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Literatura académica sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Autor: Grafiati

Publicado: 15 de marzo de 2025

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Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Borts, B., S. Ivanova, I. Koliabina, G. Lysychenko y V. Tkachenko. "Supercritical Extraction by Carbon Dioxide of Uranium from Ore Concentrates and Low-Enriched Ores of Tailing". Nuclear and Radiation Safety, n.º 2(70) (20 de mayo de 2016): 56–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.32918/nrs.2016.2(70).12.

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The extraction and processing of uranium ores in Ukraine have led to the accumulation of large amounts of waste. It is obvious that the old technologies are not applicable to the extraction of uranium from such waste. Therefore, the search for the new, more efficient methods of extracting residual amounts of waste nutrients and subsequent improvement of the environmental status of contaminated areas are both necessary. The supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extraction (SFE-CO2) is proposed as a method that can be utilized independently or as the last step of the acid leaching method adopted at VostGOK to extract the uranium. The efficiency of uranium SFE-CO2 can reach 98%.

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Yang, Xiaoying, Mei Cui, Rongxin Su y Renliang Huang. "The Preparation of a Polyamidoxime–Phosphorylated Cellulose Nanofibrils Composite Aerogel for the Selective Extraction of Uranium from Seawater". Nanomaterials 14, n.º 15 (1 de agosto de 2024): 1297. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano14151297.

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Uranium is the most important fuel for nuclear power operations, and the safe supply of its resources is the key to the development of nuclear power in China. Because of the complex seawater environment and extremely low uranium concentration, extracting uranium from natural seawater poses a significant challenge. In this study, a polyamidoxime–phosphorylated cellulose nanofibril composite aerogel was prepared as an adsorbent for uranium extraction from seawater. An adsorption kinetics test, equilibrium adsorption isotherm model fitting, an adsorption–desorption cycle test, and a selectivity test were carried out to evaluate the adsorption performance of the composite aerogel for uranium extraction. The adsorption capacities for the initial concentrations of 4 and 8 ppm in uranium-spiked pure water were 96.9 and 204.3 mg-U/g-Ads, respectively. The equilibrium uranium adsorption capacities of uranium-spiked simulated seawater were 38.9 and 51.7 mg-U/g-Ads, respectively. The distribution coefficient KD of uranium was calculated to be 2.5 × 107 mL/g. The results show that the polyamidoxime–phosphorylated cellulose nanofiber composite aerogels prepared in this study have the advantages of low cost and high uranium selectivity for uranium extraction from seawater.

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Liu, Peng, Minyan An, Teng He, Ping Li y Fuqiu Ma. "Recent Advances in Antibiofouling Materials for Seawater-Uranium Extraction: A Review". Materials 16, n.º 19 (28 de septiembre de 2023): 6451. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16196451.

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Nuclear power has experienced rapid development as a green energy source due to the increasing global demand for energy. Uranium, as the primary fuel for nuclear reactions, plays a crucial role in nuclear energy production, and seawater-uranium extraction has gained significant attention. However, the extraction of uranium is usually susceptible to contamination by microorganisms, such as bacteria, which can negatively affect the adsorption performance of uranium adsorption materials. Therefore, an important challenge lies in the development of new antibacterial and antiadhesion materials to inhibit the attachment of marine microorganisms. These advancements aim to reduce the impact on the adsorption capability of the adsorbent materials. This paper reviews the antibiofouling materials used for extracting seawater uranium, and corresponding mechanisms are discussed.

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Wang, Wei Guang, Kai Xuan Tan, Er Ju Xie, Jiang Liu y Gui Long Cai. "Supercritical CO₂ Fluid Leaching of Uranium from Sandstone Type Ores". Advanced Materials Research 634-638 (enero de 2013): 3517–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.634-638.3517.

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Uranium is an important fuel for nuclear power, so the mining and milling of uranium is the base for development of nuclear power. Our experiments study is about the supercritical CO2 fluid extraction of uranium in low grade uranium ore, and the influence of aqueous medium, oxidants, chelating agents and other factors on the uranium leaching. In aqueous media, Fe2 (SO4)3 as the oxidants, supercritical CO2 fluid extraction of uranium has the best effect, the uranium leaching rate reaches 90.44%, significantly higher than that of the conventional acid and alkaline leaching. In the process of extraction of uranium in supercritical CO2 fluid, the uranium in uranium ore is first oxidized to hexavalent uranium, and then forms high solubility of uranyl carbonate complexes. Supercritical CO2 fluid is expected to be used in in-situ leaching of uranium mining of the low grade sandstone uranium deposits.

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Bishimbayeva, G. K., A. M. Nalibayeva, S. A. Saidullayeva, A. K. Zhangabayeva, A. Bold, D. S. Zhumabayeva, Y. N. Abdikalykov y E. N. Panova. "EXTRACTION PROPERTIES OF SYNTHESIZED FLUORINATED ORGANOPHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS". RASAYAN Journal of Chemistry 16, n.º 01 (2023): 440–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.31788/rjc.2023.1618246.

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This work presents the results of studies of extraction properties in relation to the uranium of bis(2,2,2- trifluoroethyl)diallylamido phosphite, bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl)dimethylamido phosphite, and bis(N,Ndialamido)isopropyl phosphite synthesized by us earlier. Tests were carried out in a factory laboratory, as the initial solutions used nitrate solution prepared from uranium oxide (CU = 10.30 g/dm3 , CHNO3 = 56.40 g/dm3 ) and uranium sulfate solution prepared from the chemical concentrate of natural uranium and deoxidized with sulfuric acid (CU = 10.60 g/dm3 , CH2SO4 = 25.10 g/dm3 ). It was proved that the synthesized acyclic amido phosphites can effectively extract uranium from these technological solutions with a proper selection of technological parameters, and the degree of uranium extraction may vary from 34.43 to 95.94%.

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Kafka, Tomáš. "Uranium industry and Ralsko". Geografie 103, n.º 3 (1998): 382–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.37040/geografie1998103030382.

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The former Ralsko military training area is situated in close proximity to the region where uranium is mined. The paper deals with the history of uranium mining and with geological conditions of the territory and characterizes the methods of extraction used - deep mining of uranium ore and chemical extraction by in-situ lixiviation. Attention is paid to the present organization structure of the uranium industry and to the work of the state firm DIAMO with regard to the elimination of impacts of uranium ore extraction and processing.

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Kafka, Tomáš. "Uranium industry and Ralsko". Geografie 103, n.º 3 (1998): 253–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.37040/geografie1998103030253.

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The former Ralsko military training area is situated in close proximity to the region where uranium is mined. The paper deals with the history of uranium mining and with geological conditions of the territory and characterizes the methods of extraction used - deep mining of uranium ore and chemical extraction by in-situ leaching. Attention is paid to the present organization structure of the uranium industry and to the work of the state firm DIAMO with regard to the elimination of impacts of uranium ore extraction and processing.

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Afonin, Mikhail A., Vadim V. Romanovski y Vadim A. Scherbakov. "OSCILLATORY EXTRACTION OF URANIUM". Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange 16, n.º 5 (agosto de 1998): 1215–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07360299808934577.

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Khan, Naeemullah, Mustafa Tuzen y Tasneem Gul Kazi. "Simple and Rapid Dual-Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction as an Innovative Extraction Method for Uranium in Real Water Samples Prior to the Determination of Uranium by a Spectrophotometric Technique". Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 100, n.º 6 (1 de noviembre de 2017): 1848–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.17-0054.

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Abstract An innovative, rapid, and simple dual-dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction (DDLL-ME) approach was used to extract uranium from real samples for the first time. The main objective of this study was to disperse extraction solvent by using an air-agitated syringe system to overcome matrix effects and avoid dispersion of hazardous dispersive organic solvents by using heat. The DDLL-ME method consisted of two dispersive liquid–liquid extraction steps with chloroform as the extracting solvent. Uranium formed complexes with 4-(2-thiazolylazo) resorcinol in the aqueous phase and was extracted in extracting solvent (chloroform) after the first dispersive liquid–liquid process. Uranium was then back-extracted in the acidic aqueous phase in a second dispersive liquid–liquid process. Finally, uranium was determined by a spectrophotometric detection technique. The variables that played a key role in the proposed method were studied and optimized. The LOD and sensitivity enhancement factor for uranium were found to be 0.60 µg/L and 45, respectively, under optimized conditions. Calibration graphs were found to be linear in the range of 5.0–600 µg/L. The RSD was 2.5%. Reliability of the proposed method was verified by analyzing certified reference material TM-28.3.

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Maher, Chris J., Christine Bouyer, Tamara L. Griffiths, Solène Legand, Gilles Leturcq, Manuel Miguirditchian y Mark Sarsfield. "Impact of uranium carbide organics treated by prolonged boiling and electrochemical oxidation upon uranium and plutonium solvent extraction". Radiochimica Acta 106, n.º 2 (26 de enero de 2018): 95–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ract-2017-2799.

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AbstractThe dissolution of uranium or uranium-plutonium carbide fuel in nitric acid leads to ~50% carbon evolved as carbon dioxide, the remainder remains in the solution as soluble organics. These dissolved organic molecules interfere with the solvent extraction of uranium and plutonium by complexing to the actinide ions and decreasing the efficiency of their extraction. Experiments reported here describe two series of experiments assessing the uranium carbide dissolution liquor treatment by prolonged boiling and electrochemical oxidation. Plutonium losses to aqueous and solvent raffinates are observed for untreated liquors, highlighting that mineralisation of dissolved organics is necessary to reduce the complexing effects of organic acids to an extent that permit efficient operation of a solvent extraction process both in the first solvent use (considered here) and for maintaining solvent quality during industrial solvent reuse in the highly active cycle. Solution carbon analysis and 30% TBP solvent extraction batch tests of uranium and plutonium originating from dissolved uranium carbide liquors untreated and after treatment are compared. These experiments demonstrate the reprocessing of uranium carbides by direct dissolution coupled to a mineralisation process, can achieve near quantitative uranium and high plutonium recoveries (99.9%).

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Tesis sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Carter, Helen. "Uranium separations using extraction chromatography". Thesis, Loughborough University, 2000. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/11261.

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In the analysis of environmental samples for uranium and thorium pollutants and at natural levels for the dating of geological samples there was felt a need to develop better uranium and thorium separation procedures to replace the established anion exchange method used at AEA Technology plc. This was the first aim of the PhD research. Separation of uranium from thorium prior to measurement of the isotopes by alpha spectrometry was necessary due to the similar alpha energies of234U and 230Th. TRU and UTEVA extraction chromatography resins (EIChroM Industries) were investigated as potential replacements to the anion exchange separation method. The resins are claimed by EIChroM to offer the advantage of providing an actinide specific separation while reducing the separation time from 2 to 0.5 days; the volume of acidic waste produced by a factor of 3, therefore, the cost of analysis was reduced. A uranium and thorium separation procedure using the UTEVA extraction chromatography resin was developed. The uranium and thorium were sorbed by the UTEVA resin from 2M nitric acid. The thorium was then eluted from the resin with 5M hydrochloric acid and the uranium with 0.02M hydrochloric acid. The separation procedure was then evaluated using uraninite ore, coral, granite and lake sediment reference materials. The uranium and thorium concentrations and the 234U/238U and 23oTh/234U activity ratio values determined for the reference material were in good agreement with certified values. The presence of plutonium was found to interfere with the measurement of uranium and thorium by alpha spectrometry. This was due to the similar alpha energies of uranium, thorium and plutonium. The co-elution of plutonium with uranium and thorium from the UTEVA resin was prevented by the inclusion of a reduction step using iron (Il) sulphamate. The resulting plutonium (Ill) was not retained by the UTEVA column. The chemical recoveries for the procedure were similar to those for anion-exchange, but the extraction chromatography procedure provided a more rapid separation using less reagents.

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Lawson, P. N. E. "The kinetics of uranium-nitric acid extraction". Thesis, University of Bradford, 1986. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.374930.

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Rinsant, Damien. "Elaboration de matériaux hybrides fonctionnalisés de type MOFs pour l’extraction sélective de l’uranium". Thesis, Montpellier, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019MONTS062.

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L’offre en combustible nucléaire à base d’uranium est un enjeu clé de la stratégie française de production d’électricité, d’autant plus que la demande en uranium naturel continuera à augmenter dans un futur proche. Il y a donc un intérêt à proposer de nouveaux procédés d’extraction de l’uranium plus efficaces et plus écologiques que ceux utilisés actuellement. L’objectif de cette thèse est donc de valoriser l’uranium issu des lixiviats de minerais par des procédés de séparations solide-liquide avec des matériaux de type Metal Organic Framework (MOF). Les MOFs sont des matériaux hybrides, cristallins présentant des surfaces spécifiques élevées et présentant d’excellentes performances pour l’adsorption de l’uranium dans des solutions à faible acidité.Pour répondre à cet objectif, la stabilité de plusieurs familles de MOFs a été étudiée au cours du temps dans des solutions acides simulant les lixiviats de minerais. Après quoi, des MOFs à base de zirconium et de ligand diacides carboxyliques fonctionnalisés par des amines tertiaires et des ligands amidophosphonates ont été synthétisés puis caractérisés par DRX, BET, ATG, MEB, FT-IR et RMN. Trois matériaux de type MOFs ont été étudiés permettant de comparer deux fonctions extractantes et deux porosités différentes. Pour cela des acquisitions de données d’extraction de l’uranium en milieu sulfurique ont été réalisées en fonction du temps, de la concentration en uranium, de la concentration en sulfate et du pH. L’ensemble de ces données couplé avec des analyses spectroscopiques ont permis de proposer des mécanismes d’extractions de l’uranium pour les deux fonctions extractantes étudiées.Mots-clés : MOFs, synthèse organique, extraction solide-liquide, uranium
The increase of world energy production involves the research and development of new more efficient and ecofriendly processes for uranium ores valorization. Therefore, the development of new materials for an efficient solid-liquid extraction of U is necessary. In this thesis, the synthesis of materials named Metal Organic Framework (MOF) and their use to the uranium extraction from ores are studied. MOFs are hybrid and crystalline materials showing high performances for uranium extractions in weak acid solutions.In order to answer to this objective, the stability of two type of MOFs has been studied at different contact time in acidic solution simulating the ore leachate. Afterwards, zirconium based MOFs functionalized with two different organic functions have been synthesized and characterized with PXRD, BET, TGA, SEM, FT-IR and NMR. The uranium extraction behavior with three functionalized MOFs has been studied in function of the contact time, uranium concentration, sulfate concentration and pH. The uranium extraction values coupled with spectroscopic analysis of uranium loaded materials afford the understanding of uranium extraction mechanisms for both materials.Keywords: MOFs, organic synthesis, solid-liquid separation, uranium

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Pschirer, David M. "Electrochemical uranium valence control in centrifugal solvent extraction contractors". Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/1853/12995.

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Moreno, Martinez Diego. "Etude par dynamique moléculaire de la séparation de l'uranium (VI) sur support solide". Electronic Thesis or Diss., Montpellier, Ecole nationale supérieure de chimie, 2022. http://www.theses.fr/2022ENCM0018.

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L'extraction de l'uranium joue un rôle essentiel dans le cycle du combustible nucléaire. L'extraction sur support solide par des silices mésoporeuses représente une alternative prometteuse aux procédés d'extraction liquide-liquide. En effet, la compacité de ces supports solides et leur facilité de mise en œuvre associée à la réduction des effluents organiques offrent à ce système des avantages compétitifs majeurs. Ce type de systèmes a déjà été étudié de façon expérimentale dans le cadre de deux thèses au CEA. Ainsi, le but de cette thèse-ci, centrée sur l'étude par la chimie théorique (notamment par la dynamique moléculaire), est de rationaliser les comportements observés expérimentalement et d'apporter des éléments de compréhension des mécanismes ayant lieu. Pour ce faire, la coordination de l'uranium (VI) à l'interface entre la phase solide et la phase aqueuse, l'influence de divers paramètres structuraux du support solide et les conditions chimiques sur la spéciation de l'uranium seront étudiés
The uranium extraction plays an essential role in the nuclear fuel cycle. The extraction using mesoporous silica solid supports represents a promising alternative to the liquid-liquid extraction processes. In fact, the compactness of these solid supports, the facility of implementation associated to the reduction of organic effluents give to this system great competitive advantage. This kind of systems has already been studied experimentally within the framework of two PhD students in the CEA (Atomic Energy Commission). Thus, the objective of this research, centered on theoretical chemistry studies (especially by molecular dynamics), is to rationalize the behaviors that have been experimentally observed and to provide comprehension elements about the involved mechanisms. In order to do this, the uranium (VI) coordination at the interface within the solid phase and the aqueous phase, the influence of diverse structural parameters of the solid support, and the chemical conditions of the uranium speciation will be studied

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Pitt, Julian Llewellyn. "The behaviour of mineral particles in uranium solvent extraction systems". Thesis, Imperial College London, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.339619.

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Siebert, Stéphane. "Hydrodynamique et transfert isotopique dans une colonne pulsée à plateaux perforés". Châtenay-Malabry, Ecole centrale de Paris, 1985. http://www.theses.fr/1985ECAP0026.

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Le procédé français d'enrichissement de l'uranium par voie chimique met en oeuvre , dans la section d'échange isotopique, des colonnes pulsées à plateaux perforés pour lesquelles la meilleure efficacité de transfert est recherchée. Cette étude a pour but d'approfondir la connaissance des différents mécanismes intervenant dans la performance globale d'un colonne. Elle s'appuie sur une description détaillée du comportement de la phase dispersée appliquée aux trois aspects du fonctionnement classiquement observés: régime permanent hydraulique, régime transitoire hydraulique (injection de traceur), régime permanent de transfert isotopique. Le modèle résultant a été validé par des mesures de taille de gouttes, de profils de rétention, et de dispersion sur les duex phases. Il a été ensuite confronté aux mesures de profils isotopiques pour calculer le coefficient de transfert. La valeur déterminée est un peu supérieure aux résultats en goutte isolée. D'un point de vue théorique, l'efficacité a été divisée en trois contributions d'importances voisines : cinétique pure, mélange en retout, mélange en avant. D'un point de vue pratique, la multiplicité des phénomènes influençant la performance finale a été mise en évidence et laisse prévoir un optimum peu prononcé.

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Artese, Alexandre. "Caractérisation de ligands N,P pour le raffinage de l'uranium(VI) en milieu nitrique". Thesis, Montpellier, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019MONTS067.

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Les usines de raffinage des concentrés d’uranium naturel utilisent des procédés hydrométallurgiques pour amener l’uranium à une pureté dite « nucléaire ». Après dissolution dans de l’acide nitrique pour obtenir une solution aqueuse d’uranium(VI), des étapes d’extraction liquide-liquide sont utilisées pour purifier l’uranium. L’extractant phosphate de tri-n-butyle (ou TBP) utilisés lors de ces étapes présente cependant des inconvénients (accumulation de thorium, désextraction non concentrante, solubilité en phase aqueuse non négligeable). L’objectif de l’étude est d’explorer et d’étudier la capacité d’extractants bifonctionels N,P pour l’extraction sélective de l’uranium(VI) en milieu nitrique, et de comprendre les mécanismes entrant en jeu dans l’extraction de l’uranium(VI) ainsi que dans l’extraction de l’élément compétiteur zirconium(IV) par ces extractants.Comme les mécanismes à la base des procédés d'extraction liquide-liquide reposent non seulement sur les propriétés de complexation des molécules extractantes, mais aussi sur leur capacité à former des agrégats supramoléculaires du fait de leur nature amphiphile, les mécanismes d’extraction des ligands bifonctionels N,P ont été étudiés aux échelles moléculaire et supramoléculaire.La compréhension des mécanismes d’extraction a permis d’expliquer la différence de facteur de séparation U/Zr obtenue avec deux extractants amidophosphonates qui ne diffèrent que par la présence d’une chaine centrale alkyle. Il a été montré que cette différence s’explique par la capacité d’un de ces extractants N,P à s’auto-assembler et non par une différence d’affinités des fonctions coordinantes
Refining plants of natural uranium concentrates use hydrometallurgical processes to produce uranium with a so-called "nuclear" purity. After dissolution in nitric acid to obtain an aqueous solution of uranium(VI), solvent extraction process is used to purify uranium. The commonly used extractant tri-n-butyl phosphate (or TBP) present however some drawbacks (accumulation of thorium, non-concentrating back-extraction, significant solubility in an aqueous phase).The goal of the study is to explore the ability of new N, P bifunctional extractants for the selective extraction of uranium(VI) in nitric media, and to understand the mechanisms involved in the extraction of uranium(VI) as well as in the extraction of the competing element zirconium(IV).Mechanisms underlying solvent extraction processes being not only based on the chelating properties of the extractant molecules, but also on their capacity to form supramolecular aggregates because of their amphiphilic nature, the extraction mechanisms were studied at both molecular and supramolecular scales.Thanks to the understanding of the extraction mechanisms, the difference of separation factor U/Zr obtained with two amidophosphonates extractants which differ only in the presence of a central alkyl chain could be explained. It was shown that this difference takes its origin in the ability of one of the extractants N, P to self-assemble and not in different affinities of the coordinating functions

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Berger, Clémence. "Optimisation de molécules extractantes pour le multi-recyclage du Plutonium dans les combustibles de nouvelle génération". Thesis, Montpellier, 2019. http://www.theses.fr/2019MONTS041.

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Ces travaux de thèse, effectués dans le cadre des études sur le retraitement des combustibles nucléaires usés par extraction liquide-liquide, concernent l’évaluation des performances d’extraction d’une nouvelle famille de molécules : les carbamides (R1R2NC(O)NR3R4). Cette famille peu étudiée jusqu’à maintenant apparait comme pertinente pour la séparation chimique de l’uranium et du plutonium à partir d’une solution d’acide nitrique concentrée. Le procédé envisagé permettrait une co extraction de l’uranium et du plutonium à forte concentration d'acide nitrique (4 mol.L 1) ainsi qu’une séparation de ces deux éléments à plus faible concentration d'acide nitrique (0,5 mol.L-1) sans avoir recours à des réactions d’oxydo-réduction comme c’est le cas pour le procédé industriel PUREX actuellement mis en œuvre dans les usines de retraitement de La Hague.En vue de l’optimisation de la structure de ces nouveaux extractants, 17 carbamides ont été étudiés. L’influence de la longueur des chaînes alkyle, du nombre de substituants, du nombre et de la position de ramifications a été évaluée sur l’extraction de l’uranium et du plutonium ainsi que sur la sélectivité U/Pu. Les résultats ont montré que certains carbamides sont des extractants performants vis-à-vis de l’uranium. La présence d’un groupement –NH sur la fonction carbamide améliore l’extraction alors que l’ajout de ramifications sur les chaines alkyles diminue l’extraction ainsi que la séparation U/Pu. Des études complémentaires sur la capacité de charge et la viscosité ont permis d’optimiser la structure et de proposer des candidats répondant aux critères de développement d’un procédé.La spéciation de l’uranium et du plutonium en phase organique en fonction de divers paramètres (structure du carbamide, concentration d'acide nitrique, etc) a mis en évidence les différents complexes formés: UO2(NO3)2L2; UO2(NO3)3(HL) et {UO2(NO3)L2}(NO3)pour l’uranium et Pu(NO3)4L2 et Pu(NO3)6(HL)2 pour le plutonium. Un lien entre les différences de propriétés extractantes et la nature des complexes formés en phase organique a été mis en évidence. En particulier, un changement du mécanisme d’extraction de l’uranium est observé pour les composés portant le groupement –NH. Par ailleurs, l’augmentation de la concentration d’acide nitrique en phase aqueuse favorise fortement la formation des complexes où l’extractant est en sphère externe UO2(NO3)3(HL) et Pu(NO3)6(HL)2 en solution.Enfin la stabilité de ces extractants vis-à-vis de la radiolyse a été étudiée de manière préliminaire
This thesis, conducted in the framework of the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuels by solvent extraction, concerns the extraction performances evaluation in view of new extractants optimization: carbamide molecules (R1R2NC(O)NR3R4). This extractant family has not attracted much attention in literature but appears as a good substitutes for the chemical separation of uranium and plutonium from an nitric acid aqueous phase. The considering process will allow to extract uranium and plutonium at high nitric acid concentration (CHNO3aq = 4 mol.L-1) and separate these two elements at lower nitric acid concentration (CHNO3aq = 0,5 mol.L-1) without redox chemistry.In these conditions, 17 carbamide extractants were studied to observe the influence of alkyl chains length, substituent number, position and number of (2-ethylhexyl) ramifications on the uranium and plutonium extraction and on the U/Pu selectivity. Results indicate a high uranium extraction by carbamide molecules. Moreover, substituent number have a high influence on the cations extraction whose distribution ratio highly increase with the –NH group presence on the carbamide function. On the other hand, ramifications addition decrease the extraction and the U/Pu separation with the decreasing of distribution ratios. Additional studies on loading capacity and viscosity measurements allow to optimize the structure and some good analogs are proposed to process development.The uranium and plutonium speciation in organic phase as a function of experimental conditions (carbamide structure, nitric acid concentration, etc) allow to highlight formed complexes: UO2(NO3)2L2; UO2(NO3)3(HL) and {UO2(NO3)L2}(NO3) for uranium and Pu(NO3)4L2 and Pu(NO3)6(HL)2 for plutonium. The relation between extracting properties and formed complexes in organic phase has been made. In particular, modification of the uranium extraction mechanism is observed for the compounds containing –NH group. Moreover, the increase of aqueous nitric acid concentration have a favorable effect on the formation of outer sphere complexes UO2(NO3)3(HL) and Pu(NO3)6(HL)2.Then extractant stability of extractant regarding γ radiolysis have also been studied

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Van, der Ryst Reinier Hendrik. "Evaluation of the solvent extraction organic phase in a uranium extraction plant / Reinier Hendrik van der Ryst". Thesis, North-West University, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/10394/4921.

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Using kerosene as an aromatic organic diluent in the liquid–liquid separation process for the extraction of uranium in the solvent extraction section of the AngloGold Ashanti South Uranium Plant near the town of Orkney in South Africa, incurs a multitude of safety, health and environmental problems. A possible solution may be to replace the currently used aromatic–based organic diluent with an aliphatic–based organic diluent. A range of aliphatic organic diluents were tested to determine the extraction efficiency of these alternative diluents, if they were to be applied to the process currently implemented by the AngloGold Ashanti South Uranium Plant. The aliphatic organic diluents under investigation were: Biodiesel-B–100 Shellsol D70 Sasol Wax SSX 150 Sasol Wax SSX 210 The aliphatic diluent yielding the highest uranium extraction efficiency, and having the most desirable physical characteristics, was Sasol Wax SSX 210. Sasol Wax SSX 210 was selected to replace kerosene as the diluent in the solvent composition to conduct the next phase of the study. The solvent’s composition was then optimised to obtain a desirable solvent make–up containing the newly chosen aliphatic diluent, third–phase inhibitor and tertiary alkyl amine. The most favourable solvent composition was found to be; 5 vol.% Alamine 336 with 2 vol.% isodecanol and 93 vol.% SSX 210. A third parameter, pH, was identified as an influencing factor on the overall efficiency of the process. A theoretical explanation for the influence that pH has on the process, confirmed by an experimental analysis, was examined to determine which pH characteristics contributed to the efficiency of the extraction process. A final indication of the success of the newly implemented aliphatic solvent was determined via a precipitation simulation. The structure of crystals precipitated from the loaded strip liquor (OK liquor) was evaluated to ensure that the required product would adhere to product specifications.
Thesis (M.Ing. (Chemical Engineering))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2011.

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Libros sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Tessier, Marc y David Widgington. Extraction!: Comix reportage. Montréal: Cumulus Press, 2007.

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Centre, Bhabha Atomic Research, ed. Studies on supercritical fluid extraction of uranium and thorium from liquid and solid matrix. Mumbai: Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, 2005.

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Commission canadienne de sûreté nucléaire. La mesure des produits de filiation du radon en suspension dans l'air dans les mines d'uranium et les usines de concentration d'uranium. Ottawa, Ont: Commission canadienne de sûreté nucléaire, 2003.

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Commission conjointe fédérale-provinciale d'examen des projets d'exploitation de mines d'uranium dans le nord de la Saskatchewan (Canada). Projets d'exploitation de mines d'uranium dans le nord de la Saskatchewan: Dominique-Janine Extension, McClean Lake Project et Midwest Joint Venture. Hull, Qué: Bureau fédéral d'examen des évaluations environnementales, 1993.

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Brunet, Philippe. La nature dans tous ses états: Uranium, nucléaire et radioactivité en limousin : une aproche sociologique de la question environnementale de l'industrie de l'uranium. Limoges: Pulim, 2004.

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Canada. Bureau fédéral d'examen des évaluations environnementales. Mines d'uranium de Rabbit Lake A-zone, D-zone et Eagle Point: Rapport de la Commission d'examen des évaluations environnementales. Hull, Qué: Bureau fédéral d'examen des évaluations environnementales, 1993.

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U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Division of Fuel Cycle Safety and Safeguards. y Center for Nuclear Waste Regulatory Analyses (Southwest Research Institute), eds. A baseline risk-informed, performance-based approach for in situ leach uranium extraction leases. Washington, DC: Division of Fuel Cycle Safety and Safeguards, Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2001.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Arizona Strip District. The Hermit Project appendix document: A major modification to the Hunt Project plan of operations for uranium ore extraction. St. George, Utah: The District, 1987.

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United States. Bureau of Land Management. Arizona Strip District. The Hermit Project draft environmental assessment: A major modification to the Hunt Project plan of operations for uranium ore extraction. St. George, Utah: The District, 1987.

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Capítulos de libros sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Dutta, Sujay Kumar y Dharmesh R. Lodhari. "Uranium". En Extraction of Nuclear and Non-ferrous Metals, 27–37. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5172-2_2.

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Zhou, Zhiquan, Yan Ren, Kaikai Ye, Yuqing Niu, Jiayu Zhang, Shu Meng, Shaohui Kang, Xiaohao Cao y Dabing Li. "Research on Re-extraction Technology for Uranium Refining Based on Fractionation Extraction". En Springer Proceedings in Physics, 355–66. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1023-6_32.

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AbstractTBP extraction in nitric acid system is the core purification process of the wet method for uranium refining and conversion. Reextraction for uranium refining based on fractionation extraction was proposed, according to the characteristics and requirements of uranium refining extraction. The operation line and step line of reextraction were obtained through mathematical model, and the control law is explained. The reextraction bench test was carried out to investigate the stable operation and the concentration variation of the related components. The study shows that the reextraction process can run stably. After extraction, the concentration of uranium in organic phase can reach 120g/L, the extraction saturation can reach 96.7%, the concentration of uranium in raffinate is less than 10mg/L, and the concentration of impurity components is greatly reduced. Reextraction technology can facility the control of uranium refining extraction, which maintains the state of high saturation vs. low raffinate concentration.

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Burtynsky, Edward. "Landscapes of Extraction". En Heavy Metal, 67–86. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/obp.0373.08.

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For more than two decades, Edward Burtynksy has captured images of the indelible marks left by human activity on landscapes, from the uranium mines of Elliot Lake, Ontario to the salt ponds of Senegal. Through a series of photographic journeys across diverse landscapes, from mining sites to recycling facilities, Burtynsky captures the transformative impact of human industry on the Earth’s surface. The essay traces the photographer’s evolving fascination with minerals, salt and water extracted at industrial scales, revealing the intricate interplay between human ingenuity and environmental disruption, and urging readers to reflect on humanity’s relationship with the natural world.

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Yunusov, M. M. "Legacy of Uranium Extraction and Environmental Security in the Republic of Tajikistan". En The New Uranium Mining Boom, 401–7. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-22122-4_47.

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Wang, Yajie, Lufeng Wang, Chuanjiang Dong, Li Li, Mengqi Tang, Weizhong Sun y Yao Wu. "Evaluation of Uncertainty for Determination of Trace Uranium in Biology by Laser Fluorescence Method". En Springer Proceedings in Physics, 549–66. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1023-6_48.

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AbstractLarge amounts of uranium-containing radioactive waste are generated in reactor operation and in the research and manufacture of nuclear fuel elements. At present, there are various uranium enrichment and separation methods such as reduction precipitation method, ion exchange method, solvent extraction method, membrane filtration method, adsorption method, and microorganism method to treat the uranium-containing radioactive waste generated in the related processes of nuclear facilities. However, the airborne effluent or liquid effluent discharged after treatment may still contain radioactive uranium. It is well known that uranium is a radioactive heavy metal element, and its radioactive and chemical toxicity cannot be ignored. Uranium in the environment enters the human body through the food route, and its long half-life can make the human body suffer from continuous radioactive internal radiation damage. As an environmental medium, organisms are closely related to the entry of uranium into the human body through food. Therefore, it is of great significance to carry out accurate measurement of uranium content in environmental-grade biological samples around nuclear facilities, however, complete and accurate measurement results include measurement data and uncertainty. Laser fluorescence method is a method for rapid analysis of uranium content in environmental samples. It has the advantages of high sensitivity, simple sample pretreatment, and wide measurement range, which has been widely used in nuclear industry, environmental monitoring and scientific research. At present, there is a lack of relevant reports on the uncertainty of the measurement of total uranium content in environmental-grade biological samples by laser fluorescence method. It is of great significance to accurately measure the uranium content in biological samples by evaluating the uncertainty of this method. In this paper, the WGJ-III trace uranium analyzer was used to analyze the uncertainty source of total uranium in environmental-grade biological samples by laser fluorescence method. The uncertainty measurement model was established, the uncertainty components were quantified, and the expanded uncertainty of the measurement of total uranium content in environmental biological samples was calculated. The evaluation results showed that the expanded uncertainty of a 0.05 g environmental biological sample is 10.8% (k = 2) without dilution, and the dominant uncertainty component is derived from the measurement uncertainty of sample fluorescence counting.

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Fakhi, Said, Rabie Outayad, Elmehdi Fait, Zineb Faiz, C. Galindo, Abderrahim Bouih, Moncef Benmansour et al. "Sequential Extraction of U and Th Isotopes: Study of Their Intrinsic Distribution in Phosphate and Limestone Sedimentary Rock in Comparison with Black Shale". En Uranium - Past and Future Challenges, 581–90. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-11059-2_66.

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Wai, Chien M., Yuehe Lin, Min Ji, Karen L. Toews y Neil G. Smart. "Extraction and Separation of Uranium and Lanthanides with Supercritical Fluids". En ACS Symposium Series, 390–400. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1999. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/bk-1999-0716.ch023.

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Conde, Marta y Martí Orta-Martínez. "Activism Mobilizing Science Revisited". En Studies in Ecological Economics, 261–70. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22566-6_22.

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AbstractMinority groups and marginalized communities affected by extractive industries are increasingly allying with scientists to coproduce new alternative knowledge in order to challenge the data and narratives produced by the company or some state departments. Under the counter-expertise umbrella this process understood as Activism Mobilizing Science (AMS) is characterized by being driven by activists or local grassroots groups, where local and scientific knowledge are merged to coproduce new scientific knowledge. As we show through three case studies – two of uranium mines in Africa and an oil extraction case in the Peruvian Amazon – the main objective of these groups is to understand what are the negative impacts of extractive industry activities, to challenge the company’s or state’s discourse or data, and to gain legitimacy and visibility. We pose that the empowerment of these groups is as much a result of the newly coproduced knowledge as the dynamics of the AMS process itself.

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Ölmez, Ş. y M. Eral. "Extraction of Uranium from Acidic Solutions by TBP Impregnated Polyurethane Foam". En Nuclear Analytical Methods in the Life Sciences 1994, 731–35. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 1994. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4757-6025-5_85.

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Lin, Wang, Xu Dan, Feng Jianxin, Cui Hanlong, Wang Wenhui y Zhu Yingxi. "Solid-Liquid Equilibria of Ternary Systems UO2(NO3)2 + HNO3 + H2O and UF4 + HF + H2O at 298 K". En Springer Proceedings in Physics, 480–89. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1023-6_42.

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AbstractUO2(NO3)2 and UF4 are significant intermediates that connect different chemical unit operations (such as dissolution, evaporation, concentration, extraction and etc.) in uranium chemical industry. Commonly, there is a basic physicochemical question about phase equilibrium of ternary systems UO2(NO3)2 + HNO3 + H2O and UF4 + HF + H2O, it is crucial to understand the phase behavior and thermodynamic properties of them with the continuous development of uranium chemical industry. In this study, solid-liquid phase equilibria of ternary systems UO2(NO3)2 + HNO3 + H2O and UF4 + HF + H2O at 298 K were studied by means of isothermal dissolution method, the solubilities and densities of equilibria liquid phase were investigated experimentally for two systems, the composition of equilibria solid phase of system UO2(NO3)2 + HNO3 + H2O at 298 K were determined by Scherinemakers’ wet residue method, and the method of X-ray diffraction was used to determine the composition of equilibria solid phase for system UF4 + HF + H2O at 298 K. Phase diagrams and diagrams of density-composition were constructed for systems UO2(NO3)2 + HNO3 + H2O and UF4 + HF + H2O at 298 K. Results show that there are unique isothermal dissolution curve for two ternary systems, and corresponding crystallization zone are UO2(NO3)2·6H2O and UF4·2.5H2O, respectively.

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Actas de conferencias sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Vo, Duc-Tri, Ionela Prodan, Laurent Lefèvre, Vincent Vanel, Sylvain Costenoble y Binh Dinh. "ANN-Based Adaptive NMPC for Uranium Extraction-Scrubbing Operation in Spent Nuclear Fuel Treatment Process^*". En 2024 IEEE Conference on Control Technology and Applications (CCTA), 702–9. IEEE, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ccta60707.2024.10666566.

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Martoyan, Gagik, Garik Nalbandyan, Lavrenti Gagiyan, Gagik Karamyan, Artak Barseghyan y Gagik Brutyan. "Application of a New Technology for Reprocessing of Wastes Within the Framework of Rehabilitation of Uranium Mines Operated by In Situ Leaching". En ASME 2011 14th International Conference on Environmental Remediation and Radioactive Waste Management. ASMEDC, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icem2011-59403.

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It is essential the environmentally safe industrial production of nuclear fuel especially in the case of uranium extraction by In Situ Leaching, when the environment and the deep extraction of uranium are important problems. In the presented paper it is studied the feasibility of the application of an electrodialysis method for the deep extraction of uranium and radium from liquid (acid) streams. It is proposed to apply a new electro-hydro-metallurgical [1] extraction and refining method to ensure the necessary extraction level of elements. In the same time the new method ensures the recycling of acids used in the process.

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Stojanovic, M., D. Potpara, D. Iles y L. Tesmanovic. "Fractional uranium extraction from tailings and various soil types". En The 8th International Mineral Processing Symposium. Taylor & Francis Group, 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742: CRC Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203747117-129.

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Wray, Christopher M. y Achim D. Herrmann. "INVESTIGATING URANIUM UPTAKE INTO MODERN CARBONATES BY SEQUENTIAL EXTRACTION". En 50th Annual GSA South-Central Section Meeting. Geological Society of America, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/abs/2016sc-273853.

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Bektay, Yerkin, Akmurat Altynbek, Erzhan Mukanov, Gaukhar Turysbekova y Bauyrzhan Shiderin. "RECOVERY OF ASSOCIATED METALS DURING IN SITU LEACHING OF URANIUM". En 22nd SGEM International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference 2022. STEF92 Technology, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2022/1.1/s03.041.

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Uranium mining companies of Kazakhstan during 15 years increased production of uranium more than 15 times using in-situ recovery of uranium (ISR). At the same time a significant part of uranium deposits contains gold, silver, palladium and rare metals like rhenium, germanium, scandium and et`s. The task was set for the complex extraction of associated metals from technological solutions of a uranium mine. Work was carried out to select and study samples of productive solutions and leaching solutions at one of the uranium mines in Kazakhstan. At the second stage, an experimental unit was installed in a 40-foot container (Stand), consisting of six sorption columns and two flow channel extractors. The hydrodynamic resistance of channel extractors much less then in sorption columns. This is a fundamental technical advantage compared to sorption columns. The flow rate in the Channel extractors was more than 0.85 m/sec, which is much higher than the flow rate in the sorption columns (0.01 m/sec). Enlarged tests were carried out with various types of ion-exchange resins, activated carbon, and zeolite on the Stand. Channel extractors used CYANEX extractants and others. It was showed the potential for extracting associated valuable metals from technological solutions: gold, scandium, germanium and other metals. Integrated mining of associated metals at the explored uranium mine of Kazakhstan will provide an economic benefit of up to $350 million.

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Greene, John A., Roseanna M. Neupauer, Ming Ye, Joseph R. Kasprzyk, David C. Mays y Gary P. Curtis. "Engineered Injection and Extraction for Remediation of Uranium-Contaminated Groundwater". En World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2017. Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/9780784480618.011.

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Zhao, Ningbo, Jin Fu, Xinchun Li, Chuan Zhang y Donghui Zhang. "Study on the Extraction Technology of Weak Uranium Geochemical Anomalies". En International conference on Future Energy, Environment and Materials. Southampton, UK: WIT Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.2495/feem130461.

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Gerasimov, Aleksander S., Boris R. Bergelson y Tamara S. Zaritskaya. "Two Periods of Long-Term Storage of Thorium Spent Fuel". En ASME 2001 8th International Conference on Radioactive Waste Management and Environmental Remediation. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icem2001-1219.

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Abstract Radiotoxicity and decay heat power of actinides from spent thorium-uranium nuclear fuel of VVER-1000 type reactor during 100 000 year storage are discussed. Actinide accumulation in thorium fuel cycle is much less than in uranium fuel cycle. The radiotoxicity of actinides of thorium-uranium fuel by air is 5.5 times less and radiotoxicity by water is 3.5 times less than radiotoxicity of actinides of uranium fuel. Extraction of most important nuclides for transmutation permits to reduce radiologic danger of wastes remaining in storage.

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Schneider, Erich A. y Neil Shah. "Near Term Deployment, Long Term Impact: Uranium Price Over the Lifetime of New Capacity". En 16th International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. ASMEDC, 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone16-48573.

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While reasonable short-term resource price projections can be obtained by taking a bottom-up approach — constructing a supply curve based upon current production capacities and costs — this approach breaks down as the time horizon of the analysis lengthens. One approach to long-term price forecasting is to calibrate a simple model of a commodity market against past data. To that end, an analogy was drawn between the behavior of the uranium market and that of some three dozen materials for which the United States Geologic Survey (USGS) maintains data. This work adds to previously published results showing that the USGS-reported prices of minerals similar to uranium have consistently declined over the past century. In this paper, the extent to which uranium geology and extraction technologies are indeed analogous to other minerals is quantitatively addressed. A study of crustal abundances, ore grades being economically mined, concentration factors, market share of extraction techniques, years of proven reserve and other factors indicates that uranium is not at all exceptional with respect to the average of the USGS minerals. This suggests that, on the supply side, the analogy between the USGS minerals and uranium may indeed offer valuable insights into medium and long term uranium price behavior.

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Vorontsov, P. Y. "AN EFFECT OF THE MATERIAL COMPOSITION OF ORES AND HOST ROCKS TO THE URANIUM MINING AND LEACHING PROCESS BY THE METHOD OF IN-SITU LEACHING (ISL) AT RESERVOIR-INFILTRATION-TYPE DEPOSITS". En Проблемы минералогии, петрографии и металлогении. Научные чтения памяти П. Н. Чирвинского. ПЕРМСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ НАЦИОНАЛЬНЫЙ ИССЛЕДОВАТЕЛЬСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.17072/chirvinsky.2022.34.

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Currently there are no specific geotechnological parameters and criteria by which after opening of an ore body it is possible with a high degree of probability to predict an occurrence of problems with the uranium mining. The study of geotech-nological properties of ores affecting on uranium reserves development by the ISL method is achieved by various methods: geophysical, mineralogical and petrographic, laboratory, etc. These works are becoming highly relevant while solving problems re-lated with a low efficiency of uranium mining in difficult areas. Specialists engaged in the analysis of problems during an uranium extraction are required an additional data concerning the mineralogical and petrophysical composition of ore-hosting rocks, the forms of uranium in the rock, the composition of uranium minerals, textural, structur-al features and lithological and filtration types of uranium distribution, the degree of rocks heterogeneity filtration, and their acid capacity, and etc.

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Informes sobre el tema "Extraction uranium"

Skone, Timothy J. Uranium, Extraction and Transport. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), mayo de 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1509229.

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Al-Sheikhly, Mohamad, Travis Dietz, Zois Tsinas, Claire Tomaszewski, Ileana M. Pazos, Olga Nigliazzo, Weixing Li, Mohamad Adel-Hadadi y Aaron Barkatt. Enhancement of Extraction of Uranium from Seawater. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), abril de 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1329194.

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Skone, Timothy J. Uranium, Extraction and Transport with European Enrichment. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), mayo de 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1509230.

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Skone, Timothy J. Uranium, Extraction and Transport with US Enrichment. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), mayo de 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1509231.

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DODD, E. N. Plutonium Uranium Extraction Facility Documented Safety Analysis. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), octubre de 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/817849.

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Visser, A. y R. Robert Pierce. SOLVENT EXTRACTION FOR URANIUM MOLYBDENUM ALLOY DISSOLUTION FLOWSHEET. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), junio de 2007. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/908930.

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Dietz, Travis, Eli Fastow, Micah Tsoi, Zois Tsinas, Ileana Pazos y Mohamad Al-Sheikhly. Enhancement of the Extraction of Uranium from Seawater. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), diciembre de 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1489218.

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Bhatia, R. K. ,. Westinghouse Hanford. Plutonium-Uranium Extraction (PUREX) facility preclosure work plan. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), julio de 1996. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/657351.

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Gorecki, H. y K. Grabas. Extraction of uranium(IV) from wet-process phosphoric acid in a small centrifugal extractor. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), enero de 1991. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/7800013.

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Lin, Wenbin y Kathryn Taylor-Pashow. Development of Novel Sorbents for Uranium Extraction from Seawater. Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI), enero de 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.2172/1120745.

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