrastive study of German and Greek which also adds some further theoretical considerations on linguistic purism.
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SARDINHA, A. P. BERBER. "Beginning Portuguese corpus linguistics: exploring a corpus to teach Portuguese as a foreign language". DELTA: Documentação de Estudos em Lingüística Teórica e Aplicada 15, n.º 2 (1999): 289–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0102-44501999000200003.
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The study reports the results of the exploration of a machine-readable corpus of Brazilian Portuguese. The corpus was collected from news distributed on the Internet. The news items themselves consisted of excerpts from newspaper stories and TV transcripts. The focus of the paper is on the description of selected language features needed for the production of teaching materials for private Portuguese classes in Britain. Several lexical and grammatical items are described using corpus linguistics tools in what amounts to pioneering work on corpus analysis of Portuguese. The paper concludes that guidance provided by existing reference materials such as textbooks, grammars and dictionaries are inadequate since these sources are not based on samples of authentic language.
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Lipczuk, Ryszard y Katarzyna Sztandarska. "WORDS OF ARABIC ORIGIN IN DICTIONARIES OF GERMAN LANGUAGE". Colloquia Germanica Stetinensia 24 (2015): 103–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.18276/cgs.2015.24-06.
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Sztandarska, Katarzyna. "Germanizing dictionaries (Verdeutschungswörterbücher) of terminology in the German language". Colloquia Germanica Stetinensia 27 (2018): 205–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.18276/cgs.2018.27-12.
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Klosa-Kückelhaus, Annette y Ilan Kernerman. "Converging Lexicography and Neology". International Journal of Lexicography 34, n.º 3 (1 de septiembre de 2021): 277–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecab018.
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Abstract: This introduction summarizes general issues combining lexicography and neology in the context of the Globalex Workshop on Lexicography and Neology series. We present each of the six papers composing this Special Issue, featuring two Slavic languages (Czech and Slovak) and two Romance ones (Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish in its European and Latin American varieties) and their diverse lexicographic research and representation, in specialized dictionaries of neologisms or general language ones, in monolingual, bilingual and multilingual lexical resources, and in print and digital dictionaries.
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Hanks, P., A. Urbschat y E. Gehweiler. "German Light Verb Constructions in Corpora and Dictionaries". International Journal of Lexicography 19, n.º 4 (28 de octubre de 2006): 439–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecl027.
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Mengelkamp, Aaron, Kevin Koch y Matthias Schumann. "Creating Sentiment Dictionaries: Process Model and Quantitative Study for Credit Risk". European Conference on Social Media 9, n.º 1 (28 de abril de 2022): 121–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.34190/ecsm.9.1.167.
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Since textual user generated content from social media platforms contains valuable information for decision support and especially corporate credit risk analysis, automated approaches for text classification such as the application of sentiment dictionaries and machine learning algorithms have received great attention in recent user generated content based research endeavors. While machine learning algorithms require individual training data sets for varying sources, sentiment dictionaries can be applied to texts immediately, whereby domain specific dictionaries attain better results than domain independent word lists. We evaluate by means of a literature review how sentiment dictionaries can be constructed for specific domains and languages. Then, we construct nine versions of German sentiment dictionaries relying on a process model which we developed based on the literature review. We apply the dictionaries to a manually classified German language data set from Twitter in which hints for financial (in)stability of companies have been proven. Based on their classification accuracy, we rank the dictionaries and verify their ranking by utilizing Mc Nemar’s test for significance. Our results indicate, that the significantly best dictionary is based on the German language dictionary SentiWortschatz and an extension approach by use of the lexical-semantic database GermaNet. It achieves a classification accuracy of 59,19 % in the underlying three-case-scenario, in which the Tweets are labelled as negative, neutral or positive. A random classification would attain an accuracy of 33,3 % in the same scenario and hence, automated coding by use of the sentiment dictionaries can lead to a reduction of manual efforts. Our process model can be adopted by other researchers when constructing sentiment dictionaries for various domains and languages. Furthermore, our established dictionaries can be used by practitioners especially in the domain of corporate credit risk analysis for automated text classification which has been conducted manually to a great extent up to today.
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Sviķe, Silga. "Vārdnīcu lietošana otrās un trešās svešvalodas apguvē: mācīšanās stratēģija". Valodu apguve: problēmas un perspektīva : zinātnisko rakstu krājums = Language Acquisition: Problems and Perspective : conference proceedings 17/18 (13 de septiembre de 2022): 279–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.37384/va.2022.17.18.279.
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Learning strategies are important for controlling and optimizing the acquisition and use of a foreign language. Regular use of strategies with specific work steps and tips helps students to become more independent and reach their learning objective quicker. This study provides an insight into one foreign language learning strategy – working with dictionaries. Dictionaries are not only a tool for translation, but also an important part of language learning. This foreign language acquisition tool is often undervalued, although proficient and appropriate use of dictionaries not only strengthens the learner’s self-directed learning skills, but also their confidence in using the foreign language. The research question: how can students acquire the learning strategy of using a dictionary to enhance their foreign language skills and self-directed learning? The aim of the study is to explore whether and how the use of dictionaries can contribute to learning a second and third language by summarizing theory and developing and validating techniques and appropriate tasks for this strategy to make the dictionary an important tool for language learning, as well as for the development of self-directed learning skills. The research has resulted in a summary of the theory on the chosen topic and the development of materials for an introductory lesson on working with dictionaries. The study concludes with a number of conclusions. The most significant of these are as follows. The use of dictionaries as part of foreign language acquisition must be included in the group of resource use strategies, which can be metacognitive or cognitive. First, students need to learn how to work with printed dictionaries, which is also a good basis for future work with electronic dictionaries. Printed dictionaries should be available in the lecture room to build the habit of using them. If they are not available, students should be allowed to use electronic dictionaries. Vocabulary skills will certainly improve language acquisition and give learners the confidence to make their own decisions about the choice of language unit in their speech or a written text in a foreign language. The materials developed under the research can be used in German language classes for beginners learning German as a second or third foreign language. Acquiring this learning strategy will not only be useful for students at school, but also later at university.
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Toassi, Pâmela Freitas Pereira y Mailce Borges Mota. "Crosslinguistic influence in the production of English as L3". Revista Horizontes de Linguistica Aplicada 20, n.º 1 (29 de abril de 2021): AG1. http://dx.doi.org/10.26512/rhla.v20i1.32893.
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Crosslinguistic influence (CLI) refers to the phenomenon of how one language affects the acquisition and processing of another language by the same speaker. Bilinguals and multilinguals offer a good opportunity to study crosslinguistic phenomena since they have multiple language systems in interaction. Here we report the results of a study which investigated CLI in bilinguals and trilinguals. The objective of the study was twofold: (1) to analyze the influence of cognate words in the oral production of L2 and L3 English speakers in terms of quantity and type of cognates (English-Portuguese, English-German, English-German-Portuguese); (2) to investigate CLI in the production of English as L3. Participants were required to narrate a story on the basis of four pictures. The analysis of the narratives showed that bilinguals and trilinguals produced a similar number of cognate words of the type English- Portuguese and English- German- Portuguese. Regarding the cognate type English- German, trilinguals produced a significant higher number of these words as compared to the bilinguals. Since the bilinguals had no knowledge of German, these results indicate that the L2 (German) of the trilinguals facilitated the production of English-German cognates. We interpret these results as evidence of the coactivation of the trilinguals’ languages.
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Khidirova, Gulzoda y Gavhar Tilovova. "Lexicographic foundations of agricultural terminology in German and Uzbek languages". E3S Web of Conferences 497 (2024): 03056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202449703056.
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Each field develops within its own domain, and during this process, new concepts emerge within the field. The development of a field enriches its vocabulary, and these terms are included in dictionaries as field-specific terminology by linguists. The inclusion of field-specific terms in dictionaries, their entry into the sphere of usage, and their presentation in the dictionary are of significant importance. This is particularly relevant for comparative studies of field-specific terms and their translation processes. The classification of field-specific terms based on the extent of the field's importance assists experts in foreign language acquisition and the generation of knowledge and practices through foreign languages. In the process of such development, it is essential to conduct linguistic and lexicographic research on each field's terminologies, test them in practice, conduct statistical analysis in language sections, demonstrate the formation, structure, and usage of field-specific terms through examples, and provide theoretical and practical foundations for their use. The inclusion of field-related lexemes in both oral and written speech, as well as their etymological, morphological, and word formation characteristics, is intended to be in line with the purpose of including terms in dictionaries. The compilation of terminological dictionaries requires the semantic investigation of field-specific terms, particularly in the agricultural field, which is one of the fields that form the basis of social life, analyzed in terms of branches, for the organization of terminological dictionaries.
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Janečková, Eva. "Deutschsprachige Lexikographie in den böhmischen Ländern und der Sprachpurismus. Sommers und Demuths Wörterbücher vor dem Hintergrund der Verdeutschungspraxis". Acta Facultatis Philosophicae Universitatis Ostraviensis Studia Germanistica, n.º 28 (septiembre de 2021): 5–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.15452/studiagermanistica.2021.28.0001.
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This study focuses on two German dictionaries published in the Bohemian Lands during the 19th century, whose titles show their relatedness to language purism. In the first part of the study, both dictionaries are presented and compared based on various criteria such as their authors’ motivation for publishing them and the presence of any aspects of Germanisation processes. The second part contains an analysis of two parts of the dictionaries; the aim is to examine the dictionary entries and identify the authors’ personal stance on language purism.
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Lupetti, Monica. "Memoria, ideologia e identità nazionale nelle rivisitazioni sette-ottocentesche dell’elogio della lingua portoghese". Caietele Echinox 44 (1 de junio de 2023): 113–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.24193/cechinox.2023.44.07.
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"Numerous Portuguese texts and paratexts from the era of the dual monarchy (1580-1640) are characterised by eulogies of the Lusitanian language that fulfill the task of defending its prestige over Spanish. Between the end of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century, when the production of translations, grammars, dictionaries and other glottodidactic tools of various natures increased, the memory of the ancient praises was relied upon for purposes that were (justifying the study of Portuguese as a foreign language), politico- cultural (defending the dignity of Portuguese within the neo-Latin stock; making space for the Lusitanian literary tradition in the European cultural space), and commercial (in the context of the modern publishing industry, creating a market for Lusophone texts and manuals)."
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Levi, Joseph Abraham. "Portuguese and Other European Missionaries in Africa". Quot homines tot artes: New Studies in Missionary Linguistics 36, n.º 2-3 (1 de diciembre de 2009): 363–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/hl.36.2.10lev.
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Summary This study looks at some of the works produced by Catholic missionaries in Africa from the pre-dawn of the Modern Era (Fall of Constantinople, 1453), in particular the Fall of Ceuta (1415), to the Berlin Conference (1884–1885). Particular emphasis will be placed on the linguistic production of a few Franciscan, Augustinian, Capuchin, Dominican, and/or Jesuit clerics, working under the aegis of the Portuguese Crown, who – with the invaluable help of native assistants, usually members of the clergy or closely affiliated with the Church – compiled the first grammars, word lists, glossaries, and dictionaries of the indigenous languages with which they worked and interacted on a daily basis. Their endeavour, though meritorious and not always free from preconceived ideas of the ‘other’, paved the way for future studies in the field.
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Möhrs, Christine y Sarah Torres Cajo. "The Microstructure of a Lexicographical Resource of Spoken German". Rasprave Instituta za hrvatski jezik i jezikoslovlje 46, n.º 2 (30 de octubre de 2020): 921–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.31724/rihjj.46.2.25.
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This paper presents the corpus-based lexicographical prototype that was developed within the framework of the project Lexik des gesprochenen Deutsch (=LeGeDe) as a thirdparty funded project. Research results regarding the information offered in dictionaries have shown that there is a necessity for information on spoken lexis and its interactional functions. The resulting LeGeDe-prototype is based on these needs and desiderata and is thus an innovative example for the adequate representation of spoken language in online dictionaries. It is available online since September 2019 (https://www.owid.de/legede/). In the following sections, after first focusing on the presentation of the project’s goals, the data basis, the intended end user, and the applied methods, we will illustrate the microstructure of the prototype and the information provided in a dictionary entry based on the lemma eben. Finally, we will summarize innovative aspects that are important for the implementation of such a resource.
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Torres, Catalina. "Portuguese and German Intonation Contours in a Two-Way Immersion School". Languages 9, n.º 2 (1 de febrero de 2024): 54. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/languages9020054.
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This study investigates the intonation contours of neutral yes–no interrogatives produced by simultaneous bilingual children in their two native languages. Previous studies have shown prosodic transfer from one language to another, either from the dominant into the non-dominant language or vice versa, but little is known about what specifically triggers this behaviour. This study explores how bilingual children make use of phonetic–phonological resources while interacting with peers. Three child speakers of German (ambient language) and Portuguese (heritage language) were recorded as they performed a modified version of a map task. Natural and spontaneous data were collected and the speech was analysed. The results indicate that to some degree, bilingual children produce all intonational contours specific to their language variety. When speaking German, they produced the syntax and contour consistent with the structure of yes–no interrogatives in German. When speaking Portuguese, the children displayed variation in their choice of tune, depending on the variety of Portuguese and the language proficiency of their interlocutor. This behaviour is interpreted as prosodic convergence resulting from the high variability of prosodic structures in the different varieties of Portuguese present in the classroom.
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Kinder, John J. "Auxiliary verbs, dictionaries and the late evolution of the Italian language". Australian Review of Applied Linguistics. Series S 18 (1 de enero de 2004): 115–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/aralss.18.08kin.
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The use of be as an auxiliary verb with intransitive verbs has declined in all the Romance languages over the past five centuries. Today, Spanish and Portuguese use only have, in Catalan and Romanian be occurs in marginal contexts, and in French, be is used with approximately 40 verbs. Italian is a notable exception, since be is still used as the auxiliary of nearly 300 intransitive verbs, as well as with all transitives in the passive and with all reflexives. This well-known fact is a notorious source of difficulty for language teachers and students, partly because there have been few adequate descriptions or even taxonomies of the semantic classes of intransitive verbs which take be. This paper reports an attempt to describe the selection of auxiliary verbs in Italian in terms of contemporary dictionaries of Italian. The paper offers a description of auxiliary selection based on the Auxiliary Selection Hierarchy proposed by Sorace (2000), using some recent monolingual dictionaries as sources. This raises some issues about the use of dictionaries as source material for grammatical descriptions.
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Antonyuk, Halyna y Lilia Chernysh. "DIDACTIC MEANS OF USING ELECTRONICDICTIONARIES IN THE PROCESS OF LEARNING GERMAN AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE". Naukovì zapiski Nacìonalʹnogo unìversitetu «Ostrozʹka akademìâ». Serìâ «Fìlologìâ» 1, n.º 17(85) (22 de junio de 2023): 3–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.25264/2519-2558-2023-17(85)-3-9.
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The article analyzes the didactic principles of electronic dictionaries as a type of information and communication technologies when learning German as a second foreign language. The object of analysis was online dictionaries: ABBYY Lingvo, Multitran, Babylon NG, Duden online, Langenscheidt online. These electronic tools are effectively used at the Department of Applied Linguistics of the Lviv Polytechnic National University o in the process of teaching German as a sпecond foreign language and the cycle of translation disciplines for the training of specialists of the first (bachelor) level of higher education in the field 035 "Philology" (disciplines: "Modern German Language", "Practice of Speech", "Translation practice", "Translation workshop"), fields of knowledge 03 "Humanities" in face-to-face, distance and mixed learning conditions. It is noted that in the era of digitization, electronic means of education, in particular lexicographic sources, occupy a significant place in the educational process, becoming an integral part of it, which is explained by the successful competition of electronic sources with their paper counterparts. Electronic dictionaries make it possible to optimize the volume and composition of articles, combine different forms of information presentation (text, sound, graphics, animation), supplement and correct the content of databases, rationally structure information using hypertext technologies. The research is based on scientific and methodological principles regarding the use of electronic dictionaries in the process of learning foreign languages, developed in the works of domestic and foreign authors. It was concluded that the didactically correct use of digital tools (electronic dictionaries) in the process of learning foreign languages serves to form four types of speech activity and translation skills, contributes to the formation of universal language competence and innovative culture of the pupil/student and teacher/teacher.
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Schweickard, Wolfgang. "Ideologie im Wörterbuch. Beispiele aus deutscher und romanischer Sicht". Lexicographica 38, n.º 1 (1 de noviembre de 2022): 63–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lex-2022-0004.
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Abstract Dictionaries are only marginally involved in the formation of ideologies. However, they reflect the values that are typical of individual epochs, and help to consolidate and spread ideological concepts. The analysis of dictionaries therefore has considerable heuristic potential for illustrating different forms of ideologies in their linguistic expression. The present paper exemplarily sheds light on the relationship of ideology and lexicography from a German and Romance point of view. It starts with 17th-century academy dictionaries, which mirror the elitist social realities of the time, and goes on with reflections on taboo vocabulary, feminine job titles and the lexical influence of English on French.
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Prillop, Külli y Kristel Ress. "Vanade sõnastike veebiandmebaas ja mida sealt leida". Eesti ja soome-ugri keeleteaduse ajakiri. Journal of Estonian and Finno-Ugric Linguistics 4, n.º 3 (18 de diciembre de 2013): 157–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.12697/jeful.2013.4.3.08.
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Eesti keele kolm vanimat trükitud sõnastikku pärinevad 17. sajandist ja nende aines oli 21. sajandi alguseni uurijatele kättesaadav üksnes faksiimileväljaannetena. Tartu Ülikooli vana kirjakeele töörühmas on viidud need sõnastikud elektroonilisele kujule, märgendatud ja analüüsitud, samuti on publitseeritud kahe sõnastiku (Heinrich Stahli 1637. aasta saksa-eesti sõnastik, Heinrich Gösekeni 1660. aasta saksaladina- eesti sõnastik) uusväljaanded (vastavalt 2002, 2012). Uusväljaandeid koostades saadud andmekogu on rakendatud sõnastike veebiversioonide loomiseks olemasoleva vana kirjakeele andmebaasi juurde (http://www.murre.ut.ee/vakkur/sonastikud). Artiklis kirjeldatakse Stahli ja Gösekeni sõnaraamatute põhjaeestikeelse ainese uurimise eripära, piiranguid ja tulevikuvaateid rõhuasetusega pooleliolevate veebisõnastike koostamisele. Tuuakse näiteid nii algsetest 17. sajandi sõnastikest kui ka nende uusversioonidest pabersõnastikuna ja veebis. Esimest korda esitatakse võrdlevaid arvandmeid nende kahe praeguseks põhjalikumalt läbi töötatud sõnastiku kohta. Antakse ülevaade Stahli ja Gösekeni sõnaraamatu märksõnadest, korduvatest ja ainukordsetest vastetest, sõnaliigilisest koosseisust ja muutevormidest.Online database of old Estonian dictionaries and what is to be found there. The three oldest printed dictionaries of Estonian originate from the 17th century. Their contents were available only in the form of facsimiles until the 21st century. The Old Literary Estonian working group of the University of Tartu has digitalised the dictionaries and published novel paper versions of two dictionaries (Stahl’s German-Estonian dictionary of 1637 and Göseken’s German-Latin-Estonian dictionary of 1660). The work was based on a methodology developed by the working group for the compilation of new versions with reversed language pairs. The data sets so created were used to produce the online versions of the dictionaries (http://www.murre.ut.ee/vakkur/sonastikud) to offer enthusiasts more ways to access the unique subject matter of the dictionaries. This article describes the nature, limitations and prospects of studying the Estonian language material of the Stahl and Göseken dictionaries, focusing on the current compilation of online dictionaries. For the first time, comparative figures are provided on the two German-Estonian dictionaries, which have been thoroughly studied: an overview is given of keywords, recurring and unique matches, parts of speech and inflections.
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Flores, Cristina, Esther Rinke y Anabela Rato. "Comparing the Outcomes of Early and Late Acquisition of European Portuguese: An Analysis of Morpho-syntactic and Phonetic Performance". Heritage Language Journal 14, n.º 2 (31 de agosto de 2017): 124–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.14.2.2.
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The present paper compares the linguistic competence of German-Portuguese bilinguals with upper-intermediate German L2 learners (L2ers) of EP (European Portuguese) and with monolingual Portuguese speakers. The bilingual speakers are heritage speakers (HSs), who were raised bilingually with EP as the minority language and German as the majority language. The aim of our comparison is to verify in which way different input sources and maturational effects shape the speakers’ linguistic knowledge. The findings of two studies, one focused on the morpho-syntactic knowledge of clitics and the other on global accent, corroborate the assumption that L2ers and HSs behave differently, despite superficial similarities observed in the morpho-syntactic study. In contrast to that of the L2ers’, the accent of the HSs is perceived as being native-like, whereas their morpho-syntactic competence is mainly shaped by their dominant exposure to colloquial Portuguese and reduced contact with formal registers.
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Pelevina, Ekaterina. "The Phraseological Expression of the Emotional Concept “Fear” in German and Russian". Studia Neofilologiczne 17 (2021): 165–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.16926/sn.2021.17.10.
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The study is dedicated to the research of the emotional concept “fear” from the linguocultural perspective, which is verbalized by the phraseological units of the Russian and German languages. The subject of the research is the universal and specific characteristics of language units that realize the meaning of the concepts “fear”. The sources of the linguistic material are Russian and German phraseological dictionaries, proverb and associative dictionaries. In the article it is shown that “fear” counts as one of the basic emotions in both cultures and has a wide range of expressions.
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Castell, Andreu. "El tractament de les construccions amb verb suport en els diccionaris monolingües i bilingües de l'alemany i el català". Zeitschrift für Katalanistik 24 (1 de julio de 2011): 73–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.46586/zfk.2011.73-88.
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Summary: Taking as a starting point a corpus based on the most representative grammars of the German language, the aim of this paper is to analyze the treatment of support verb constructions in monolingual and bilingual dictionaries of German and Catalan. More specifically, the analysis will focus on the number of support verb constructions in the corpus that appear in these dictionaries and how they are then represented in the entries dedicated to both the participating verbs and nouns. [Keywords: Function verbs; support verbs; function verbs constructions; support verbs constructions; lexicography; phraseology]
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Saprykina, Olga Aleksandrovna. "Language Policy in Portuguese-speaking Countries: Institutional Aspect". Litera, n.º 12 (diciembre de 2023): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.25136/2409-8698.2023.12.68932.
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The article examines the features of language policy in Portuguese-speaking countries. According to the author, language policy is the key to the solution of the linguistic problems of the national community and to the formation of the language environment. Language policy measures can be applied in three areas: institutional, educational and economic ones. In the field of institutional activity, legislative documents, especially the constitutions, are of primary importance. They determine the official or co-official status of the language. This study analyses the texts of the Constitutions and of the key acts of the Commonwealth of Portuguese Language Countries, which are the Declaration of Unification and the Charter. In addition, digital editions of the updated orthographic dictionaries were considered as a means to developing a unified spelling standard, which takes into account the national and territorial differentiation of the Portuguese language. The author notes that the language policy in Portuguese-language countries, being an instrument of nation-building and a symbol of the development of national culture, is at the same time a means to achieving political goals and a manifestation of historically marked identity. Through the analysis of the content of official documents, the author comes to the conclusion that Portuguese-speaking countries, being ethnically heterogeneous, are converging within the framework of language policy. Language policy, in turn, takes into consideration the priorities of youth policy, which involves the integration of young people with the help of the latest technological resources.
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Metsmägi, Iris y Vilja Oja. "Estonian words for ‘field’ in historical dictionaries". Lexicographica 37, n.º 1 (1 de noviembre de 2021): 137–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lex-2021-0008.
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Abstract The article gives an overview of Estonian landscape terms meaning ‘field’ in historical dictionaries. The main equivalents for English field in Estonian are põld, nurm and väli. Neither in standard Estonian nor in the dialects, these three words are full synonyms. In the historical dictionaries, the Estonian words occur first in the 17th century as translations of German Acker, Feld and Ackerfeld. Later, for example in the Estonian-German dictionary, published in 1869, their meanings are more precisely defined. The semantic relations of the words in dialect speech and their interpretation in the historical dictionaries will be analysed. The three words are used in all Finnic languages. Comparing the words with dialect and cognate language data, their semantic differences and distribution in dialects will be introduced.
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Alsina, Victòria. "Les fórmules de resposta en català: presència i tractament en els diccionaris monolingües i bilingües català-alemany". Zeitschrift für Katalanistik 29 (1 de julio de 2016): 5–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.46586/zfk.2016.5-21.
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Summary: This article examines Catalan formulaic responses, with special focus on those responses conveying an ironic or mocking attitude. 41 items of this set of formulaic expressions are examined to determine their treatment in general-language and in bilingual German-Catalan dictionaries. It is found that they can be divided into three different types: a) responses to general statements; b) responses to formulaic expressions, and c) ironic responses to concrete phrases. The three types receive different lexicographic treatment: type a) is widely present both in general and bilingual dictionaries, type b) less so, while type c) is almost totally absent from dictionaries. It is concluded that this type of expressions merits further study. [Keywords: formulaic expressions, formulaic responses, phraseology, lexicography, Catalan, German]
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Smolonogina, E. A. y I. O. Sitnikova. "Parameters of Lexicographic Description of New Vocabulary of Modern German in Electronic Dictionary of Neologisms of Leibniz Institute for German Language". Nauchnyi dialog 11, n.º 2 (19 de marzo de 2022): 140–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.24224/2227-1295-2022-11-2-140-158.
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The problem of lexicographic fixation of neologisms at the present stage of development of German-language lexicography by private explanatory dictionaries of electronic format is considered. A fairly successful example of lexicographic practice was chosen as the object of the study — an electronic dictionary of neologisms of the modern German language on the lexicographic online portal of the Leibniz Institute for the German Language. The dictionary is a “living”, constantly updated edition, which is based on the criteria for the definition and classification of neologisms, developed by its compilers. The authors of the article performed an analysis of the parameters of the lexicographic description of neologisms in this dictionary. The question is raised about the mandatory or optional nature of the parameters used by the compilers of the dictionary when forming the microtext (dictionary entry). Standard and specific parameters of lexicographic description, which are profile for the dictionary of new words are distinguished: example-definition, first fixation, language reflection, encyclopedic information, representation in dictionaries, etc. The analysis of lexicographic practice sets the task of summarizing the practical experience of lexicographers in order to determine the optimal set of parameters for the codification of neology.
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Veisbergs, Andrejs. "TRANSLATORS’ TOOLS: LATVIAN AND LITHUANIAN BILINGUAL LEXICOGRAPHICAL TRADITION COMPARED". Vertimo studijos 3, n.º 3 (6 de abril de 2017): 131. http://dx.doi.org/10.15388/vertstud.2010.3.10595.
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Translation needs tools, the oldest and most widespread of which are (bilingual) dictionaries. In the absence of the necessary language pair dictionary, translators seek advice in foreign language dictionaries. Translators have frequently been the authors of dictionaries themselves. Latvian and Lithuanian nations and languages, though kindred, have had a rather different history. Both historically and politically, developments in Latvian have been more parallel to Estonian than Lithuanian as both fell under German and Lutheran influence while Lithuanian had a Polish-bound Catholic history. Yet the development of their writing, translation and lexicography has followed a remarkably similar process and testifies to the common space of knowledge (Wissensraum). As with their lexicography, their bilingual dictionaries grew out of a connection between translation and religion. Both countries underwent a national awakening/awareness in the 19th century that led to a greater variety of translations and dictionaries. Notably, monolingual Latvian and Lithuanian dictionaries appeared only in the 20th century, testifying to the importance of bilingual lexicography in ensuring language contact. Bilingual dictionaries have dominated the lexicography scene of Latvia and Lithuania from the start until the present day. The twentieth century, with its expanding translation needs, produced an even greater variety of translations and bilingual dictionaries in both countries.
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Silkina, Inessa Alekseevna. "POLYSEMANTIC NOUN TERRA IN EXPLANATORY DICTIONARIES OF THE MODERN PORTUGUESE LANGUAGE". Philological Sciences. Issues of Theory and Practice, n.º 6-2 (junio de 2018): 394–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.30853/filnauki.2018-6-2.44.
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KUBICKA, EMILIA. "So-called dictionary equivalents confronted with parallel corpora (and the consequences for bilingual lexicography)". Glottodidactica. An International Journal of Applied Linguistics 46, n.º 2 (8 de enero de 2020): 75–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/gl.2019.46.2.05.
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The study considers the question of whether (and how) bilingual dictionaries may be improved. The information presented in dictionaries has been confronted with textual reality (i.e., with examples of actual translations), based on the German expression fassungslos and its Polish equivalents in parallel texts. The author assumes that bilingual dictionaries are mainly used by language learners, while professional translators may consider them as one of many possible sources. In teaching, multiplying the possible equivalents or suggesting ad hoc solutions is generally not recommended. Despite the attempts at objectivizing lexicographic descriptions, which are made possible by using language corpora, it often turns out that the decisions made by dictionary authors are (and need to be) arbitrary
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Flores, Cristina y Anabela Rato. "Global Accent in the Portuguese Speech of Heritage Returnees". Heritage Language Journal 13, n.º 2 (31 de agosto de 2016): 161–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.46538/hlj.13.2.5.
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The present study examined whether heritage speakers (HSs) of European Portuguese (EP) who were born or moved to a German-speaking country before the age of eight years were perceived as native speakers of EP. In particular, this study intended to determine whether a change of linguistic environment, length of residence in a migrant context, length of residence in the country of origin before migration and after remigration, and age at return could predict the degree of (non)native accent in the heritage language. Thirty native Portuguese speakers assessed the global accent of 20 Portuguese-German bilinguals, five Portuguese monolinguals and five highly proficient German speakers of Portuguese as a second language (L2). The group of HSs comprised 17 speakers who returned to Portugal. The results revealed that listeners perceived a strong global foreign accent in the speech of the L2 learners, while the monolingual Portuguese speakers were clearly perceived as being native speakers of EP. The HSs’ ratings were considerably closer to the monolingual average ratings, but they showed more variation, indicating that their accent may bear non-native traces. Further analyses showed that the age at which the HSs emigrated was the only significant predictor, while length of residence in the host country and in Portugal were less predictive.
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Fournier, J. "New directions in middle high German lexicography: dictionaries interlinked electronically". Literary and Linguistic Computing 16, n.º 1 (1 de abril de 2001): 99–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/llc/16.1.99.
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Nycz, Krzysztof y Zygmunt Tęcza. "On the Pronunciation Dictionaries of Contemporary German: Principles of Selection and Lemmatization of Lexical Material". International Journal of Lexicography 33, n.º 3 (20 de septiembre de 2019): 337–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ijl/ecz021.
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Abstract The aim of the present paper is to discuss some specific differences between four modern pronunciation dictionaries of the German language: the Großes Wörterbuch der deutschen Aussprache of 1982, DUDEN Aussprachewörterbuch of 2000, Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch of 2009, and DUDEN Aussprachewörterbuch of 2015. This paper focuses on the principles of entry selection and lemmatization in diverse vocabulary groups (such as compounds, prefixed verbs, female noun forms denoting persons and professions, multiword expressions, foreign words, and inflected forms of individual word classes). Furthermore, sources used by the dictionaries’ authors in order to obtain entries are briefly discussed.
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Taborek, Janusz. "Wörterbuchbenutzung von polnischen Germanistikstudierenden". Lexicographica 34, n.º 2018 (28 de enero de 2019): 207–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lex-2018-0010.
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AbstractIn this paper we present the results of a survey conducted among students of German Philology at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań in the years 2015–2017. The target group was composed of first-semester students from whom we collected data about their lexicographical competence at the start of the program. The results contain some interesting findings, e.g. students prefer online dictionaries, but the number of students using print dictionaries is comparable and we have also observed the rising number of students who use smartphone applications. The aim of the survey is to provide information for university instructors who teach German as a foreign language (DaF) and lexicography.
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Taborek, Janusz. "Wörterbuchbenutzung von polnischen Germanistikstudierenden". Lexicographica 34, n.º 1 (1 de diciembre de 2018): 207–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/lex-2018-340110.
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AbstractIn this paper we present the results of a survey conducted among students of German Philology at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań in the years 2015-2017. The target group was composed of first-semester students from whom we collected data about their lexicographical competence at the start of the program. The results contain some interesting findings, e.g. students prefer online dictionaries, but the number of students using print dictionaries is comparable and we have also observed the rising number of students who use smartphone applications. The aim of the survey is to provide information for university instructors who teach German as a foreign language (DaF) and lexicography.
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Robles i Sabater, Ferran. "L'exemple lexicogràfic en el Diccionari alemany-català de Lluís Batlle i altres". Zeitschrift für Katalanistik 24 (1 de julio de 2011): 127–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.46586/zfk.2011.127-150.
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Summary: The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of the theory of the dictionary example in recent German didactic lexicography and to comment on the use of the example in the current German-Catalan dictionaries on the basis of the Diccionari Alemany-Català. Our analysis will comprise three aspects of dictionary examples: a) their number and frequency of use, b) their form and c) their function. The results of this study show the importance of examples for tasks such as acquisition of vocabulary in autonomous and directed learning, text production and reception, and translation. [Keywords: Bilingual lexicography; didactic dictionaries; dictionary examples; second language acquisition]
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Barreto Xavier, Ângela. "Languages of Difference in the Early Modern Portuguese Empire. The Spread of “Caste” in the Indian World". Anuario Colombiano de Historia Social y de la Cultura 43, n.º 2 (1 de julio de 2016): 89. http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/achsc.v43n2.59071.
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This essay discusses the circulation of the language of caste in the Indian world in the context of the Portuguese empire. Caste is an inevitable word in the moment of considering the Indian social system, as well as to compare it with European/Western societies. Since it was a word initially brought by the Portuguese to the Indian world, it is relevant to ask whether the Portuguese played an important role in its transformation into such a relevant social category. Six of the most important sixteenth-century narratives about the Portuguese presence in India, as well as treatises, letters, legal documents, vocabularies and dictionaries of the early-modern period will be under scrutiny in order to identify the variations of the word “casta”, its circulation in Estado da Índia, and beyond it. The analysis of these sources will also permit to understand how Portuguese colonial experience shaped the future meanings of “casta”, and therefore, the ways “casta” shaped Indian society (and not only).
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Laer, C. J. P. van y Tom van Laer. "The shortage of legal dictionaries translating European languages". Terminology 13, n.º 1 (1 de junio de 2007): 85–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/term.13.1.06lae.
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This article is intended to shed light on the availability and distribution of legal dictionaries that translate European languages. The premise of this article is that the enlargement of the European Union has increased the shortage of bilingual dictionaries. To verify this premise, statistics have been applied to a representative corpus which consists of 159 bilingual law dictionaries with terms from two or more legal languages used in the EU. This rather unique approach of applying statistics to a complete corpus shows that only 15% of the needed dictionaries really exist. This is a very small percentage. In particular, dictionaries for the legal languages of the new Member States are not sufficiently available. Compared to the fifteen old Member States, the ten new Member States possess a lesser number of relevant dictionaries. As long as bilingual dictionaries do not offer direct links between all legal languages, German, rather than French, has to be considered as a relay language on an equal footing with English.