Literatura académica sobre el tema "Equal Opportunity Theory"

Liberalism has often been viewed as a continuing dialogue about the relative priorities between liberty and equality. When the version of equality under discussion requires equalization of outcomes, it is easy to see how the two ideals might conflict. But when the version of equality requires only equalization of opportunities, the conflict has been treated as greatly muted since the principle of equality seems so meager in its implications. However, when one looks carefully at various versions of equal opportunity and various versions of liberty, the conflict between them is, in fact, both dramatic and inescapable. Each version of the conflict poses hard choices which defy anysystematicpattern granting priority to one of these basic values over the other. In this essay, I will flesh out and argue for this picture of fundamental conflict, and then turn to some more general issues about the kinds of answers we should expect to the basic questions of liberal theory.

The roots of disagreement over the relationship between the principle of equal opportunity and the ideal of equal­ity are examined through a discussion of John Schaar's attempt to demonstrate their incompatibility. It is concluded that crucial questions of meaning cannot be answered without reference to a general context of social, political, and economic theory, and ultimately, to a normative philosophy of man. This variation of meaning with context has tended to be ignored or underestimated in contemporary discussions of equal educational opportunity. Special attention is drawn to the limitations of ordinary language analyses in this respect.

In A Theory of Justice and elsewhere John Rawls writes that the basic structure of any society affects the life prospects of those growing up in different ‘starting places,’ yet his conception of equal opportunity seems to require that one's opportunities not be affected by the class position of one's birth. Here I explicate this apparent contradiction and reconcile these assertions. In Rawlsian fair equality of opportunity children from working-class families have lesser opportunity to attain advantaged positions.Rawls's view cannot be easily revised to allow equal prospects for all children. Within the framework of Rawls's understanding of a just society, he is right to say that his own conception of fair equality of opportunity allows deep inequalities in life prospects.

Thesis advisor: Hans de Wit
The current displacement crisis in the German context has focused scholarly attention on refugee student access to higher education. However, much less research has attended to supports at higher education institutions (HEIs) for enrolled migrant and refugee students. In fact, education research in the German setting rarely focuses on students from any migrant background, though these students comprise between 20-25% of all German tertiary enrollment. This study uses Constructivist Grounded Theory (Charmaz, 2014) and a postcolonial lens to analyze “equal opportunity” plans and programs at 32 German HEIs across all 16 federal states. Data sources include the “equal opportunity plan” unique to each HEI (Gleichstellungsplan) and interviews with “equal opportunity office” (Gleichstellungsbüro) faculty and staff. Key findings include a bureaucratization and numerification of diversity in the German case, as well as an almost exclusive focus on diversity as gender. This dissertation offers a potentially transferable theoretical model, which may be relevant in national settings with increasingly diverse student populations, histories of colonial possession or fantasy, or primarily public higher education systems (Bhabha, 1994; El-Tayeb, 2016; Kilomba, 2008; Said, 1979)
Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2020
Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education
Discipline: Educational Leadership and Higher Education

This PhD study explores the transitional experiences of working class students between institutions of Further Education and Higher Education within the field of post-16 sports education. It draws its empirical illustration from the interview and ethnographic data collected over an 18 month period between October 2007 and July 2009 from a group of six students who had enrolled on a vocational FDSc Foundation Degree qualification. The study is comprised of two interrelated parts: Part I of the study illustrates the conceptual and methodological considerations which have driven the exploration of the student experience. The theoretical approach for investigating these experiences is informed by the structurationist perspective of Rob Stones (Stones, 2005). Stones conceptualises the relations between agent and structure four interlinked areas: External Structures, Internal Structures, Active Agency and Outcomes. Conceptualising transitional experience in this manner offers possibilities for a more contextually sensitive, refined, developed and ultimately adequate ontology of structuration. In further developing the framework, the study draws upon the sociological understanding of Basil Bernstein and Pierre Bourdieu. The incorporation of these two distinguishable but related perspectives allows the framework to inform an understanding of the interconnections between the sanctioned practices of a context, the role of agents within a context and the power capacities that are derived from these relations (Mouzelis, 1991; Morrison, 2005). In doing so, it provides a number of lenses in understanding the practices and relations between Further and Higher Education and the consequences of this for agents who enter this transition. Part II critically reflects on the participants experiences. Drawing upon data collected at three institutions: Hope Further Education College (HFEC), Fawlty University-College (FUC) and Ivory Tower University (ITU), the study discusses and explores in depth how the relations between the participants and the external structures of the institutions begin to form three identifiable and conceptually distinguishable transitional experiences which are seen to be either Empowering, Fragmented or Failed. In reflecting upon such relations and experiences, the study suggests that discourses of opportunity surrounding vocational qualifications forwarded to these students prior to, and during their course, is rather more complex than previously illustrated and for some functions as more of a myth than empowering discourse. Rather than providing equal possibility, the relations and transitional experiences that are currently produced only afford restricted opportunities to students choosing this vocational pathway within post-16 sports education. In conclusion, the study begins to discuss the implications of the relations and experiences highlighted for present and prospective relations and practices, asking whether change is possible, creating equal possibilities, not restricted opportunity.

Mestrado em Econometria Aplicada e Previsão
O acesso em criança a bens e serviços básicos pode desempenhar um importante papel na vida adulta, sendo que uma sociedade justa permite que todos os seus indivíduos tenham o acesso sem distinção devido às características circunstanciais da pessoa. Através da Teoria da Justiça de Rawls (1971) e do trabalho de Roemer (1996) pode entender-se o sucesso de um indivíduo através de duas componentes: esforço - de total responsabilidade do indivíduo - e características inatas - não alterável. A literatura defende que as desigualdades provocadas por características inatas são socialmente injustas, portanto características como género, etnia, renda per capita da família, entre outras não devem determinar a desigualdade de oportunidades. O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de estimar a probabilidade de um indivíduo ter acesso a um bem ou serviço tendo em conta a dinâmica espacial. Os resultados apontam numa quase universalização no acesso a iluminação elétrica entre os estados brasileiros, entretanto ainda há discriminação no acesso a água canalizada, acesso a saneamento básico, probabilidade de completar os estudos na idade correta, acesso a informação e tecnologia. O estudo também encontra padrões espaciais entre os estados brasileiros, bem como uma polarização Norte-Sul no acesso as bens e serviços.
The child contact to basic goods and services can play an important role in adult life, and a just society allows all its individuals to have access without distinction due to the person's circumstantial characteristics. Through The Theory of Justice of Rawls (1971) and the work of Roemer (1996), the success of an individual can be understood through two components: the effort of total responsibility of the individual and the innate characteristics that are not changeable. The literature argues that inequalities caused by innate characteristics are socially unfair, therefore characteristics such as sex, ethnicity, per capita income of the family, among others, should not determine the inequality of opportunities. This work intends to estimate the probability that the individual will have access to a good or service taking into account the spatial dynamics. The results point to an almost universalization in access to electric lighting between Brazilian states, however, there is still discrimination in access to channeled water, basic sanitation, the probability of completing the studies in the correct age and accessibility to Information and technology. The study also finds spatial patterns between Brazilian states, as well as a north-south polarization in access to goods and services.
info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The purpose of this study is to discover if there has been quantitative change in the gender balance of the employment profile of the ACT Department of Education from 1976 to 1991 and to explore possible reasons for such change. It should be noted that the Department has had several changes of name over the period covered by this study including the ACT Department of Education, the ACT Department of Health, Education and the Arts, and it is presently known as the ACT Department of Education and Training. For the sake of clarity it will be referred to throughout as the ACT Department of Education. The employment configuration will be studied from 1976, the earliest year of available data, to 1991 to measure relative changes in the position of men and women. This paper will examine significant events in the ACT Education system, in particular the introduction of Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) legislation in 1984, to determine whether the introduction of legislation and/or other initiatives brought about moves toward Equal Employment Opportunity for women. The study will develop and consider hypotheses and examine several theoretical explanations for the changes or lack of them in the position of men and women. Recommendations will be made concerning future directions for research and action to achieve equal employment opportunity for women, the largest group of the four groups targeted in the EEO legislation. The central argument of the study is that the adoption of quantitative approaches to measure success/failure in EEO programs is of limited use. These theoretical approaches, largely informed by liberal feminism, offer inadequate understanding of the resistances to change. Other theoretical perspectives are needed if the issue is seen as "what are the resistances and what are the policies and strategies that can be developed to overcome them?". Feminist critical theory, however, enables more productive questions to be raised about how social power is constructed and maintained, about hegemonic culture, and about the language and cultural biases embedded in administrative structures in education. Insights thus gained into issues, events and resistances give individuals and groups agency, the power to act for change.

Cette étude vise à expliquer les inégalités liées au revenu dans la distribution de la santé auto-déclarée (SRH) en utilisant des données longitudinales EUSLIC sur la période 2004-2029. Le cadre conceptuel des déterminants sociaux de la santé développé par l'Organisation mondiale de la santé (OMS), qui structure hiérarchiquement les contextes politiques et économiques, la démographie, la position socio-économique et enfin les conditions de logement, est utilisé. Du point de vue de la théorie de l'égalité des chances, le premier ensemble de déterminants est appelé circonstances (à la base des inégalités injustes en matière de santé) et les conditions de logement, les efforts (à la base des inégalités équitables en matière de santé).Différentes variables de santé (liées à la santé sexuelle et reproductive) et différentes méthodologies ont été mises en œuvre dans les trois chapitres de cette étude. Les deux premiers chapitres sont consacrés à l'évaluation de la contribution des déterminants de la santé, sur la base d'un modèle de santé et d'une méthode de décomposition. Dans le premier chapitre, la variable de santé considérée est continue, le modèle de santé est le modèle de régression par intervalles et la méthode de décomposition est celle de Wagstaff. Dans le deuxième chapitre, la variable santé est autodéclarée, le modèle utilisé est le modèle logit ordonné, et la nouvelle méthode de décomposition provient de la valeur de Shapley et de la valeur d'Owen. Le chapitre 3 vise à comprendre les variations des inégalités de santé en fonction des inégalités dans les déterminants sociaux de la santé. La méthode de régression et de décomposition RIF a été explorée.Les trois chapitres ont montré la persistance des inégalités de santé en Europe sur la période 2004-2019. Ils montrent que les différences individuelles et régionales de revenus ont un impact significatif sur les inégalités de santé. Elles sont également les principaux moteurs de ces inégalités au cours de la période étudiée. Les résultats ont également mis en évidence la vulnérabilité de certains groupes de population (personnes n'ayant pas fait d'études secondaires, personnes âgées, retraités).En outre, les résultats ont montré le rôle important de l'accessibilité financière et de la privation matérielle non sévère dans l'explication de ces inégalités matérielles. Toutefois, lorsque l'influence des circonstances est supprimée, les contributions de l'accessibilité financière et de la privation matérielle non sévère aux conditions de logement passent de positives à négatives. En termes de politique économique, la recherche d'une redistribution équitable des revenus doit être considérée comme un pilier important de la réduction des inégalités de santé en Europe
This study aims to explain income-related inequalities in the distribution of self-reported health (SRH) using longitudinal EUSLIC data over the period 2004-2029. The conceptual framework of social determinants of health developed by the World Health Organization (WHO), which hierarchically structures political and economic contexts, demographics, socio-economic position and finally housing conditions, is used. From the perspective of Equality Opportunity Theory, the first set of determinants are called circumstances (at the basis of unjust inequalities in health) and housing conditions, the efforts (at the basis of fair inequalities in health).Different health variables (related to the SRH) and different methodologies have been implemented in the three chapters of this study. The first two chapters are devoted to assessing the contribution of health determinants, based on a health model and a decomposition method. In the first chapter, the health variable considered is continuous, the health model is the interval regression model, and the decomposition method is that of Wagstaff. In the second chapter, the health variable is self-reported, the model used is the ordered logit model, and the new decomposition method comes from the Shapley value and the Owen value. Chapter 3 aims to understand variations in health inequalities based on inequalities in health's social determinants. The RIF method of regression and decomposition has been explored.The three chapters have shown the persistence of health inequalities in Eu- rope over the period 2004-2019. They show that individual and regional in- come differences have a significant impact on health inequalities. They are also the main drivers over the study period. The results also highlighted the vulnerability of certain population groups (people with less than secondaryeducation, the elderly, retirees). In addition, the results showed the important role of affordability and non-severe material deprivation in explaining these material inequalities. However, when the influence of circumstances is removed, the contributions of affordability and non-severe material deprivation to housing conditions change from positive to negative. In terms of economic policy, the search for a fair redistribution of income must be seen as an important pillar for reducing health inequalities in Europe

Thesis (M.A.)--University of Wisconsin--Madison, 1994.
Typescript. eContent provider-neutral record in process. Description based on print version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 130-137).

AbstractThis chapter describes the structural features and problem areas of modern education systems, then discusses new social and educational ideas that offer solutions to these problems. From the nineteenth to the twenty-first century, information was given on the social models and educational systems that coincided with the turning points of industrial developments. While factory organization as characterized by mass production and nation-state citizenship shaped the education system of industrial societies, digitization and its values have left their mark on educational systems in the information society. Advanced technological developments in areas such as nanotechnology, biotechnology, or the Internet of things have led to a techno-futuristic model of society being placed on the agenda. In this context, we pursue the questions of how new technologies are changing the education system and what kind of solutions they are offering to its problems for education in future societies. New technologies are argued to have not eliminated the basic problems we must deal with in the contemporary world such as equal opportunity in education and student-centered education.

The conclusion of contracts was known in ancient times and is still relevant today. Shares that are not distributed in kind can cause certain difficulties that force the interested parties to decide on distribution.Joint ownership of inherited property received from a family member necessitates joint decision-making on its maintenance, ownership, use, and disposal, and it is difficult to achieve such a consensus on all issues. Therefore, quite often a certain period may pass from the acquisition of the right to a share in the joint property to its distribution, but due to conflicts regarding the use of the property or in the case of the need to receive funds or for other reasons, the joint property is divided by the co-owners. That is, the reasons may even be questions of how to use agricultural land, for example, to rent it out, sow it yourself, plant a garden, etc. However, the complexity of the division of land plots is because it is difficult to «divide» agricultural lands at least. After all, their intended use depends on the size, etc. Quite often, disputes also arise regarding the use of residential buildings, since the size and location of the rooms make their use impossible or difficult, as well as the distribution in kind according to the inherited shares. In other words, there is a certain «trading» of assets. If the situation is related to the distribution of a small plot of land where the house is located, then questions also arise regarding the establishment of an easement, as well as mutual concessions for the compensation of a part of the house in exchange for most of the land. In general, there are protracted negotiations, from the point of view of which these parties, who are still in a family relationship, agree on the division of property.Factors that can affect the outcome of property division include unique family circumstances, the specific nature of assets, and traditional legal practices. The parties will use different mechanisms for the division of joint assets: sale, donation, or exchange, under the terms of which they «trade» with the consent of others their rights as co-owners of jointly owned objects. The various evolutionary stages of the agreement on the division of property by the testator’s family culminate in the final stage of agreeing. The agreement on the division of inheritance is a complex legal process. Potentially, in a single transaction, the beneficiaries can choose and implement the division by sale, exchange, or donation. These different legal constructions reflect the uniqueness of the decisions in each agreement and to some extent demonstrate the specific legal practice of the individual Old Babylonian city-state and the particular circumstances of each family.However, in addition to the division of property, there are other agreements regarding the division of inheritance. For example, an agreement on quasi-partition upon adoption (quasi-adoption), an agreement on the division of residential property by the owner between its future beneficiaries.The need to conclude such agreements arises when an agreement on the division of property is required, which differs from such concepts as sale, donation, exchange, etc.Domestic scientists consider the agreement on the distribution of joint property very broadly and include other types of agreements in the list of such agreements, establishing that the agreement on changing the succession of the right to inheritance by law is atypical. It was determined that the contract under investigation belongs to contracts on the distribution of inheritance. Agreements on the distribution of inheritance are concluded in the field of inheritance, which indicates that they belong to inheritance agreements. It is proposed to supplement the existing classifications of civil law contracts by distinguishing a new type of civil law contracts – contracts in the law of inheritance on the level with the selection of a new type of inheritance contracts – contracts on the distribution of inheritance.» This is a bold hypothesis, but it is difficult to agree with it for various reasons, not least because the distribution of inheritance has been known since ancient times.The factor that the term «distribution» of inheritance and giving it a broad legal meaning is analyzed is an interesting author’s hypothesis. At the same time, according to our position, the term «distribution of inheritance» is more balanced, since in Art. 1278 of the Civil Code does not quite successfully use the term «division», when in the content of this norm it is about the equality of shares in the inheritance and the allocation of a share in kind, and not about division. However, in Part 1 of Art. 1280 of the Civil Code, the term «distribution» is used with a direct meaning and «redistribution» as an opportunity to review the results of the distribution under new circumstances – in the case of acceptance of the inheritance by other heirs. In essence, the obvious meaning of the term «distribution» follows from this norm as the initial determination of the ownership of the share of each of the heirs. In this sense, the redistribution of the inheritance should be connected with the possible introduction of changes to the previously made distribution, that is, in this case, we do not limit the number of subsequent redistributions of the inheritance. This hypothesis is related to the fact that the number of heirs who missed the deadline for valid reasons is not limited by legislation and cannot be limited, but is determined by various legal circumstances.Therefore, it is hardly expedient and possible, to apply in Art. 1280 of the Civil Code, the concept of «distribution» should be given a wider meaning than it has in the Civil Code, as this would lead to its ambiguous perception and application both in theory and in legislation and practice. Usually, theoretical terms should be distinguished by being original and should accurately reflect the legal meaning of actions, events, or conditions.But an important element of the procedure for the distribution of common inheritance property or its redistribution are the subjects who must fix the relevant agreement or carry out such distribution according to their conviction.It is indicated that the practice of concluding contracts by the living owner with his future heirs is widespread in foreign countries. At the same time, German experts equate inheritance with what they consider to be contractual inheritance.It should be noted that the practice of concluding contracts on the distribution of inheritance in the practice of the Ukrainian notary is relatively new and does not have clear boundaries in regulation, which complicates the activity of notaries in certifying such contracts. There are several difficulties in the application of relevant legal norms in practice, as there is a lack of understanding of the legal nature and essence of the conclusion of contracts, the term of conclusion, and the procedure for notarization.The opinions of individual authors are studied, about legal relations regarding the division of inheritance characterized by a weak state policy, this obliges the participants of such relations to draw up the content of agreements on the division of inheritance independently. For agreements between heirs on the distribution of inheritance to be valid regulators of the relations of its participants (heirs), conditions (clauses) must be clarified and formulated, which will be disclosed with sufficient completeness and consistency of the content of the relevant agreement and the purpose of its conclusion.We do not agree with this point of view of the scientist regarding «weak state policy», since the Central Committee of Ukraine was not created by politicians or the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine, but by leading scientists of Ukraine. It is also difficult to agree with the statement that the lack of clear regulation of the terms of inheritance contracts «obliges the participants of such relationships to independently draw up the content of inheritance distribution contracts.» In Ukraine, some good notaries and lawyers can draw up high-quality contracts for the distribution of inheritance. Moreover, according to Art. 4 of the Law of Ukraine «On Notaries», notaries have the right to draw up relevant draft contracts. In our opinion, it is worth emphasizing here that this is a right, not a duty of a notary public. That is, the notary may not undertake the drafting of the relevant project, but this provision is positive for interested parties since the lack of experience in drafting original contracts will most likely lead to the drafting of a low-quality draft contract. Indeed, in this case, it is worth looking for an experienced notary who will be able to draw up a draft contract, but this will make it possible to prevent errors in its drafting with a high probability.Thus, the agreement on the distribution of inheritance enters into force if the parties reach an agreement in the proper form on all the essential terms of the agreement. The main essential condition for agreeing on the division of inheritance is the subject of the agreement. However, either party may consider this condition insufficient and propose to include additional conditions in the contract. In this case, these conditions become essential. In connection with the instability of the regulation of the content of contracts between heirs on the distribution of inheritance, it can be concluded that the inclusion of normal conditions in the contract is currently impossible. We believe that such a general scheme of perception of contract terms is not entirely rational, since how to perceive ordinary terms or essential terms of a contract quite often in practice depends on the judgments of the parties to the contract unless otherwise regulated by legislation. This issue can be approached more precisely if we take into account the possibility of interpreting transactions and contracts (Article 213 of the Civil Code).So, based on the essence of the process of concluding contracts, it should be taken into account that the notary who drafts the contract can edit it, therefore it is worth recognizing the right of the notary to interpret it, since according to Art. 5 of the Law of Ukraine «On Notaries», he is obliged to clarify the legal consequences that will arise for persons after his certification. It follows from this that the notary must be given the official right to interpret the contract upon its certification, then it will be clear that after its certification, the court can interpret the content of the contract. In this regard, Art. 213 of the Civil Code is proposed to be supplemented with a corresponding provision regarding the powers of the notary, namely: his duty to interpret the content of the deed or contract before and during its certification.The Inheritance Regulation, which envisages wide acceptance of the inheritance contract, is considered. It is noted that it is worth revising Ukrainian inheritance law in advance for compliance with European standards since after Ukraine accedes to the EU it will be necessary to inform all EU countries about what types of contracts in Ukraine will be related to the issuance of the European Certificate of Succession.This is also important for inheritance by law, because, in case of non-fulfillment of the terms of the lifetime maintenance (care) agreement and the inheritance agreement, they will have to be terminated or recognized as invalid or unfulfilled by the acquirer, so the property that was the subject of this agreement will be inherited by law. At the same time, if the terms of these agreements are fulfilled, the part of the property that belonged to the testator will not be inherited but will become the property of the acquirers.The process of accepting the inheritance is quite long, and the inheritance law allows for several agreements between the heirs, which can significantly affect the size of the inheritance shares and the real things in each share in the inheritance. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the possibility of agreements between the heirs at different stages of accepting or not accepting the inheritance. From communication with one of the clients, the author learned that the notary unofficially advised the heirs to agree on the distribution of the inheritance, as well as for certain heirs to waive the right to inheritance, but to receive a proper share of the inheritance in household items. When the author was informed of all the circumstances of the inheritance case, it became clear that the notary could not solve the complex inheritance problem, since the inheritance took place based on a will and some heirs had the right to a mandatory share, as well as part of the property remained. So, in such a situation, it was necessary to solve an arithmetical and at the same time legal problem, the complexity of which was determined by the complex subject composition of numerous heirs. Therefore, the notary tried to simplify its solution by artificially «transforming» the heirs who have the right to a mandatory share into ordinary heirs who claim property that is not subject to recording in the certificate of the right to inheritance.A natural will was considered, when the testator bequeathed the specific property to each of the heirs, namely: a house to a daughter, a factory to one son, and a yacht to another let’s say. In such a case, the will of the testator is formulated in the Shodo of the objects of inheritance, so it is difficult to perceive the consequences of the refusal of one of the heirs to inherit, when the yacht will be divided into equal shares between the son and the daughter, because: firstly, the value of the factory and the house will be different, so someone from the testator gave the children a larger inheritance than the other. Secondly, in the case of the existence of a part of the inheritance not covered by the will, it can be assumed with a high degree of probability that the will of the testator was formulated about a certain property and nothing more. Therefore, in case of refusal of one of the heirs to inherit under the will, the property bequeathed to him should be considered as not covered by the will and should be inherited according to the law. That is, if the will of the testator regarding the entire property is revealed, it can be assumed that he thus intended to deprive one of the heirs of the right to inheritance.At the same time, the will must be interpreted not only by the heirs under the will but also by the heirs under the law, when its content concerns the right to a mandatory share in the inheritance, which belongs to the heirs under the law of the first rank, who due to incapacity have the right to claim it, as well as the recipients of the response. With a high degree of probability, it can be assumed that the inheritance, which consists of household items, will be divided even without a written agreement. However, the interpretation of a will, which concerns a substantial inheritance between a significant number of heirs, requires not only a written form of recording of agreements – a contract, but also, in our opinion, a notarial form that will allow recording the agreement more reliably, to explain to the parties to the contract the consequences of its conclusion. If all interested parties sign the agreement, and the notary recognizes it as legal, then it will be difficult to recognize it as illegal or invalid in the next one. Therefore, the agreement on the interpretation of the will, which will establish the specific rights of the heirs and their obligations regarding the coverage of the testator’s debts, is a rational form of specification of the terms of the inheritance, which will allow establishing the executor of the will, if he was not determined by the testator.We can assume with a high degree of probability that similar «simplified calculations» are made by other notaries, as well as directly by the heirs, and certain agreements are not necessary here.

Abstract This chapter considers those forms of equal opportunity that go beyond mere non-discrimination, and argues that each of them face a choice. They can employ what Clare Chambers calls a ‘Moment of Equal Opportunity’, dividing a person’s life around a key Moment at which opportunities are equalised and after which they are not. The problem with this option is that the injustice of unequal opportunities persists throughout life, meaning that equality of opportunity becomes an arbitrarily temporary state. But if a Moment of Equality of Opportunity is not used, and equality of opportunity is ensured throughout life, serious inefficiencies and bad decisions ensue. To put it simply, the chapter argues that a theory of equality of opportunity is unjustified if it uses a Moment of Equal Opportunity, and unworkable if it does not.

Abstract Phi-features present a rare opportunity for syntacticians, morphologists, and semanticists to collaborate on a research enterprise in which all have an equal stake and which all approach with proprietary data and insights: syntacticians with intervention effects and the theory of Agree, morphologists with patterns of syncretism and hierarchies of person, definiteness, and so on, and semanticists with theories of binding and anaphora and theoretical approaches to the presuppositions and entailments that qi-features engender.

This chapter explores the relationship between equality and social justice. The demands of social justice are not always clear. One question that needs to be addressed is whether social justice condemns all inequalities, or whether it is primarily concerned with the provision of equal opportunity or the elimination of extreme poverty. The chapter first provides a historical background on social justice before discussing the political rejection of social justice and its revival. It then considers equality of opportunity, social justice and social relations, and concludes by reflecting on prospects for achieving social justice. A case study on social justice and disability is presented, along with Key Thinkers boxes featuring Friedrich von Hayek, Brian Barry, Richard Henry Tawney, and Iris Marion Young.

This chapter argues that Pettit’s Republican theory of justice lacks the resources necessary for identifying injustice in a society where a social lottery determines people’s prospects for success. Equality of non-domination does not guarantee John Rawls’s ideal of equality of opportunity. This chapter considers and rejects two views that attempt to connect Pettit’s ideal of equality of non-domination with equality of opportunity. First, it argues against the view that Pettit’s equality of non-domination constitutes equality of opportunity. Second, it argues against the view that Pettit’s ideal of equality of non-domination reliably causes equality of opportunity. On the grounds that there are no compelling reasons to refrain from revising Pettit’s theory, it concludes that Pettit’s theory should be supplemented with a separate value of fairness that grounds a principle requiring equal opportunity. The upshot is that while equality of non-domination may be an important part of justice, it cannot be its whole.

Recently creation continuously variable transmission (CVT) having property of the adaptation to variable technological loading develops. Traditional CVT contains the hydraulic converter and gear differential with two degrees of freedom (patents of Crockett, Volkov). The hydraulic converter imposes differential constraint on movement of links of the mechanism with two degrees of freedom. It provides definability of movement of transmission. Take place progressive CVT without use of the hydraulic converter (Harries’s patent, Ivanov’s patent). Such transmission contains only gear differential with two degrees of freedom. However the theoretical substantiation of serviceability of such transmission is not convincing for the lack of the proof of static definability of the mechanism with two degrees of freedom, having only one input. Ivanov K.S.’s theoretical researches do not contain enough convincing arguments of presence of definability of such mechanisms. Mechanisms with two degrees of freedom are considered disabled because of their contradiction to a key rule of mechanics that the number of the generalized coordinates should be equal to number of degrees of freedom of the mechanism (that is it should be equal to two, instead of to one). In Ivanov K.S.’s early works it was mentioned presence of paradox of the mechanics reflecting essence of the specified discrepancy. However in these works there was no the elementary demonstrative base of essence of the phenomenon resulting in static definability. The purpose of the present work to describe essence of the phenomenon which in certain conditions result to static definability of the mechanism with two degrees of freedom at presence only of one input, to receive the theoretical description of paradox of mechanics and its authorization using the elementary laws of theoretical mechanics. In the work the presence of paradox of mechanics is proved. The paradox of mechanics takes place in the kinematic chain having the closed contour, and it consist in the following. The structural group with two degrees of freedom having two consistently connected links is statically definable at presence only one entrance link. The paradox of mechanics is authorized by the account of additional constraint which is imposed by kinematic chain with the closed contour and two degrees of freedom on movement of links by a principle of possible works. Use of the equations of a statics and additional constraint allows to receive the equations of interrelation of parameters of transmission and to execute synthesis of transmission on the set conditions of motion. The found laws will allow creating the transfer mechanisms having property of mechanical adaptation to variable technological loading. Mechanical adaptation provides an opportunity of motion of an output link with a speed inversely force of resistance at constant input power.

With the rapid development of information and digital technology in China, the Platform economy has been born, more and more enterprises appear as platform-oriented leaders. Platform leadership is a new leadership model with the core characteristics of "empowerment", "growth", and equal sharing. At present, there are few literature on integrating platform thinking into leadership theory both domestically and internationally, and there is even no concept of platform leadership internationally. As the Chinese economy enters a stage of high-quality development led by innovation, the innovation ability of employees determines the long-term development of enterprises. However, it is worth further exploring how platform leadership can influence employees' innovative behavior and ability. Based on the social exchange theory, the Social cognitive theory and the ability motivation opportunity theory, this paper introduces four variables of organizational learning, knowledge sharing, coworker support and psychological empowerment as mediating variables, and constructs a multiple mediating model of platform leadership influencing employee innovation behavior. Based on multiple theoretical perspectives, this article analyzes and reviews the impact mechanism of platform leadership on employee innovation behavior, constructs an integrated theoretical model, and discovers the possible mediating factors and pathways that platform leadership may affect employee innovation behavior. At the same time, some of the mediating factors found in this article, such as organizational learning and colleague support, have not yet formed a unified consensus on the concepts, types, antecedents, and outcome variables of these two influencing factors in domestic and foreign research. This article attempts to construct a relationship between platform leadership and these two variables, which can fill the gap in the discussion on the relationship between organizational learning, coworker support and platform leadership. Finally, through literature review and theoretical model construction, the author found that in the era of China's digital economy, enterprises should cultivate and value platform based leadership. This article also provides a theoretical basis for platform leaders to effectively promote employee innovation behavior.

With the entry into force of the principles of democracy in modern society, inclusive education that means the right of all people to education, ensuring the presence, participation and progress and, above all, equal opportunities of all pupils, is becoming important. There are more and more children in the country who are being diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, but their fate is determined not by the disorder itself, but by psychological, social and pedagogical rehabilitation. It is necessary to provide a child with special educational needs with the opportunity to use the services of specialists, help one constructively so that (s)he becomes as involved in the life of society as possible, could develop one’s personality and improve spiritually (Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989; Lithuania’s Progress Strategy “Lithuania 2030” 2012). The aim is to reveal teachers’ attitude about the possibilities of the implementation of equal opportunities for children with autism spectrum disorder in the pre-school education institution. To achieve the aim, a qualitative study using an in-depth interview method, was conducted. The qualitative content analysis was used to process the research data. The findings of the research revealed that teachers believe that opportunities to ensure equal rights for children with autism are limited: it is difficult to ensure the safety of children; teachers do not have assistants; premises are not fully adapted; it is hard to change the established negative attitude of other people. Nevertheless, teachers provide individualized education opportunities for children with autism spectrum disorder; provide them with appropriate and safe means of education; create a separate space in the group, communicate and cooperate with children’s parents, thus ensuring more effective education; involve the child in social activities.

Policies that seek to mitigate poverty by acting on equal opportunity have been found to aggravate discrimination against the poor (aporophobia), since individuals are made responsible for not progressing in the social hierarchy. Only a minority of the poor benefit from meritocracy in this era of growing inequality, generating resentment among those who seek to escape their needy situations by trying to climb up the ladder. Through the formulation and development of an agent-based social simulation, this study aims to analyse the role of norms implementing equal opportunity and social solidarity principles as enhancers or mitigators of aporophobia, as well as the threshold of aporophobia that would facilitate the success of poverty-reduction policies. The ultimate goal of the social simulation is to extract insights that could help inform and guide a new generation of policy making for poverty reduction by acting on the discrimination against the poor, in line with the UN “Leave No One Behind” principle. An “aporophobia-meter” will be developed and guidelines will be drafted based on both the simulation results and a review of poverty reduction policies at regional levels.

We design a server-client system that collects students’ engagement information and reports it to a centralized server to help teachers assist neurodivergent students in order to provide a visual representation of students’ engagement status aiming to promote an equal learning opportunity for neurodivergent students [6]. In recent years, everyone throughout the globe are all seeking higher education, either for themselves, or for their children. Students are learning an increasing amount in classes and have needed to spend a lot more effort and attention to succeed. In this race for higher education, a specific group of underrepresented minorities has been left behind. This group being the neurodivergent population, specifically high-functioning people with ASD(Autism Spectrum Disorder) [7]. These students often require more attention due to hypersensitivity, and a shorter attention span than the neurotypical populace. These students have all that's necessary to learn and understand the material, although teachers are often stuck to a faster pace curriculum that does not easily allot so much attention to a singular student. Due to this problem many teachers believe that a efficient way to passively gauge these students attentiveness would significantly benefit their education. This paper develops a server-client system that collects students’ engagement information and reports it to a centralized server to help teachers assist neurodivergent students in order to provide a visual representation of students’ engagement status aiming to promote an equal learning opportunity for neurodivergent students. We applied our application to [Class] and conducted an Evaluation of the approach based on the qualitative data collected from the students.

The paper explores the potential benefits of using Blended Learning (face-to-face and online) to teach languages to students at university level by analyzing the experience gained at “Gr. T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi in partnership with EuroEd Foundation Iasi, within the wider context summarized below. While many Romanian students today begin their bachelor studies with a relatively high level of competence in at least one foreign language (most commonly English), it is important to acknowledge that this is not always the case. In fact, students may feel at a disadvantage compared to their colleagues and objectively have less chances to access scholarships etc. specifically due to not having had the same opportunities to learn a foreign language such as English in their past. Therefore, in order to provide all medical students with equal chances at academic and professional success, some may require additional opportunities in transversal areas such as language learning, ICT etc. For example, medical universities in Romania attempt to provide all their students with compulsory language instruction in their first year(s), making it optional later on. However, putting together groups with students of similar language levels and needs often proves to be an impossible administrative mission, the typical outcome of that being mixed-level groups of students who more or less want to study the same language. In our case, a solution was found in order to provide adequate additional support to students whose entry language level was less than B2 / independent according to the Common European Framework of Reference. For the past two academic years, the face-to-face language instruction of junior students in Medicine, Nursing and Nutrition according to the core curriculum has been supplemented with optional activities using the ELSTI language training package online. The ELSTI platform (http://www.eurobusinesslanguageskills.net) is the main result of a series of EU-funded projects involving EuroEd Foundation also from Iasi and, as it stands today, it provides courses of English, French, German, Italian and Spanish for levels A2 and B1. All the courses, sub-units, explanations, situations, tasks, tests and self-assessment tools are calibrated to fit the CEFR descriptors while serve real life communicative functions set in a business context promoting cultural awareness. In addition, they are accompanied by personal development and motivational modules. While students were recommended the content, instruction and activities related to the language they were studying in class, all students had free access to all the other online language courses as well. The online work was student-centered in the sense that, once logged on, students could decide which units/exercises to solve in which order, the entire process being driven by the students’ own goals, interests and preferences. As is turned out, this form of increased flexibility and controlled freedom deliberately embedded in the courses added significantly to some students’ motivation to continue well beyond set requirements, as well as to their overall enjoyment, autonomy and empowerment. Concurrently, the classroom experience could be targetted more clearly towards teaching and learning English for medical purposes. The statistical analysis takes into consideration attempts, times and scores for using grammar and vocabulary support independently, solving reading and dialogue-based tasks, playing games and simulations, etc. by each user, thus providing insight into how the students chose to engage with the different e-contents and instructions within and beyond the language they were studying in class. The quantitative data to which we are referring in this paper has been collected from over 500 students at UMF Iasi and indicates how popular, difficult, motivating etc. the various types of online language exercises are among students for whom language is not their main interest but rather a vehicle. Nevertheless, the online activity reports contain ample evidence of how these students have valued this opportunity of gaining skills in transversal areas such as foreign languages, but also cultural awareness, personal development and ICT.

<p>Affordable housing plays an important role in providing equal opportunity for individuals within most communities in the United States. In the area of eastern Washington State, in particular, there is currently a dearth of affordable housing options; especially for larger families. This lack of three- and four- bedroom residences presents a challenge for the City of Spokane, and the low-income residents seeking housing. This paper provides a preliminary look at certain alternate construction approaches for stand-alone houses with the end goal of optimizing taxpayer funding available, and to reduce living expenses for occupants. Two possible alternative approaches [structural insulated panels (SIPs) and straw bale wall construction] are compared to traditional wood frame construction; all in terms of cost and structural performance. Alternate foundation options are also currently under consideration. It appears that certain alternate construction techniques are worthy of a fresh look; particularly straw bale construction.</p>

Hydrostatic or closed-circuit pump-controlled hydraulic systems are attractive due to their high energy efficiency; their lack of throttling losses and ability to recover energy onto the pump shaft have made them a common design choice in systems using rotary actuators such as ground drive transmissions. However, the natural asymmetrical flow of typical hydraulic cylinders have prevented the widespread adoption of closed-circuit systems for linear actuators. Some hydrostatic linear actuator systems have been developed, but these suffer from a large dead volume and reduced force if using a symmetrical dual rod cylinder, or increased cost and complexity if using a specialized cylinder geometry or flow balancing circuits. This paper presents a concept system which uses a pair of common single-rod hydraulic cylinders to achieve the efficiency of a pump-controlled hydrostatic system with the opportunity for energy recovery. The system’s available force is equal to a standard valve-controlled system with a greater maximum velocity. This is achieved using only commercially-available components. The paper will present an analysis of the theoretical energy recovery potential over a representative work cycle for a hydraulic excavator. It will also present a controller design analysis and experimental verification.

Abstract The primary goal of weldments is to have the longitudinal strain not concentrated in the weld. To date, there is no reliable way to accurately predict this, given the variability of welding techniques, mechanical properties, and manufacturing methods of materials in CSA Z662 pipeline designs. Several girth welds were completed using SMAW on common carbon steel pipe and fittings used under CSA Z662 designs. The results focus on comparing as-welded joint properties relative to the base metal. The base materials were chosen to be wide ranging in chemistry and manufacturing process. The deposited weld filler metal tensile strength can be relatively and consistently predicted; however, the overall weldment properties are more difficult to estimate. The results provide an opportunity to learn more about the response of welding on the base metal. The goal is to improve the ability to design and complete weldments that have equal or better mechanical properties than the base metal. Advancements are already being made to new construction best practices, but there is value in understanding how conventional filler metals and base metals are allocated to highest risk welds for new construction and existing assets.

Women account for 66% of the global workforce and earn 10% of the income. They produce 50% of the food globally and own 1% of the property. Besides, women represent the majority of the global poor, 70%, and it has been proven that ownership is one of the most effective means of improving their economic well-being. Therefore, promoting women economic opportunities and equal participation in the labor market is the right thing to do. But it is also good business. This reference note discusses the role that gender plays in labor market participation, access to finance, training and education, and other legal and social barriers. This document then goes on to describe policies and promising practices for promoting real economic opportunity for women.

As countries progress in their energy transitions, new investments have the potential to create employment. This is crucial, as countries enter their post-pandemic recovery phase. An opportunity also arises to close the gender gap in the energy sector. However, how much will need to be invested, how many jobs will be created, and for whom, remain empirical questions. Little is also known about the needs of each country and their sectors in terms of future skills and training. The present work sheds light on these questions by carrying out a harmonized firm-level survey on employment in Chile, Uruguay, and Bolivia. Findings are manifold. First, firms in emerging sectors such as energy efficiency, electric mobility, battery, storage, hydrogen, and demand management, create more direct jobs than generation firms, including renewables. Second, these firms also have the potential to create employment that is local, permanent, and direct. Finally, they can contribute to closing the gender gap. However, this employment creation will not come on its own and will not be equal between countries. It will require improving the workforces qualifications and considering each countrys labor market and market structures specificities.

This study provides baseline data on the status of the racial/ethnic and gender diversity of the transit agency workforce in the U.S. and identifies potential barriers and promising practices for diversifying this workforce. Public transit agencies function best when the diversity of their workforce represents the communities they serve, yet previous research finds an underrepresentation of women and minorities in senior and managerial roles, along with an overconcentration of men and workers of color—particularly Black workers—in operational roles (e.g., drivers, janitors). The study updates those earlier studies with newer data drawn from five discrete research tasks: 1) review of the scholarly and professional literature on the topic; 2) review of the websites of the 50 largest transit operators; 3) analysis of employee demographic data submitted by 152 transit operators as part of Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) program plans; 4) analysis of responses to an original survey sent to the human resources personnel of transit agencies (92 responses from staff at 68 agencies), and 5) interviews with 12 professionals selected for their expertise in transportation workforce diversity monitoring, management, and/or advocacy.

In the decade after the Civil Rights Act of 1964, African Americans made historic gains in accessing employment opportunities in racially integrated workplaces in U.S. business firms and government agencies. In the previous working papers in this series, we have shown that in the 1960s and 1970s, Blacks without college degrees were gaining access to the American middle class by moving into well-paid unionized jobs in capital-intensive mass production industries. At that time, major U.S. companies paid these blue-collar workers middle-class wages, offered stable employment, and provided employees with health and retirement benefits. Of particular importance to Blacks was the opening up to them of unionized semiskilled operative and skilled craft jobs, for which in a number of industries, and particularly those in the automobile and electronic manufacturing sectors, there was strong demand. In addition, by the end of the 1970s, buoyed by affirmative action and the growth of public-service employment, Blacks were experiencing upward mobility through employment in government agencies at local, state, and federal levels as well as in civil-society organizations, largely funded by government, to operate social and community development programs aimed at urban areas where Blacks lived. By the end of the 1970s, there was an emergent blue-collar Black middle class in the United States. Most of these workers had no more than high-school educations but had sufficient earnings and benefits to provide their families with economic security, including realistic expectations that their children would have the opportunity to move up the economic ladder to join the ranks of the college-educated white-collar middle class. That is what had happened for whites in the post-World War II decades, and given the momentum provided by the dominant position of the United States in global manufacturing and the nation’s equal employment opportunity legislation, there was every reason to believe that Blacks would experience intergenerational upward mobility along a similar education-and-employment career path. That did not happen. Overall, the 1980s and 1990s were decades of economic growth in the United States. For the emerging blue-collar Black middle class, however, the experience was of job loss, economic insecurity, and downward mobility. As the twentieth century ended and the twenty-first century began, moreover, it became apparent that this downward spiral was not confined to Blacks. Whites with only high-school educations also saw their blue-collar employment opportunities disappear, accompanied by lower wages, fewer benefits, and less security for those who continued to find employment in these jobs. The distress experienced by white Americans with the decline of the blue-collar middle class follows the downward trajectory that has adversely affected the socioeconomic positions of the much more vulnerable blue-collar Black middle class from the early 1980s. In this paper, we document when, how, and why the unmaking of the blue-collar Black middle class occurred and intergenerational upward mobility of Blacks to the college-educated middle class was stifled. We focus on blue-collar layoffs and manufacturing-plant closings in an important sector for Black employment, the automobile industry from the early 1980s. We then document the adverse impact on Blacks that has occurred in government-sector employment in a financialized economy in which the dominant ideology is that concentration of income among the richest households promotes productive investment, with government spending only impeding that objective. Reduction of taxes primarily on the wealthy and the corporate sector, the ascendancy of political and economic beliefs that celebrate the efficiency and dynamism of “free market” business enterprise, and the denigration of the idea that government can solve social problems all combined to shrink government budgets, diminish regulatory enforcement, and scuttle initiatives that previously provided greater opportunity for African Americans in the government and civil-society sectors.

This project explores workforce and occupations within the highway, street, and bridge construction industries (NAICS 237310) in Indiana. There are five specific deliverable comprised of three data reports, one policy document, and a website. The first data report includes an assessment of the workforce based on the eight-part framework, which are industry, occupations, job postings, hard-to-fill jobs, Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP), GAP Analysis, compatibility, and automation. The report defines a cluster followed by a detailed analysis of the occupations, skills, job postings, etc., in the NAICS 237310 industry in Indiana. The report makes use of specialized labor market databases, such as the Economic Modeling Specialists International (EMSI), CHMURA JobsEQ, etc. The analysis is based only on the jobs covered under the unemployment insurance or the Quarterly Census of Employment and Wages (QCEW) data. The second data report analyzes jobs to jobs flows to and from the construction industry in Indiana, with a particular emphasis on the Great Recession, by utilizing the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) data. The third data report looks into the equal employment opportunity or Section 1391 and 1392 data for Indiana and analyzes specific characteristics of that data. The policy report includes a set of recommendations for workforce development for INDOT and a summary of the three data reports. The key data on occupations within the NAICS 237310 are provided in an interactive website. The website provides a data dashboard for individual INDOT Districts. The policy document recommends steps for development of the highways, streets and bridges construction workforce in INDOT Districts.

Thus far in reporting the findings of our project “Fifty Years After: Black Employment in the United States Under the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission,” our analysis of what has happened to African American employment over the past half century has documented the importance of manufacturing employment to the upward socioeconomic mobility of Blacks in the 1960s and 1970s and the devastating impact of rationalization—the permanent elimination of blue-collar employment—on their socioeconomic mobility in the 1980s and beyond. The upward mobility of Blacks in the earlier decades was based on the Old Economy business model (OEBM) with its characteristic “career-with-one-company” (CWOC) employment relations. At its launching in 1965, the policy approach of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission assumed the existence of CWOC, providing corporate employees, Blacks included, with a potential path for upward socioeconomic mobility over the course of their working lives by gaining access to productive opportunities and higher pay through stable employment within companies. It was through these internal employment structures that Blacks could potentially overcome barriers to the long legacy of job and pay discrimination. In the 1960s and 1970s, the generally growing availability of unionized semiskilled jobs gave working people, including Blacks, the large measure of employment stability as well as rising wages and benefits characteristic of the lower levels of the middle class. The next stage in this process of upward socioeconomic mobility should have been—and in a nation as prosperous as the United States could have been—the entry of the offspring of the new Black blue-collar middle class into white-collar occupations requiring higher educations. Despite progress in the attainment of college degrees, however, Blacks have had very limited access to the best employment opportunities as professional, technical, and administrative personnel at U.S. technology companies. Since the 1980s, the barriers to African American upward socioeconomic mobility have occurred within the context of the marketization (the end of CWOC) and globalization (accessibility to transnational labor supplies) of high-tech employment relations in the United States. These new employment relations, which stress interfirm labor mobility instead of intrafirm employment structures in the building of careers, are characteristic of the rise of the New Economy business model (NEBM), as scrutinized in William Lazonick’s 2009 book, Sustainable Prosperity in the New Economy? Business Organization and High-Tech Employment in the United States (Upjohn Institute). In this paper, we analyze the exclusion of Blacks from STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) occupations, using EEO-1 employment data made public, voluntarily and exceptionally, for various years between 2014 and 2020 by major tech companies, including Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, Cisco, Facebook (now Meta), Hewlett Packard Enterprise, HP Inc., Intel, Microsoft, PayPal, Salesforce, and Uber. These data document the vast over-representation of Asian Americans and vast under-representation of African Americans at these tech companies in recent years. The data also shine a light on the racial, ethnic, and gender composition of large masses of lower-paid labor in the United States at leading U.S. tech companies, including tens of thousands of sales workers at Apple and hundreds of thousands of laborers & helpers at Amazon. In the cases of Hewlett-Packard, IBM, and Intel, we have access to EEO-1 data from earlier decades that permit in-depth accounts of the employment transitions that characterized the demise of OEBM and the rise of NEBM. Given our findings from the EEO-1 data analysis, our paper then seeks to explain the enormous presence of Asian Americans and the glaring absence of African Americans in well-paid employment under NEBM. A cogent answer to this question requires an understanding of the institutional conditions that have determined the availability of qualified Asians and Blacks to fill these employment opportunities as well as the access of qualified people by race, ethnicity, and gender to the employment opportunities that are available. Our analysis of the racial/ethnic determinants of STEM employment focuses on a) stark differences among racial and ethnic groups in educational attainment and performance relevant to accessing STEM occupations, b) the decline in the implementation of affirmative-action legislation from the early 1980s, c) changes in U.S. immigration policy that favored the entry of well-educated Asians, especially with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1990, and d) consequent social barriers that qualified Blacks have faced relative to Asians and whites in accessing tech employment as a result of a combination of statistical discrimination against African Americans and their exclusion from effective social networks.

Workplaces: Worse for women, Global Health 50/50’s sixth annual Report, explores an area of policy that plays a decisive role in promoting equal opportunity in the workplace: the extent to which sexual and reproductive health and rights are recognised and addressed in workplace policies. In addition to its annual review of the gender-related policies and practices of nearly 200 organisations, the Report uncovers how organisations active in global health – who should be leading by example – are failing to set the standard for sexual and reproductive health and rights in their own workplaces. The global health community is poised to lead in implementing workplace practices that are inclusive and supportive for all. GH5050 encourages health advocates, staff and leaders to squarely frame sexual and reproductive health and rights in the workplace as a human rights issue and central to women’s leadership.

Across the world, populations are facing severe threats and rising inequalities due to a combination of climate change, environmental degradation, COVID-19 and conflict. Food systems, as a result, are in crisis and people are increasingly feeling the impact on their everyday lives. For women, globally and across regions, the impact of the food systems crisis is more severe than for men, and women are more food insecure than men. Women, historically and now, have less access to healthy food, land ownership and resources for food production than men. Gender inequalities are woven through food systems, and contribute to unjust food production, access and consumption. Global food systems organizations are working to address some of the critical issues facing populations’ access to food and nutrition. The second annual Global Food 50/50 Report assesses whether and how such organizations are integrating gender and equality considerations in their work. It reviews the policies and practices of 51 organizations as they relate to two interlinked dimensions of inequality: inequality of opportunity in career pathways inside organizations and inequality in who benefits from the global food system. The primary aim of the Global Food 50/50 Report is to encourage food systems organizations to confront and address gender inequality both within their organizations and governance structures, and in their programmatic approaches across food systems. A second aim is to increase recognition of the role that gender plays in who runs and benefits from food systems for everybody: women and men, including transgender people, and people with nonbinary gender identities. Key findings from this year’s report show that gender and geographic diversity are severely lacking in the boards of major global food organizations, with leadership positions dominated by men from the global north. This matters because representation from a narrow section of the global population will not result in policies and programmes that meet the needs and interests of all people, across all regions, including women. The review of board composition of 51 organizations showed that more than 70% of board seats are held by nationals of high-income countries. Just 8% of board seats are held by women from low- and middle-income countries. However, there is room for hope. Our findings show an increase in women board chairs from 26% in 2021 to 35% in 2022. More organizations are publishing board diversity policies—policies were found in 30% of organizations, a 10% increase since 2021. Moreover, the review located five new board diversity policies across the sample. A high proportion of organizations (49/52) have made formal and public commitments to gender equality and this has increased since 2021. In 2022, there was an increase of five organizations with gender-transformative programmatic approaches, from 60% to 70% and a decrease in the number of organizations with gender-blind approaches. Despite some advances among some global food systems organizations, the sector has a long way to go to achieve gender equality in the boardroom, in the workplace and in who benefits from their work. The data in this report can equip leaders at all levels—from communities to workforces to boards—to take action, drive change, measure progress, and hold those in power accountable to their commitments to advance gender equality and transform food systems. A fairer, more gender-equal system will be best placed to end hunger, poverty, and inequality around the world.