Tesis sobre el tema "Entrepreneurial"

L’objectif principal de notre thèse consiste, dans un premier temps, à inventorier et à classer les caractéristiques entrepreneuriales pour pouvoir ensuite typer les enquêtées selon la perception qu’elles ont de leurs potentialités entrepreneuriales. Outre cet objectif central, le présent travail tente d’analyser les facteurs personnels et contextuels susceptibles de contribuer à l’acquisition et au développement des potentialités entrepreneuriales des créatrices d’entreprise en contexte djiboutien et africain. Aussi, nous avons cherché à comparer les typologies entrepreneuriales des entrepreneures et des non entrepreneures. Afin de répondre plus adéquatement aux objectifs de la thèse, nous avons d’abord effectué une synthèse des principaux travaux relatifs aux paradigmes des traits et des faits de l’entrepreneur pour mieux resituer le modèle conceptuel de Gasse (Gasse et D’Amours, 2000). Dans un second temps, le travail de terrain se focalise sur l’exploitation d’une enquête réalisée auprès de 208 entrepreneures et 100 femmes non entrepreneures djiboutiennes. Dans cette enquête, on a utilisé un questionnaire de 125 items hors facteurs d’identification et articulé autour de 17 dimensions réparties entre 5 axes (motivations, aptitudes, attitudes, intérêts et comportements). Le traitement des données s’est appuyé sur les techniques statistiques descriptives (tris à plat et tris croisés) et multidimensionnelles (analyse des corrélations, analyse en composantes principales, la classification hiérarchique et l’analyse discriminante). Cette étude a été enrichie par des entretiens semi-directifs avec 10 femmes entrepreneures. Les analyses confirment que, comparées aux non entrepreneures, les entrepreneures disposent plus des capacités et des compétences entrepreneuriales. De même, nos résultats indiquent que les potentialités entrepreneuriales sont associées essentiellement au niveau d’instruction et à l’expérience antérieure chez les entrepreneures plus jeunes, et à un ensemble de facteurs environnementaux (cercle familial ou amical, croyance divine, contexte culturel) chez les entrepreneures plus âgées. Ainsi, notre étude tend à montrer l’importance de l’appartenance à un entourage familial et/ou amical de tradition entrepreneurial dans le processus de création d’entreprise. Les résultats issus de ces différentes méthodes d’analyse de données consolident le modèle conceptuel initial et ouvrent des perspectives en termes de pédagogie d’accompagnement de l’entrepreneure africaine souvent soumise aux pesanteurs contextuelles
The primary aim of this thesis is to first identify and classify entrepreneurial traits so as to distinguish those surveyed on the basis of the perception they have of their entrepreneurial potentialities. Aside from this primary aim, the following work seeks to analyse personal and contextual factors likely to contribute to the acquisition and development of entrepreneurial traits of women entrepreneurs both within Djibouti and Africa at large. We have tried to compare entrepreneurial typologies of those who are entrepreneurs and those who are not. In view of achieving adequately the aims of this thesis, we first establish a synthesis of the main works regarding the paradigms of traits and facts of the entrepreneur so as to better reproduce Gasse’s conceptual model. In the second part of the work, the field work is focused on the exploitation of the findings of a survey conducted among 208 female entrepreneurs and 10 others who were not entrepreneurs. In this survey, a questionnaire, of 125 items excluding identifying factors and based on 17 dimensions distributed among 5 axes (motivations, aptitudes, attitudes, interests and behaviors), was used. Data processing is conducted according to the descriptive statistics techniques (basic sorting and cross sorting) and multi-dimensional ones (correlation analysis, principal component analysis, hierarchal classification, discriminative analysis). The study was strengthened by semi-structured interviews conducted among 10 female entrepreneurs. The results of the analysis confirmed that, unlike non-entrepreneurs, entrepreneurs have more capabilities and entrepreneurial skills. Moreover, results also indicate that entrepreneurial potentialities are mainly linked to the level of education and prior experience among young entrepreneurs and to a host of environmental factors (family circle, circle of friends, religious beliefs, and cultural context) as far as older entrepreneurs are concerned. Therefore, our study tends to show the importance of belonging to a family environment or having a circle of friends with a long-standing entrepreneurial tradition in the process of business creation. The results of these various methods of data processing reinforces the initial conceptual model and open perspectives on ways of assisting Africa’s women entrepreneurship often subjected to contextual burdens

Dans le but de comprendre ce qui pousse les entrepreneurs à agir, les chercheurs en entrepreneuriat utilisent depuis des décennies les modèles de l’intention dans leurs études. Les plus célèbres sont la Théorie de l’Action Planifiée d’Azjen et l’Evènement Entrepreneurial de Shapero et Sokol. Cependant, ces modèles restent perfectibles. En effet, ils partent du principe que l’intention est un bon prédicateur du comportement, alors que seules moins de la moitié des variations des comportements entrepreneuriaux sont explicables par l’intention. De plus, les modèles de l’intention se concentrent uniquement sur les antécédents de l’intention. La partie motivationnelle (le « pourquoi ») est donc couverte, mais la partie volitionnelle (le « comment ») est oubliée.Notre thèse, qui se compose de quatre travaux, a pour ambition de parer à ce manquement, dans le but de parfaire notre compréhension du processus entrepreneurial. Notre objectif est de mettre en lumière des facilitateurs qui permettraient de passer effectivement de l’intention à l’action. Nous relevons donc le défi de dévoiler en partie la boîte noire qui se trouve entre intention et comportement entrepreneurial. Nous avons sélectionné l’engagement et l’intention planifiée dans la littérature de socio-psychologie comme étant les chaînons manquants possibles, et nous les avons testés en contextes entrepreneuriaux.Ainsi, en se concentrant sur la partie volitionnelle, notre thèse complète les modèles de l’intention dans le but d’améliorer nos connaissances du processus entrepreneurial. Elle vise à servir les porteurs de projets, les politiques, les enseignants et les différents acteurs de suivi des entrepreneurs. En effet, tous peuvent utiliser ce que nous avons mis en lumière pour augmenter le taux de conversion de l’intention entrepreneuriale. Notre objectif est de manière générale de proposer de la matière nouvelle pour aider les porteurs de projets à concrétiser leurs intentions.Cependant, la taille de nos échantillons limite nos études empiriques à des études exploratoires. Nos résultats devront maintenant être confirmés de manière quantitative
In order to understand what leads individuals to create new ventures, entrepreneurship researchers use intention models in their studies for decades. The most famous are the Theory of Planned Behavior of Azjen and the Entrepreneurial Event of Shapero and Sokol. However, these models are still perfectible. In fact, they stem from the fact that intentions predict behaviors, but only less than half of variance of entrepreneurial behaviors is explained by intention. Moreover, intention models only focus on the antecedents of intention. So the motivational part (why one acts) is addressed, but the volitional part (how to pursue actions) remains set aside.Our thesis, composed of four pieces of work, aims at addressing this gap in order to improve our understanding of the entrepreneurial process. Our objective is to shed light on facilitators that can lead from intentions to effective action. We thus took on the challenge of unveiling part of the missing links between entrepreneurial intention and behavior. We selected commitment and implementation intention in the socio-psychological literature as being the possible missing links, and we test them in entrepreneurial contexts.Thus by focusing on the volitional part, our thesis completes the intention models in order to improve our knowledge of the entrepreneurial process. It has implications for intended entrepreneurs themselves, politicians, educators and incubators. Indeed, they could use what we have learnt about commitment and implementation intention to enhance the entrepreneurial intention conversion rate. Generally speaking, our goal is to propose new materials to help intended entrepreneurs to enact their intentions.However, the size of our samples limits our empirical studies to exploratory papers. Further researches should now test our findings quantitatively

La littérature, s’est beaucoup intéressée à l’entrepreneur solitaire, notamment à ses origines, à son profil et à ses actions. Certains auteurs le considèrent comme un mythe et un héros capable de se dépasser dans les situations les plus complexes. L’émergence des entreprises de nouvelles technologies ont fait connaître une nouvelle forme d’entrepreneuriat de plus en plus fréquente, qui se présente sous forme d’équipe entrepreneuriale. Etant donné, la réserve des réflexions académiques concernant ce champ d’étude, il est utile d’apporter quelques éclairages à ce sujet. Cette recherche se veut donc une contribution théorique et pratique à la compréhension de la notion de l’équipe entrepreneuriale et ses spécificités.L’équipe entrepreneuriale étant une entité dynamique devant être traitée en sa globalité irréductible, une analyse analytique nous semble réductrice. Par conséquent, nous proposons un cadrage théorique au moyen de la théorie systémique
Literature has been deeply interested in the solitary entrepreneur, mainly in his origins, profile and actions. Some authors consider him as a myth and a hero capable to exceed himself in the most complex situations. The emergence of new technology companies introduced a new form of entrepreneurship more and more frequent, which comes in the shape of entrepreneurial team. Since there is a reservation on the topic of academic thoughts in this field of study, it is useful to provide some insight on this. This research is intended for a theoretical and practical contribution to the understanding of the entrepreneurial team concept. Following a literary review on entrepreneurial teams, we propose a theoretical framework based on systemic approach. In fact, the entrepreneurial team is a dynamic entity; an analytical analysis seems to reduce the complexity in its elementary components whereas it should be treated in its irreducible globalism

750 000 emplois à sauvegarder. Ce nombre – mis en avant par l'ancienne députée de l'Hérault, Fanny Dombre-Coste, – souligne toute l'influence de la reprise de PME dans le développement de l'économie locale voire nationale. Toutefois, le repreneur, qui est un entrepreneur à part entière, est un acteur encore peu étudié, tant par les organismes professionnels que par les universitaires. Nous engageons alors une recherche pour combler ce manque et, sous une perspective entrepreneuriale, essayons de mieux comprendre le profil du repreneur. Pour circonscrire la question du profil, nous utilisons un concept central en entrepreneuriat : l'opportunité. Dès lors, en prenant appui sur la logique de Kirzner, la fonction du repreneur devient plus claire : il doit identifier des opportunités. Comment peut-il faire ? Il va utiliser sa vigilance. Cela nous amène à poser la problématique suivante : comment la vigilance entrepreneuriale du repreneur influence-t-elle la performance financière de la reprise ? Pour apporter des éléments de réponse, nous utilisons un raisonnement hypothético-déductif et réalisons une recherche quantitative. Cela nous amène à formuler des hypothèses pour in fine construire un modèle de recherche. Nous posons ainsi un lien entre la vigilance entrepreneuriale (Tang et al., 2012) et deux variables médiatrices : l'identification des opportunités (Ozgen et Baron, 2007) et l'orientation entrepreneuriale (Covin et Slevin, 1989). Ces deux variables sont ensuite reliées à la performance financière de la reprise – qui est une mesure subjective quant à l'évolution de huit indicateurs. Après avoir montré que la procédure MICIOM autorise une démarche comparative, nous testons notre modèle sur tous les repreneurs (n = 278) et procédons à une comparaison – qualitative puis grâce à une analyse multigroupe – entre les repreneurs mentorés (n = 199) et non mentorés (n = 79), et entre les repreneurs mentorés avant (n = 79) et après la reprise (n = 120). Les résultats de cette recherche montrent que la vigilance entrepreneuriale est un antécédent de la performance financière. Par ailleurs, ce travail souligne que le mentorat permet de mieux comprendre comment un entrepreneur réussit – au moins sur un plan financier – une reprise de PME. Dès lors, il semble pertinent de développer un volet cognitif dans les programmes d'accompagnement du repreneur mais également de travailler sur la relation de mentorat dans ce contexte singulier
750 000 employments to keep. This number, highlight by the former deputy of Herault, Fanny Dombre-Coste, underline influence of SME takeovers on development of local economy. However, buyer, an entrepreneur, is understudied. We then engaged an academic research in order to fill in this gap and, using an entrepreneurial perspective, we try to better understand buyer profile. To confine profile question, we use a central concept in entrepreneurship: opportunity. Then, leaning on Kirzner logic, buyer function become clearly: he has to identify opportunity. How can he do it? He is going to use his alertness. So, we ask the following problematic: how does buyer entrepreneurial alertness influence takeover financial performance? To answer, we use an hypothetico-deductive reasoning and realise a quantitative research. This lead us to formulate hypotheses and build a research model. We put a link between entrepreneurial alertness (Tang et al., 2012) and two mediator's variables: opportunity identification (Ozgen et Baron, 2007) and entrepreneurial orientation (Covin et Slevin, 1989). Then, this two variables are linked to takeover financial performance – which is a subjective measure of the evolution of height indicators. After used MICOM procedure, we test our model on all buyers (n = 278) and make a comparison – qualitative and using a multi-group analysis – between buyers supported by a mentor (n = 199) and non-supported (n = 79), and between buyers supported before (n = 79) and after takeover (n = 120). Firstly, results show that entrepreneurial alertness is an antecedent of financial performance. On the other hand, our research underline that mentorship has the potential to add substantially to our understanding of how buyer succeed – at least on an financial plan – SME takeover. Consequently, it seems relevant to develop a cognitive part in buyer support program and to work on mentorship in this singular context

There is a lot of research conducted in the field of general entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial learning, and entrepreneurial innovation. However, as Jason Cope (2003) came across during his research, there is little to none research made within the field of entrepreneurial learning from failure, especially from bankruptcy. The purpose of this thesis is to explore if it is possible forentrepreneurs to obtain “higher-level learning” from a bankruptcy. The research concerns whether or not entrepreneurs can learn from their mistakes, and in turn use this learning in order to become more successful entrepreneur in future undertakings. The thesis contributes to a research project on entrepreneurial response to firm failure, initiated by Anna Jenkins (2008).

As stated above, there is little to none research conducted in the field of entrepreneurial learning from a bankruptcy. Therefore theories considered closely and partly related to the subject have been revised. The overarching theory, the “Experiential learning theory” (Kolb, 1984) describes how experience can be transformed into genuine knowledge, through the steps: experiencing an event, reflecting on the event, understanding the principle under which the particular event falls and testing this new understanding under different circumstances. Jason Cope (2003) has found that entrepreneurs can obtain higher-level learning from experiencing discontinuous criticalevents by going through the phases; facing, overcoming and reflecting on events that occur during the running of a firm. This learning can be transformational; the entrepreneur realizes that current methods are insufficient, forcing him or her to adapt and change methods in future undertakings.

The main objective in this thesis was not to draw any final conclusions, rather to explore newvaluable information that can be interpreted in the main project as well as in future projects. To gather information we used a qualitative method, in which we interviewed five entrepreneurs who had recently experienced a bankruptcy. The empirical findings were later analyzed in thelight of the frame of references and the authors own viewpoint, by conducting a within case/cross case comparison.

The results show that two out of five entrepreneurs had transformed the experience from their bankruptcy into new genuine knowledge, thereby confirming that it is possible to obtain higherlevel learning from a bankruptcy. They realized their own mistakes and changed their methods in order to avoid making the same mistakes again. Three of the respondents had not critically reflected on their bankruptcy, thereby gained no new knowledge of how to change their methods in future undertakings. The major reasons as to why they were unable to do so were that they blamed external factors as the reason for bankruptcy. One of the interviewees was emotionally blocked during the bankruptcy and therefore unable to contemplate what had went wrong.

Det finns mycket forskning inom området entreprenörskap, entreprenöriel inlärning, och entreprenöriel innovation. Däremot finns det, vilket Jason Cope (2003) har upptäckt, lite eller ingen existerande forskning inom området entreprenöriel inlärning från ett misslyckande, som till exempel en konkurs. Syftet med den här uppsatsen är att utforska om det är möjligt för entreprenörer att uppnå ”higher-level learning” från en konkurs. Vi ämnar undersöka om entreprenörer kan lära sig av sina misstag och sedan använda dessa lärdomar i framtida projekt i sin strävan mot att bli bättre entreprenörer. Uppsatsen är tänkt som ett bidrag till ett forskningsprojekt om entreprenörers reaktion på företagsmisslyckande, bedriven av Anna Jenkins(2008).

Som nämnt ovan finns det knappt någon existerande forskning angående entreprenöriel inlärning från en konkurs, vilket har lett till att de teorier som är relaterade till ämnet har blivit reviderade. Den övergripande teorin, ”The Experiental Learning Theory” (Kolb, 1984) beskriver hur erfarenhet kan bli omvandlad till kunskap genom att följa stegen: aktivt uppleva en händelse,reflektera över händelsen, kunna förstå och analysera händelsen, och slutligen använda sin nya kunskap vid ett senare tillfälle. Jason Cope (2003) har upptäckt att entreprenörer kan nå en ”higher-level learning” genom att uppleva diskontinuerliga kritiska händelser och gå igenom dessafaser: tillmötesgå, övervinna/bemästra och reflektera över händelser som inträffar under företagandets gång. Den här inlärningen kan sedan omvandlas; entreprenören inser att hans nuvarande företagarmetoder inte är optimala, vilket leder honom/henne till att anpassa sig till situationen och ändra sina metoder i framtida projekt.

Målsättningen med den här uppsatsen var inte att dra några avgörande slutsatser, utan istället att utforska och behandla ny, värdefull information som kan bli användbar i den avhandling vi önskar bidra till, samt för andra framtida forskningsprojekt. För att samla information använde vi oss av kvalitativa intervjuer. Vi intervjuade fem entreprenörer, vilka alla nyligen hade upplevt en konkurs. Empirin analyserades sedan med hjälp av våra utvalda teorier och våra egna synpunkter, genom att göra en ”cross case comparison”.

Vårt resultat visar att två av fem entreprenörer har omvandlat sina upplevelser kring konkursen till genuin kunskap och därmed bekräftat att det är möjligt att uppnå ”higher-level learning” av en konkurs. De har insett sina egna misstag och ändrat sina metoder för att förhindra att samma misstag upprepas. Tre av respondenterna har inte reflekterat kritiskt över konkursen, och därför inte fått någon ny kunskap angående hur de skulle kunna ändra sina metoder inom företagande inför framtida projekt. Den främsta anledningen till varför de var oförmögna att reflektera över händelsen var att de skyllde konkursen främst på externa faktorer. En av de intervjuade var även känslomässigt blockerad under konkursen och därför inkapabel att begrunda sina misstag.

 

In order to become serial entrepreneurs and even portfolio entrepreneurs. individuals' must first establish themselves as entrepreneurs. Moreover. and prior to this. they must first be nascent entrepreneurs. Hence. the focus of this study is the factors that lead individuals at the early stage of their career to choose to establish a personal business venture rather than any other career path. That is. this study focuses on the factors that influence individuals intentions' to become entrepreneurs. Three models are empirically tested. These models comprise an extended version of the Shapero model of the entrepreneurial event. a modified version of the Ajzen model of planned behaviour. and Boyd and Vozikis' extended Bird model. A fourth model is developed and tested. This particular model is characterised as the 'entrepreneurial capital' model and extends the reasoning into the probability of sustained entrepreneurial behaviour. There are four main contributions from this study. • The first contribution is the development of the notion of entrepreneurial capital. where entrepreneurial capital is conceived of as a function of sustained entrepreneurial intentions (commitment) and entrepreneurial competence. It is argued that the most valuable source of emerging firms is the nascent entrepreneurs' entrepreneurial capital. In other words, the combined capacity to identify opportunities. to acquire and co-ordinate resources and to see the venture through to fruition may be regarded as entrepreneurial capital. • The second contribution of this thesis relates to the empirical testing of Boyd and Vozikis' theoretical propositions. These propositions are based on the extended Bird model and have not been empirically tested before. The presence of entrepreneurial goals was found to have a stronger effect on entrepreneurial intentions than entrepreneurial commitment and perceived entrepreneurial capability. • The third contribution relates to social entrepreneurial experience; experience gathered through interaction with entrepreneurially orientated others. it appears that social entrepreneurial experience is an important antecedent factor that influences 'entrepreneurial intentions'. Hence. culture. that is, the presence of other entrepreneurially orientated people. appears to be the most important influence on the development of individuals' intentions toward enterprise formation. • The fourth contribution also relates to social entrepreneurial experience. it appears that 'perceived entrepreneurial competence' is also influenced by social entrepreneurial experience. According to this study. mastery entrepreneurial experience (i.e. previous start-up experience) as well as vicarious entrepreneurial experience (i.e. parental role models) have less effect. Only when self-employment is judged more attractive than organisational employment. will high potential individuals' choose the former. Educational programmes that value self-employment initiatives should therefore stimulate individuals to develop personal entrepreneurial goals. and to develop individuals' perceptions of their entrepreneurial capabilities. which again should trigger their entrepreneurial intentions.

Depuis quelques années, les incitations à entreprendre se sont multipliées dans les discours médiatiques, et ont projeté les pouvoirs publics dans une dynamique de promotion et de soutien à l’entrepreneuriat, notamment chez les jeunes. Malgré le foisonnement des initiatives publiques et privées allant en ce sens, le passage à l’acte entrepreneurial demeure problématique, 5% de la population française étant impliqué dans des activités de création (GEM, 2018-2019). Et quand des actions sont effectivement réalisées en vue de créer une activité nouvelles, elles ne présument en rien de la poursuite, ni du succès futur du projet. Il y a donc un enjeu à mieux comprendre ce qui peut encourager, renforcer et infléchir les trajectoires des entrepreneurs naissants.Ce questionnement rejoint des appels récents de la littérature entrepreneuriale à investiguer le passage de l’intention à l’action entrepreneuriale, pour mieux comprendre la phase dite volitionnelle du processus entrepreneurial, notamment les mécanismes d’auto-régulation qui s’y jouent. Ce travail doctoral s’inscrit dans la continuité de ces efforts, en s’intéressant au rôle du profil d’engagement de l’entrepreneur naissant dans cette phase cruciale du processus entrepreneurial. Il propose d’opérationnaliser le modèle d’engagement organisationnel développé par Allen et Meyer (1990), différenciant les engagements affectif, normatif et calculé, au contexte de l’entrepreneuriat naissant. Il questionne les formes que peut prendre l’engagement dans ce contexte spécifique de création et d’émergence, les facteurs favorisant leur développement et mais également leurs conséquences en termes de comportement d’investissement (ressources personnelles, surinvestissement). Le protocole qui sous-tend cette thèse mêle enquêtes qualitatives par entretien et focus groups et trois enquêtes quantitatives par questionnaire sur des populations d’entrepreneurs naissants issus de l’observatoire d’impact de la Chaire Pépite France. Il a permis de tester et de valider deux nouvelles échelles de mesure : une échelle de l’engagement entrepreneurial à deux dimensions (affective et instrumentale) et une échelle de sept paris subsidiaires (side-bets) inspirée des travaux d’Howard Becker (1960). En cela, ce travail remet en cause la structure factorielle tridimensionnelle classique des modèles d’engagement, et met en lumière les spécificités de la situation entrepreneuriale, par rapport au contexte organisationnel dans lequel la plupart de ces modèles ont été forgés. Il a également permis d’identifier les facteurs – individuels, sociaux et liés aux ressources - et conséquences comportementales des différentes formes d’engagement entrepreneurial. Enfin, il a abouti à la construction d’une taxonomie différenciant trois profils d’engagement chez les entrepreneurs naissants : les faiblement engagés, les affectivement engagés et les complètement engagés. Celle-ci s’est révélé discriminante quant aux niveaux d’avancement et d’investissement des entrepreneurs naissants issus de chaque groupe.Les résultats de ce travail permettent de défendre la thèse selon laquelle le profil d’engagement de l’entrepreneur naissant joue un rôle crucial dans la manière dont le processus entrepreneurial sera conduit, poursuivi et mené à son terme. Ils affinent notre compréhension de la manière dont les entrepreneurs naissants peuvent se sentir liés à leur projet, mais également au processus plus global par lequel ils deviennent entrepreneurs. En cela, ils sont d’intérêt pour les pouvoirs publics et professionnels de l’accompagnement cherchant à consolider les carrières entrepreneuriales, en particulier chez les étudiants et jeunes diplômés
Over the last few years, the incentives for entrepreneurship have multiplied in media discourses, and have thrown our governments into a dynamic of promoting and supporting entrepreneurship, especially among young people. Despite the proliferation of public and private initiatives going in this direction, the transformation into entrepreneurial action remains problematic, 5% of the French population being effectively involved in gestation activities (GEM, 2018-2019). And when actions are actually carried out to create a new activity, they in no way presume the continuation or the future success of the project. There is therefore a stake in better understanding what can encourage, strengthen and influence nascent entrepreneurs’ path.This questioning is in line with recent calls from the entrepreneurial literature to investigate the entrepreneurial intention-action gap, to better understand the volitional phase of the entrepreneurial process, especially its self-regulation mechanisms. This doctoral work is in line with of these efforts, and examines the role of the nascent entrepreneur's commitment profile in this crucial phase of the entrepreneurial process. It proposes to operationalize the organizational commitment model developed by Allen and Meyer (1990), differentiating affective, normative and calculated commitments, in the context of nascent entrepreneurship. It questions the forms that engagement can take in this specific context of creation and emergence, but also the factors leading to their development and their behavioral consequences in terms of investment (personal resources, overinvestment).The protocol underlying this thesis combines qualitative surveys (semi-directed interviews and focus groups) and three quantitative surveys by questionnaire on samples of nascent entrepreneurs from Observatory Impact of the Chaire Pépite France. It enabled to test and validate two new measurement scales: a two-dimensional (affective and instrumental) entrepreneurial commitment scale and a side-bets scale based on the work of Howard Becker (1960). Doing so, it questioned the classic three-dimensional factorial structure of commitment models, and shed light on the specificities of the entrepreneurial situation, compared to the organizational context in which most of these models have been developed. It also identified the factors - individual, social and resource-related - and behavioral consequences of different forms of entrepreneurial engagement. Finally, it resulted in the construction of a taxonomy revealing three engagement profiles among nascent entrepreneurs: the weakly committed, the affectively committed and the fully committed. This classification was consistent with the levels of advancement and investment of nascent entrepreneurs from each group.The results of this work reveal that the commitment profile of nascent entrepreneurs plays a crucial role in the way they will invest themselves and persist into the entrepreneurial process. They refine our understanding of how nascent entrepreneurs can feel tied to their project, but also to the broader process of becoming entrepreneurs. In that, they are important for public institutions and professionals seeking to consolidate entrepreneurial careers, especially of students and young graduates

L’objectif de cette thèse est d’apporter de nouveaux éclairages théoriques et empiriques sur les mécanismes d’entrepreneuriat organisationnel, et plus précisément « orientation entrepreneuriale » (OE). Afin de mieux comprendre ce phénomène, cette dissertation est le fruit de quatre efforts successifs : - Identifier ce qu’est l’orientation entrepreneuriale en le distinguant de ce que ce n’est pas - Comprendre comment le construit « OE » s’intègre dans les principaux modèles d’entrepreneuriat organisationnel - Offrir une discussion critique en synthétisant et mappant les questions existantes, dévoilant qu’il y a en fait au moins quatre conceptualisations derrière « OE », parmi lesquelles la conceptualisation initiale de Miller (1983), ignorée ou incomprise. - Pour poursuivre dans l’intention de Miller, je propose une tamie dexono firmes selon leur gestalt d’OE, ainsi que les caractéristiques propres de chaque configuration. Par une meilleure compréhension du phénomène d’entrepreneuriat organisationnel, cette thèse propose de contribuer à la littérature en entrepreneuriat, en management stratégique, et en management
The objective of my PhD is to better understand the theoretical and empirical mechanisms of organizational-level entrepreneurship, and more precisely “entrepreneurial orientation” (EO). To better comprehend the phenomenon, this dissertation is the succession of four research efforts: - Identify what entrepreneurial orientation is by distinguishing from what it is not (entrepreneurial management) - Understand how the EO construct fits into the main models of firm-level entrepreneurship - Furnish a critical discussion of EO through the synthesis and mapping of existing issues, to unveil that there are actually four conceptualizations behind the term “EO”, among which the original conceptualization by Miller (1983), gone unheard or misunderstood - In line with Miller’s initial intention, I offer a taxonomy of firms according to their gestalt of EO, and the characteristics of each configuration This dissertation aims at contributing to entrepreneurship literature, to strategic management, and to general management by improving our understanding of firm-level entrepreneurship in SMEs

This thesis investigates the processes of identity construction and identity work in entrepreneurial dyads. Entrepreneurial dyads are defined as two-person teams, in which members are bound both by a strong social tie and by a common commitment to start and manage a new business venture. The thesis builds on the work of Watson (2008) and adopts his conceptual framework for understanding how discourse shapes social identities and how these are used to inform the production of a coherent self. The business stories of three entrepreneurial dyads are used as case studies. Data were collected through both storytelling in interviews and direct observation. Entrepreneurs were asked to produce an individual account of their business story. In addition, the dyads' interactive dynamics were directly observed in their natural settings. The business stories produced by the dyads were analysed using the narrative method. First, the narrative styles of the business stories were assessed looking at elements such as plot, structure, and characterisation. This analysis allowed an understanding of the socially available discourses which provided the entrepreneurs with a system of meanings that shaped their presentations. Second, a process of narrative deconstruction allowed the identification of their locally meaningful discourse, uniquely created within each dyad by social interaction. What emerged shows that the entrepreneurs recounted not only traditional business stories, but enacted a unique discourse of 'being entrepreneurial'. A meta-level cross-case comparison of the different experiences of each of the three dyads facilitated the identification of distinct patterns. The tension between change and obligation is identified as the mechanism that governs the processes of identity work and the construction of social identities. On the one hand, individuals actively engage in producing original discourses and in shaping the presentations of their selves. On the other hand, they deal with an established sense of obligation. The latter encompasses both the expectations that society associates with the social structure (e.g. marriage; company), and a unique system of meanings that each dyad constructs through social interaction. The processes of identity construction and identity work are uniquely identified through the use of linguistic portals. These are theorised as cue words that populate the accounts of the entrepreneurs and signal some reflection on aspects of identity during the narration of a story. Watson's (2008) framework has been expanded from undertaking this research and generating these insights. In doing identity work, individuals transfer features of their unique and locally meaningful discourses in their selves and also in other social identities (e.g. mother, daughter, boyfriend). This occurs because of an obligation both towards society and towards the community the dyads created. The ability to balance agency and this dual obligation represents the element of coherence across different presentations. The thesis also expands Watson's five categories of social identity, through adding communal social identities in terms of those presentations of selves locally meaningful within a unique interaction.

Cette recherche apporte une contribution empirique à la compréhension des parcours entrepreneuriaux. Elle conduit à engager une lecture renouvelée des processus dans une approche critiques de l’entrepreneuriat. Une démarche biographique, basée sur des « récits de vie », contribue à éclairer la complexité et l’hétérogénéité des dynamiques entrepreneuriales, au-delà de la stricte recherche de rationalité économique. Ce travail confirme l’utilité du concept d’Entrepreneuring, comme processus intrinsèquement émancipatoire, favorisant la transformation d’environnements sociaux, économiques, institutionnels ou sociétaux. Dans le souci d’appréhender la complexité de ces dynamiques, nous introduirons un cadre d’analyse historique qui tienne compte de plus larges parties prenantes (familiales ou non familiales), engagées sur le temps long. Ce que nous appellerons, dans cette thèse, des carrières entrepreneuriales collectives et transgénérationnelles
This research provides an empirical contribution to the understanding of entrepreneurial pathways. It leads to a renewed reading of processes in a critical approach to entrepreneurship. A biographical approach, based on "narratives of life", helps to illuminate the complexity and heterogeneity of entrepreneurial dynamics, beyond the strict search for economic rationality. This work confirms the usefulness of the Entrepreneuring concept, as an intrinsically emancipatory process promoting the transformation of social, economic, institutional or societal environments. In order to understand the complexity of these dynamics, we will introduce a framework of historical analysis that takes into account broader stakeholders (family or non-family), committed to long time. What we will call, in this thesis, collective and transgenerational entrepreneurial careers

An entrepreneur is an innovator, someone who transforms innovations and ideas intoeconomically viable entities; independent on whether in the process she creates oroperates a firm (Baumol 1993). When these firms are created however, sometimes theydo not achieve a viable sustainability; they often face problems and are forced to gobankrupt. When Bankruptcy occurs the entrepreneur is logically affected not onlyeconomically but also mentally and emotionally. Different situations have differenteffects on the entrepreneur´s emotions.

Lazarus´ Cognitive Appraisal Theory states that when faced with a problem or situationpeople "appraise" or perceive it in different ways. The Primary Appraisal happens whenthe entrepreneur first comes into the realization of the problem; she can view itdifferently, either as an event that deserves indifference, an opportunity, or as a harmfulthreat. The Secondary Appraisal happens when the entrepreneur analyses what resourceshe has available and what strategy he will proceed to use in order to tackle the situation.Furthermore, during the course of the situation the entrepreneur may come into therealization of new information that might change his way of perceiving things, this iscalled an Appraisal. The Cognitive Appraisal Theory is closely linked to the CopingTheory which talks about how entrepreneurs "cope" or deal emotionally with theiradversities. Coping can be divided into two types, Problem focused and Emotion focusedCoping. Problem focused coping intents on coming up with viable and practical solutionsto improve the situation, whereas Emotion focused intends on externalizing the blame andreacting with a worsened emotional state that does not help the situation in the long run.

This report is an exploratory research and bases its empirical data on the case studyapproach of five different cases of entrepreneurs leaving in Sweden who had theexperience of engaging in an enterprise that ended up in bankruptcy. During the course ofthis investigation a qualitative method was used and the empirical findings wheregathered by engaging in interviews that were later analyzed and correlated with thetheoretical framework.

In the Analysis we take apart the information gathered in the interviews and try tocorrelate the events to the theories while at the same time striving to find similarities ordifferences between the subjects. We also try to find patterns that may help us understandmore about the subject and finally allows us to address the problem and achieve thepurpose of this report which is to understand how an entrepreneur copes when faced witha business failure.

In our conclusion we came to the realization that people tend to follow specific patterns ofemotional reaction that concretely support the pre established theories. This report servesas a base or foundation of a tool for entrepreneurs. We find that if entrepreneurs hadprevious knowledge of ways to deal with failure they might be more prompt to avoid itentirely and consequently this can be an invaluable tool for them..3

Increasing the supply of entrepreneurs reduces unemployment and accelerates economic growth (Acs, 2006; Audretsch, 2007; Santarelli et el. 2009; Campbell, 1996; Carree & Thurik, 1996). The supply of entrepreneurs depends on the entrepreneurial intention and activity of the people (Kruger & Brazeal, 1994). Existing behavioural theories explain that entrepreneurial activity is an attitude driven process which is mediated by intention and regulated by behavioural control. These theories are: Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; 2002, 2012); Entrepreneurial Event Model (Shapiro & Shokol, 1982), and Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1977; 1986; 2012). Meta-analysis of existing behavioural theories in different fields found that the theories are more effective to analyse behavioural intention and habitual behaviour, but less effective to analyse long-term and risky behaviour (McEachan et al., 2011). The objective of this dissertation is to improve entrepreneurship behaviour theory to advance our understanding of the determinants of the entrepreneurial intention and activity. To achieve this objective we asked three compelling questions in our research. These are: Firstly, why do differences exist in entrepreneurship among age groups. Secondly, how can we improve the theory to analyse entrepreneurial intention and behaviour? And, thirdly, is there any relationship between counterfactual or regretful thinking and entrepreneurial intention? We address these three questions in Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of the dissertation. Earlier studies have identified that there is an inverse U shaped relationship between age and entrepreneurship (Parker, 2004; Hart et al., 2004). In our study, we explain the reasons for this inverse U shape (Chapter 2). To analyse the reasons we use Cognitive Life Cycle theory and Disuse theory. We assume that the stage in the life cycle of an individual moderates the influence of opportunity identification and skill to start a business. In our study, we analyse the moderation effect in early stage entrepreneurship and in serial entrepreneurship. In Chapter 3, the limitations of existing psychological theories are discussed, and a competency value theory of entrepreneurship (CVTE) is proposed to overcome the limitations and extend existing theories. We use a ‘weighted competency’ variable instead of a ‘perceived behavioural control’ variable for the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) and self-efficacy variable for social cognitive theory. Weighted competency is the perceived competency ranking assigned by an individual for his total competencies to be an entrepreneur. The proposed theory was tested in a pilot survey in the UK and in a national adult population survey in a South Asian Country. The results show a significant relationship between competencies and entrepreneurial intention, and weighted competencies and entrepreneurial behaviour as per CVTE. To improve the theory further, in Chapter 4, we test the relationship between counterfactual thinking and entrepreneurial intention. Studies in cognitive psychology identify that ‘upward counterfactual thinking’ influences intention and behaviour (Epstude & Rose, 2008; Smallman & Roese, 2009). Upward counterfactual thinking is regretful thinking for missed opportunities of a problem. This study addresses the question of how an individual’s regretful thinking affects his or her future entrepreneurial career intention. To do so, we conducted a study among students in a business school in the UK, and we found that counterfactual thinking modifies the influence of attitude and opportunity identification in entrepreneurial career intention.

This research investigates the influence of role models on student entrepreneurial motivation. It aims to find out and explain the most influential role model from several possible constructs. The mechanism by which such individuals can influence student entrepreneurial motivation and how that works was considered. As a foundation this research used and extended a conceptual understanding and framework from two previous core studies. These were Gibson (2004) and Shane et al., (2003). The latter work discusses the determinants of entrepreneurial motivation from quantitative and qualitative point of views. Gibson (2004) argued that the, then, existing literature had gaps concerning our understanding of entrepreneurial roles models. This gap still exists today but it is hoped that this study makes a significant contribution to our understanding of how role models influence others to consider taking up an entrepreneurial career. This study is particularly concerned with senior undergraduate business students at a university in Indonesia and underscores the importance of social influence as one of the determinants of the impact of role models on entrepreneurial motivation. Two hundred and ninety-one undergraduates responded to the initial questionnaire and thirty-eight took part in a further in-depth interview with the researcher. To provide a common basis for their understanding of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurial activities, a seperate baseline questionnaire was used. This study found that depending on the construct, the role model, directly or indirectly, exerted significant influence on individual entrepreneurial motivation. It found also that the closure mechanism (as suggested by Sorensen, 2007) which was developed out of the charisma and reputation components of Gibson (2004) was the most common mechanism when a student "appointed" another individual as their role model. This finding was strengthened by having considered the ways that role modles influence an individual and what is the possible influence and impact on that individual's daily and future life. The research also offers an important finding regarding the concept of proximity and the possible degree of influence of the role model on an individual's future career choice. Correlation between the individual and possible constructs of the role model provided an insight into the relative influence of role models and this can be used to consider the possible alternatives to delivering entrepreneurship education in universities. Interestingly, parents had the most influence followed by entrepreneurs. Lecturers can influence future careers in general but not specifically influence entrepreneurial motivation. Although it has contributed to filling the skill exisiting research gap, this study also has limitations, but offers interesting challenges. It is a study rooted in a single culture. The researcher understands that it would be possible to generalise the detailed findings and results to other countries given that cultural dimensions differ (Hofstede, 2012). However this very limitation offers the challenge of extending this research agenda through comparing and contrasting students from differing cultural backgrounds.

A sustainable development of entrepreneurship will not be possible in such a complex andchallenging environment as today’s society, without the attainment of effective learning andbusiness support capabilities (Williams, 1998). One such support is obtained through havingexperienced entrepreneurs mentor less experienced entrepreneurs, transferring knowledge(Clutterbuck, 2004) and facilitating learning (Sullivan, 2000). As Leonard Bisk (2002)and Sullivan (2000) among other researchers (Deakins et al. 1997) stress, there is a need tolook beyond the start-up process of a firm and the use of mentorship in this early phase,and focus more on how entrepreneurs who have been in business for a while can benefitfrom a mentor program, an area referred to as “the nature of timing and support” (Sullivan,2000, p. 163).

The purpose of this thesis is to explore how an experienced entrepreneur, a mentor, canhelp a less experienced entrepreneur, an adept, achieve entrepreneurial development duringand throughout different phases of the entrepreneurial life cycle, in the most efficient manner.

An entrepreneurial life cycle can be divided into several phases, which can be used in orderto examine the entrepreneur’s development process within different time periods of runninga firm. Start-up support generally involves providing entrepreneurs with the crucial“tools” for survival, such as basic financial support, bookkeeping and marketing (Sullivan,2000). Mature entrepreneurs generally request psychological benefits, such as reassuranceand improved confidence as they wonder whether or not their experiences are normal andhow they should be interpreted (Megginson et al. 2006). There are two types of directivementoring styles, coaching and counseling, and two types of non directive mentoring,counseling and networking.

The main objective with our research in this thesis was to explore how entrepreneurs’ developmentthroughout and during different phases was affected by active participation in amentor program. To gather information we used a qualitative method, in which we interviewedten entrepreneurs who were currently active in a mentor program, or had been activewithin the last 12 months. The empirical findings were later analyzed in the light of theframe of references and the authors own viewpoint, by conducting a within case/cross casecomparisons.

The results indicate that a mentor can best help an entrepreneur achieve entrepreneurialdevelopment by providing non directive support, enabling the entrepreneur to draw his orher own conclusions and stimulate self reliance. This support is best delivered after thestart-up and conception phase, the first phase of the life-cycle.

Small and Medium Enterprises are the engines of economic development. In developing countries, they play an irreplaceable role in poverty alleviation through creation of jobs and contribution towards the countries’ gross domestic products. South Africa is faced with a challenge of high failure rate of SMEs despite the efforts by government to support and grow this sector. For a country to have a strong sustainable economy, sustainable and successful SME sector is necessary. Literature reviews have demonstrated that incorporating sustainability aspect into entrepreneurship improves the performance of businesses. Research on implementation of sustainability principles by SMEs is limited and SMEs have been left out in sustainability teachings and monitoring. The purpose of the study was to analyse the role played by entrepreneurial mind-set and entrepreneurial education on sustainability of SMEs. The research was conducted amongst 10 SME owners/managers with businesses located in the Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality. Case study method using a semi-structured interview guide was conducted. Results were transcribed, analysed and interpreted. Results of the research demonstrated that SME owners/managers possess entrepreneurial mind-set, which is a necessity to run a successful business. There was also evidence that entrepreneurial education enhances entrepreneurial mind-set of SME owners/managers. SMEs owners/managers also demonstrated that they implement sustainability principles informally with no guiding documents. With regards to implementation of sustainability principles, there was no noticeable difference between SME owners/managers who had undergone entrepreneurship education and the ones who had not gone through entrepreneurship education. This highlighted the need to incorporate sustainability issues in entrepreneurship education courses. The study brings contribution towards building sustainable SMEs.

Policy on older workers has focused on increasing labour market participation either by encouraging those unemployed or inactive back into work or by encouraging people to work up to and beyond retirement age. It has been argued that older entrepreneurship might enable older individuals to extend their working lives and support them to fund their retirement. However, academic investigation of this phenomenon has been limited. Where research has been conducted, it has predominantly been investigated quantitatively (e.g Kautonen et al. 2009; Kautonen 2012; Walker & Webster 2007). Through the lens of Shapero’s (1982) Entrepreneurial Event (SEE) theory, this research sought to investigate the intentions of ‘older’ entrepreneurship and the subsequent business and personal outcomes of engaging in entrepreneurship for older individuals in the UK. A qualitative research design within a Constructivist paradigm was used. Aligning with the Constructivist standpoint, multiple methods in the form of a qualitative survey (n = 70) and 20 in depth interviews were undertaken with UK based older entrepreneurs. Data was thematically analysed. Findings on motivations behind third age entrepreneurship found in this study are similar to those reported across the literature on small firms in terms of the reportage of extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. However, current findings demonstrate that financial necessity does not appear to be a prevalent motivation for engaging in older entrepreneurship. Instead, importance was given to non-pecuniary motivating factors such as enjoyment and remaining active in older age. Motivations were also found to influence how the older entrepreneurs measured success in terms of business and personal outcomes. Success was not perceived only through traditional means related to growth and pecuniary earnings, with intrinsic motivations often prioritised over pecuniary factors for the majority of older entrepreneurs. Findings also verify that in the context of older entrepreneurship SEE theory appears to be an appropriate theoretical model for understanding the entrepreneurial intentions and behaviours of the study’s sample. However, findings suggest that the theory may be better presented so that the importance of context in the formation of entrepreneurial intention and behaviour is emphasised.

Les entrepreneurs contribuent de manière significative aux activités économiques et à la création d'emplois. S'engager dans des activités entrepreneuriales exige que les entrepreneurs s'exposent à la forte probabilité d'échec, à des risques et à l'incertitude. Par conséquent, il est crucial de comprendre et d'identifier les facteurs qui contribuent à la création d'entreprise, à la poursuite de leurs activités et au développement des activités des entrepreneurs. Cette étude explore 1) un nouveau facteur qui détermine différents niveaux de la tendance à entreprendre à travers les pays et les cultures, et 2) la façon dont les entrepreneurs et les équipes entrepreneuriales choisissent leurs voies de développement et d'évolution.Le chapitre 1 illustre et utilise de manière inédite une caractéristique linguistique du temps futur, la morphologie flexionnelle (c'est à dire conjugaison) pour le temps futur (IF), afin de mesurer la perception de l'incertitude, et d'explorer son effet sur la tendance à entreprendre d'un pays. L'utilisation de la morphologie flexionnelle pour le futur est censée inciter les locuteurs à percevoir intensément l'incertitude. Par conséquent, ces pays et régions connaissent moins de nouvelles entreprises créées. Les preuves empiriques appuient la proposition en utilisant les données au niveau des pays dans 137 pays de 2010 à 2018. Les résultats impliquent que la caractéristique linguistique du futur peut servir comme un facteur institutionnel de la perception de l'incertitude par un individu et contribuer à l'hétérogénéité de la tendance à entreprendre nationale et régionale.Le chapitre 2 examine si la composition de l'équipe fondatrice des entrepreneurs novices aide à prédire s'ils deviennent des entrepreneurs à fort développement. Contrairement aux recherches précédentes, cette étude prend le point de vue de l'entrepreneur en suivant l'activité entrepreneuriale de 1000 entrepreneurs novices au cours de leurs dix premières années. Les résultats montrent que la composition de l'équipe de l'entreprise initiale est importante pour la probabilité que les entrepreneurs connaissent au final un statut de fort développement. Les résultats montrent en outre que les membres non familiaux qui participent en tant que partenaires commerciaux à la toute première entreprise des entrepreneurs les aident à réentreprendre. De plus, les entrepreneurs à fort développement sont plus souvent des entrepreneurs habituels. Lors de l'analyse au niveau de l'entreprise, différents résultats apparaissent, ce qui souligne la nécessité de bien choisir le niveau d'analyse lors de la comparaison des résultats de l'activité entrepreneuriale.Le chapitre 3 évalue l'évolution des équipes fondatrices entrepreneuriales. Les équipes sont des facteurs clés du succès des nouvelles entreprises, mais ils ne sont pas statiques dans le temps. Dans ce chapitre, la chronologie des changements des équipes est mise en évidence et démontrée pour faire des conséquences différentes. Cette enquête a été menée en suivant 1000 équipes britanniques au cours des dix premières années de leurs activités. Selon la chronologie du départ du fondateur et de l'entrée de nouveaux membres, l'éviction du fondateur et le remplacement sont deux types d'évolution nouvellement définis. Les résultats révèlent différents facteurs (propriété au capital, opportunité entrepreneuriale alternative et la disparité de la répartition de la propriété) pour le départ et l'éviction des fondateurs, ainsi que pour l'entrée de nouveaux membres et le remplacement. Des plus, la disparité de la répartition de la propriété après l'évolution de l'équipe est affectée différents évènements affectent différemment l'ampleur de. Ces résultats mettent en lumière l'importance de la chronologie des changements des équipes
Entrepreneurs contribute significantly to economic activities and job creation. Engaging in entrepreneurial activities requires entrepreneurs to face the high likelihood of failure, take risks, and bear a great deal of uncertainty. Hence, understanding and identifying factors that contribute to individuals starting a business, keeping engaging in and growing their entrepreneurial activities are crucial. This study explores 1) a novel factor that determines various levels of entrepreneurial propensity across countries and cultures and 2) how the entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial teams choose their development paths and evolvement.Chapter 1 illustrates and initiatively employs a linguistic feature of future tense, inflectional morphology (i.e., conjugation) for future tense (IF), to measure the perception of uncertainty, and explores its effect on a country's entrepreneurial propensity. Using inflectional morphology for future tense is argued to make speakers perceive uncertainty intensely. Therefore, their resident countries and regions experience fewer new ventures created. The empirical evidence supports the proposition by using the country-level data in 137 countries from 2010 to 2018. The finding implies that the linguistic feature of future tense can serve as the institutional factor of an individual's perception of uncertainty and contribute to the heterogeneity of nationwide and regional entrepreneurial propensity.Chapter 2 investigates whether the founding team composition of novice entrepreneurs help predict whether they become high-growth entrepreneurs. Unlike previous research, this study takes the entrepreneur's perspective by tracking 1000 novice entrepreneurs' entrepreneurial activity in their first ten years. The results show that team composition in the very first company matters for the likelihood that entrepreneurs ultimately experience high-growth status. The findings further indicate that non-family members participating as business partners in the very first company of the entrepreneurs help them become habitual. Moreover, high-growth entrepreneurs are more often habitual entrepreneurs. When running the analysis at the company level, different results appear, which highlights the need for choosing well the level of analysis when comparing the outcomes of entrepreneurial activity.Chapter 3 assesses the evolution of entrepreneurial founding teams (EFTs). EFTs are key drivers of new ventures' success, but they are not static over time. In this chapter, the temporality of EFT evolutionary events is highlighted and evidenced to make different consequences. This investigation was conducted by tracking 1,000 U.K. EFTs for the first ten years of their ventures. Based on the temporal sequence of founder departure and new member entry, founder crowd-out and replacement are two newly defined types of evolution. The results reveal different antecedents (equity ownership, alternative entrepreneurial opportunity and the disparity of ownership distribution) for founder departure and crowd-out, as well as for new member entry and replacement. Furthermore, the disparity of ownership after evolution is affected differently by evolutionary events in terms of magnitude. These findings shed light on the importance of the temporality of EFT evolutionary events

La croissance du nombre des creations d'entreprises constatee ces dernieres annees en france et dans l'ensemble des pays industrialises resulte de la conjonction d'une offre d'entrepreneurs importante et d'opportunites de creations d'entreprises dans le secteur industriel et dans le secteur tertiaire. Les changements profonds de l'activite economique et des conditions d'exercice de cette activite (croissance du secteur tertiaire, mutations technologiques, difficulte des grandes entreprises, modifications des marches) entrainent des occasions de creations d'entreprises et un renouveau de l'entrepreneuriat. L'offre d'entrepreneurs est largement suscitee par la crise et une de ses consequences, un niveau de chomage eleve. Les motivations selon les differentes categories socio-professionnelles et les caracteristiques socio-economiques des createurs d'entreprises rendent cependant compte de la diversite des conditions de la creation. La forte reproduction sociale des createurs d'entreprises se retrouve dans une certaine mesure dans l'espace et se conjugue avec une modification des facteurs de localisation des entreprises des secteurs en croissance. Les aides a la creation d'entreprises sont diverses et en cela, elles essaient de repondre a la diversite des createurs d'entreprises, des conditions de creation ou des types d'entreprises creees. En l'absence d'une evaluation probante de leur efficacite, il est difficile de les remettre en cause. Cependant, le vivier d'entrepreneurs n'est pas inepuisable et les conditions favorables a l'entrepreneuriat a l'heure actuelle peuvent evoluer en sa defaveur
An increasing number of new firms has been noticed during these last years in france and in most industrialized countries. It can be emplained by the conjunction of an important supply of entrepreneurs and opportunities of entrepreneurship both in the manufacturing and in the service sectors. The deep changes in the economic activity and in the conditions required to exercise this activity (the tertiary sector's development, the technological transformations, the difficulties faced by large companies, market's modifications) lead to opportunities favorable to entreneurship. It is the crisis that mainly brings about the supply of entrepreneurs and one its consequences is a high level of unemployment. Nevertheless, the motivations according to the different professional categories and the socio-economic characteristics of entrepreneurs emphasize how varied the entrepreneurship can be. The important social reproduction of entrepreneurs finds itself to a certain extent in space and is combined with modified factors concerning firms localization in growing sectors. Aids to entrepreneurship are various and in that, they try to answer the variety of entrepreneurs and the requirements for the different conditions of undertaken and the different types of new firms. In absence o a convincing assessment of their efficiency, it is difficult to question them. Yet, the "fispond" of entrepreneurs is not inexhaustible neither opportunities of entrepreneurship

L’entrepreneuriat a été très longtemps reposé sur les seuls facteurs économiques, comme la recherche et le développement (R&D), les innovations, les infrastructures adéquates, les nouvelles technologies appliquées, un système bancaire efficace, etc. Pourtant, d’autres facteurs s’avèrent encore plus importants lorsqu’il s’agit surtout de chercher à comprendre les dimensions qui sont intrinsèquement pertinentes dans les prises de décisions entrepreneuriales. Parmi ces facteurs, la culture occupe une place centrale qu’on ne peut en aucun cas occulter. En effet, grâce à certains traits culturels qui caractérisent positivement le comportement de leurs peuples, beaucoup de pays ont vu développer leurs économies. Alors que d’autres traits culturels, au lieu d’être prometteurs, constituent plutôt des handicaps au développement économique des pays dits sous-développés. Ceux qui ont une culture négro-africaine semblent les plus touchés. Haïti est l’un des pays de l’hémisphère occidental, plus précisément du bassin caribéen, qui semblent aussi faire partie de cette catégorie, par l’intermédiaire de certains traits culturels négro-africains qui lui sont légués en héritage pendant toute la période coloniale. Tout ceci a été antérieurement prouvé par un ensemble de travaux de recherche théoriques et empiriques. Cependant, dans le but d’apporter quelques éclairages nécessaires aux résultats de ces travaux et surtout d’approfondir notre champ de recherche sous les prismes de la performance globale et du développement socio-économique durable d’Haïti, cette présente thèse se donne plutôt pour objectif principal de tenter de modéliser empiriquement les comportements socioculturels de l’entrepreneuriat haïtien. Dans ce sens, elle cherche à construire un modèle conceptuel théorique de référence qui peut nous permettre de vérifier statistiquement et économétriquement l’influence de certains facteurs socioculturels sur les intentions des actifs entrepreneurs et non-entrepreneurs haïtiens de créer à court terme une entreprise ou de se lancer sur le moyen terme ou sur le long terme dans un projet à caractère entrepreneurial dans leur propre département de naissance
During a very long time Entrepreneurship was based solely on economic factors such as research and development (R&D), innovations, appropriate infrastructures, new applied technologies, an efficient banking system, and so on. Yet other factors are even more important when it comes to understanding the dimensions which are intrinsically relevant to entrepreneurial decision-making. And among them culture occupies a central place which cannot be overshadowed. Indeed, while some populations’cultural traits positively characterize their behavior and thus would play a role in their countries’ economic development, other cultural traits, instead of being promising, rather consist in handicaps to the economic growth of so-called underdeveloped countries. In this category, those with Black African culture seem to be the most affected. Haiti is one of the countries of the Western Hemisphere, more precisely of the Caribbean basin, which seem to be part of this category, from the black-African cultural traits which are bequeathed to it during the whole colonial period. All this was previously proved by a set of theoretical and empirical research works. However, in order to bring some necessary insights to the results of this work and especially to broaden our field of research in terms of performance and sustainable socio-economic development of Haiti, this thesis aims rather to try to empirically model the sociocutural behaviors of Haitian entrepreneuriat. In this sense, she’s looking to build an theorical reference model which can enable us to statistically and econometrically verify the influence of sociocultural behaviors on he intentions of entrepreneurial and non-entrepreneurial Haitian assets to create a company in the short term or to embark on a medium-term or long-term project in an entrepreneurial project in their own birth region

Through a set of four papers this dissertation is aimed at understanding the role of subjective ability judgment in the form of perceived entrepreneurial ability in influencing the decision to initiate entrepreneurial activities. Recent studies suggest that the decision to initiate entrepreneurial activities could be influenced by subjective ability judgment i.e. positive perceptions of one´s entrepreneurial ability. This dissertation extends this steam of research by comparing perceived entrepreneurial ability with actual ability and examines the role of these two ability dimensions in influencing the quality and quantity of entrepreneurial activities. In this dissertation entrepreneurial ability is defined as the cognitive and non-cognitive abilities necessary to undertake and pursue the tasks of new venture creation and management while perceived entrepreneurial ability is an individual´s subjective judgment about his/her own entrepreneurial ability. The main premise of this dissertation is that perceived entrepreneurial ability is an important determinant of entrepreneurial behavior. Secondly, the impact of perceived entrepreneurial ability is higher than actual ability in the decision to initiate entrepreneurial activities leading to increase in the quantity of entrepreneurial initiatives. Thirdly, individuals with high actual ability are more likely to initiate entrepreneurial activities when they develop positive perceptions about their entrepreneurial ability. Fourthly, the interaction effect of high actual ability and perceived entrepreneurial ability is positive and influences both the decision to initiate entrepreneurial activities and the choice of innovative entrepreneurship. This implies that perceived entrepreneurial ability in conjunction with high actual ability is a source of quality entrepreneurship. To test the above premises this dissertation uses a large statistical sample with consistent definitions and concepts across multiple contexts. Overall the results of this dissertation support the contention that perceived entrepreneurial ability have a distinct and significantly positive influence on the decision to initiate t entrepreneurial activities and its impact is greater than actual ability. Furthermore, the joint effect of perceived entrepreneurial ability and high actual ability not only influences entrepreneurial action but also leads to innovative form of entrepreneurship.

L’orientation entrepreneuriale constitue un concept éprouvé en sciences de gestion. Si les travaux qui lui sont consacrés concernent très majoritairement les entreprises privées et retiennent une approche quantitative, on assiste à présent à une aspiration au renouvellement de la recherche autour du concept (méthodologie, champ d’application...). Cette thèse s’inscrit dans ce courant en abordant l’orientation entrepreneuriale des élus locaux par le biais d’une démarche d’accompagnement par la prospective. Pour ce faire nous émettons deux propositions de recherche : la première repose sur le bien fondé de l’utilisation de ce concept chez les élus des collectivités territoriales et la seconde sur l’efficacité des démarches d’accompagnement fondées sur la prospective pour ces élus. Après une revue de littérature consacrée à la dimension entrepreneuriale des élus et une première approche du concept dans les collectivités territoriales au travers de trois minis cas, nous déployons une démarche qualitative de recherche intervention de type ingénierique. Cette dernière a pour objet d’accompagner la structuration de la filière Santé-Biotechnologies en Lorraine. A l’issue de cette thèse nous concluons à la validité des propositions émises. Nous mettons ensuite en évidence les apports conceptuels et managériaux et nous envisageons les perspectives de recherche qu’elle génère
Entrepreneurial orientation is now a highly-proven concept in management sciences. While the work devoted to the subject mostly relates to private enterprises and adopts a quantitative approach, a fresh current has now undertaken to revisit research in this field (methodology, scope…). This doctor’s thesis is in line with the new trend and shows elected local officials’ entrepreneurial orientation through a prospective accompaniment approach. To do this, I have come up with two research proposals. The first is based on stressing the relevance of resorting to the concept in a political environment, and the second rests on the efficiency of the prospective guiding steps destined for elected officials. The review of literature devoted to the entrepreneurial dimension of elected politicians followed by a preliminary approach of the concept through three case studies pave the way for an engineering qualitative approach of action research. It is meant to provide guidance for the structuring of the Health and Biotechnology sector in the Lorraine region. The conclusion of the thesis shows the relevance of the submissions and highlights the conceptual and managerial contributions before it opens up on some forms of potential ensuing research

Cette thèse étudie les processus de création d’activité (PCA) réussis et les pratiques du raisonnement par effectuation (logique effectuelle) combinées ou non avec le raisonnement par causation – logique causale de la théorie des « causes à effet » chez les entrepreneurs. A partir de notre question de recherche : comment crée-t-on une entreprise réussie et comment résout-on les incidents critiques liés à la création d’activité, nous étudions les démarches que les entrepreneurs ont utilisées dans le 10ème arrondissement de Paris pour identifier des données socio-économiques et des caractéristiques territoriales inédites comme ressources et comme contingences pour réussir leurs processus de création d’activité (PCA). Notre problématique de recherche débouche en réalité dans un continuum logique cherchant à comprendre les processus par lesquels ont suivi les projets de création d’activité qui ont réussi ainsi que les méthodes de résolution d’incidents critiques liés à la création d’activité.Par incident, on entend une difficulté (par extension un problème, un obstacle) qui intervient au cours du projet de création et dont les conséquences peuvent être critiques ou graves si elle n’est pas résolue par les créateurs d’activités. Le caractère critique (ou grave) renvoie ici à ce qui n’est pas de leur routine. Cela veut dire que de tel incident peut entraîner l’abandon du processus de création en cours, voire le freiner ou induire à son renoncement. De ce fait, l’on peut supposer que leur survenance peut être liée au contexte du territoire (par exemple, aux facteurs institutionnels ou aux conditions structurelles du lieu d’installation), au type de ressources mobilisées en question ou aux outils et aux méthodes utilisés. Pour répondre à cette question de recherche nous avons retenu trois hypothèses de recherches, à savoir : L’hypothèse H1 qui correspond à la causation (approche décrite comme dominante dans les milieux des créateurs d’entreprise) où elle postule que l’entrepreneur réussit son processus de création d’activité (PCA) s’il est bien formé dans les business schools avec les bons outils (business model) et les bonnes méthodes (analyse de la valeur) qu’il suffit de répliquer ou de dupliquer dans n’importe quel contexte sans tenir compte des situations ou des contingences favorables ou pas. Autrement s’il est suffisamment qualifié et formé dans les milieux académiques. Ensuite vient l’hypothèse H2 de l’effectuation qui fragilise ou caricature l’hypothèse H1 où l’on considère cette fois-ci que l’entrepreneur réussit son (PCA) s’il sait construire une situation d’opportunité inédite ou imprévue du fait des qualités spécifiques qui lui sont propres tel que le charisme, la personnalité et des capacités individuelles rivales (c’est-à-dire des capacités individuelles presque inégales de par leur nature). Ces deux hypothèses H1 et H2 s’inspirent des travaux de Sarasvathy (publication 2001c, a, b et année suivante). Vient enfin l’hypothèse 3 qui intervient dans cette tension entre H1 et H2 pour leur remise en cause. Pour l’hypothèse 3 (Territoire) l’entrepreneur réussit son (PCA) lorsque celui-ci sait intégrer dans son plan de création d’activité le rôle du territoire disposant des ressources facilitantes (et/ou non contraignantes). Autrement dit, un cadre institutionnel habilitant ou des dispositifs facilitants tels que les politiques publiques de développement et de promotion de l’entrepreneuriat sur le territoire ou sur le lieu d’installation des activités en question. Et dans ce cas pour H3, la formation et les qualifications de l’entrepreneur (H1), son charisme et sa personnalité (H2) importent peu
This thesis examines the business creation process (BCP) and successful practices reasoning effectuation (effectual logic) combined or not with the reasoning by causation - causal logic of the theory of "cause and effect" among entrepreneurs. From our research question: how do you create a successful business and how it solves-critical incidents related to business creation, we study the steps that entrepreneurs have used in 10th arrondissement of Paris to identify socioeconomic data and unpublished resources and territorial characteristics such as contingencies to succeed in business creation process (BCP). Our research problem leads actually in a logical continuum seeking to understand the processes that followed the activity creating successful projects and the methods of resolution of critical incidents related to business creation.By incident means a difficulty (by extension a problem, an obstacle) that occurs during the project creation and whose consequences can be critical or severe if it is not resolved by the creators of activities. The critical nature (or severe) here refers to what is not in their routine. This means that such an incident can result in the abandonment of the creative process in progress or slow down or lead to its cessation. Therefore, we can assume that their occurrence may be related to the context of the territory (eg, institutional factors or structural conditions of the installation place), type of resources mobilized in question or to the tools and methods used.To answer this research question we selected three research hypothesis, namely: The H1 hypothesis that matches causation (described as dominant approach in enterprise environments creators) where it assumes that the entrepreneur succeeds its business creation process (BCP) it is well trained in the business schools with the right tools (business model) and the right methods (value analysis) that simply replicate or duplicate in any context regardless of situations or contingencies favorable or not. Otherwise if it is sufficiently trained and qualifed in academic circles. Next comes the H2 hypothesis effectuation that weakens or caricature H1 should we consider this time that the entrepreneur succeeds his (BCP) if he can build a situation of unusual or unexpected opportunity of made specific qualities of its own such as charisma, personality and rival individual capacities (that is to say almost unequal individual capacities in nature). These two hypotheses H1 and H2 are based on the work of Sarasvathy (publication 2001c, a, b and following year). Finally comes the hypothesis 3 which is involved in this tension between H1 and H2 for their questioning. For hypothesis 3 (Territory) the entrepreneur succeeds his (BCP) when it can integrate into its business plan to create the role of territory with facilitative resources (not binding). In other words, an institutional framework enabling or facilitating of devices such as policy development and promotion of entrepreneurship on the territory or in the place of installation of these activities. And in this case for H3, training and entrepreneur's qualifications (H1), charisma and personality (H2) is irrelevant

Les scènes publiques et académiques internationales portent une attention croissante à l’entrepreneuriat des femmes (Hughes et al., 2012) ainsi qu’aux pratiques et acteurs de l’accompagnement (Fayolle, 2004 ; Sammut, 2003). Cependant, peu d’études s’intéressent à l’accompagnement entrepreneurial des femmes entrepreneures (Lebègue, 2015), bien que ces dernières présentent des spécificités et que des auteurs appellent à une plus grande mise en cohérence de l’accompagnement et des besoins et singularités des entrepreneurs (Verstraete,2002 ; Chabaud et al., 2010). De plus, les études portant sur les femmes entrepreneures se centrent principalement sur les obstacles rencontrés, et peu sur les leviers existants. À l’aide d’une recherche qualitative, nos résultats proposent, dans un premier temps, un diagnostic des freins et leviers à l’entrepreneuriat des femmes à travers le canevas des 5Ms de l’entrepreneuriat des femmes (Brush et al., 2009). L’accompagnement, la sensibilisation et l’auto-efficacité entrepreneuriale perçue (Bandura, 1997 ; McGee et al., 2009) en sont des leviers majeurs. Ensuite, nous étudions les phases de mise en oeuvre et d’évaluation de la recherche intervention menée au sein d’un centre entrepreneurial. Notre contribution porte sur la mise au jour de trois formes de sensibilisation ainsi que trois modes d’accompagnement favorisant l’engagement entrepreneurial des femmes – l’un de ces modes s’adaptant à quatre profils différenciés de femmes entrepreneures
A growing interest is given to women entrepreneurs in the public and academic arena. (Hughes et al., 2012), as well as to the actors and practices of the entrepreneurial support industry (Fayolle, 2004; Sammut, 2003). However, few studies are conducted on the entrepreneurial support of women entrepreneurs (Lebègue, 2015). Women entrepreneurs show some specificities and academics call for a greater coherence between the needs and wants of entrepreneurs and the entrepreneurial support practices (Verstraete, 2002; Chabaud et al., 2010). Moreover, the studies on women entrepreneurs are centered on their hurdles more than on their levers. Thanks to a qualitative approach, our results first show the hurdles of levers of women entrepreneurs through the 5Ms canvas of women’s entrepreneurship (Brush et al., 2009). The main levers appear to be entrepreneurial support and awareness, and perceived self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; McGee et al., 2009). Then, our results concern the implementation and evaluation phases of the intervention-research led in an entrepreneurship center. Our contribution is to give an insight on different entrepreneurial support processes – one of them is compatible with the four profiles of women entrepreneurs. We also highlight different forms of entrepreneurial awareness that further entrepreneurial commitment of women

En France, 30 % des chefs d’entreprises sont des femmes, situation qui peine à évoluer. L'essor de l’entrepreneuriat des femmes revêt des enjeux économiques importants, dont les acteurs du monde économique et les pouvoirs publics semblent désormais prendre toute la mesure. Afin d'accompagner cette prise de conscience, il paraît nécessaire de réaliser des travaux visant à comprendre la façon dont les femmes entreprennent; Cette thèse s'inscrit dans cette voie et étudie le processus entrepreneurial des femmes en France. La mise en oeuvre d’une étude longitudinale de cas multiples a permis de mener vingt-six entretiens auprès de dix entrepreneures. Dix entretiens ont également été conduits auprès d'organismes d’accompagnement et de responsables institutionnels. Les résultats mettent en lumière la logique de l'entrepreneuriat des femmes et les critères qu'elles retiennent pour mesurer la réussite de leur carrière entrepreneuriale. Une typologie des neuf dimensions clés qui composent le processus entrepreneurial des femmes a ensuite été élaborée. Une discussion générale permet de montrer que l’environnement familial et le contexte social, largement influencés par des éléments liés au genre, doivent être considérés pour analyser le développement du processus entrepreneurial des femmes
In France, 30 % of business owners are women, but further development seems difficult to achieve. A strong expansion of women’s entrepreneurship implies major financial stakes, and the actors of our economy, as well as the public authorities, are becoming fully aware of this. To accompany this growing awareness, it seems important to undertake research to understand the way in which women run businesses. In accordance with this goal, this thesis examines the entrepreneurial process of women in France. The implementation of a longitudinal multiple-case study led to twenty-six interviews with ten women business owners. Ten additional interviews were carried out with organizations counselling and accompanying entrepreneurship, and with public institutions. The results show the logic that is specific to women’s entrepreneurship, and the criteria chosen by women to assess the success of their career as business owners. A typology of the nine key dimensions which make up this women’s entrepreneurial process was then drawn up. A general discussion shows how the family and social environment, greatly influenced as they are by gender-related issues, must be taken into account in any analysis of the development of women's entrepreneurial process

Cette thèse est consacrée d'une part à la conceptualisation de l'esprit entrepreneurial et d'autre part à l'identification des facteurs de son développement à l'université. L'étude théorique nous a amené à considérer l'esprit entrepreneurial comme un processus mental composé d'un ensemble d'attitudes et de sentiments de compétence favorable à une orientation entrepreneuriale. L'université à côté d'autres facteurs de socialisation pourrait le développer. Et ce en évoluant vers une université entrepreneuriale moyennant l'adoption d'une orientation entrepreneuriale. De ce fait, elle est amenée à adopter des pratiques entrepreneuriales à la fois au niveau de son environnement interne qu'externe. Nous avons mené une investigation préliminaire à travers des entretiens semi-directifs avec 24 responsables des universités tunisiennes afin d'explorer, identifier et cerner les facteurs de développement de l'entrepreneuriat et de l'esprit entrepreneurial à l'université tunisienne. De surcroît, la démarche hypothético-inductive nous a permis de superposer les propositions théoriques issus de la littérature avec les principaux résultats de l'enquête. Ce qui nous a permis par conséquent d'affiner et d'enrichir le modèle conceptuel à travers l'ajout de nouvelles variables: • Le type de l'université influence le développement de l'entrepreneuriat et de l'esprit entrepreneurial; • L'importance du rôle du responsable de l'université dans le développement de l'entrepreneuriat et de l'esprit entrepreneurial à l'université: il est appelé à devenir un entrepreneur; • L'importance du réaménagement du plan d'étude; • Au niveau de l'enseignement de l'entrepreneuriat: importance des pédagogies originales et ludiques et celles basées sur les TIC et de la formation des formateurs en entrepreneuriat; • Intégration de la communication avec et entre étudiants et de la motivation de ces derniers ; • Importance de nouer des partenariats universités/ universités et plus de contact avec la société. Le modèle conceptuel proposé affiné par l'étude exploratoire peut servir comme référence ou point de départ pour des recherches ultérieures visant l'étude des facteurs de développement de l'entrepreneuriat et de l'esprit entrepreneurial à l'université. Il peut servir également comme outil mis à la disposition des universités voulant initier et concrétiser une politique de promotion de l'entrepreneuriat et de l'esprit entrepreneurial en leur sein. L'originalité de cette thèse est d'offrir une nouvelle conception de l'entrepreneuriat: un état d'esprit, un domaine d'enseignement et d'éducation et une option de carrière possible. Ainsi, sa valeur consiste à contribuer à la conceptualisation de l'esprit entrepreneurial, à alimenter la réflexion autour des facteurs de développement de l'entrepreneuriat et de l‘esprit entrepreneurial à l'université et à aborder de nouveaux concepts: université entrepreneuriale et orientation entrepreneuriale de l'université. Mots clés : Université, entrepreneuriat, esprit entrepreneurial, conceptualisation, enseignement de l'entrepreneuriat, facteurs de développement, orientation entrepreneuriale
This thesis is dedicated, on one hand, to the conceptualization of the entrepreneurial spirit and the identification of the factors of its development at the university, on the other. The theoretical study led us to consider the entrepreneurial spirit as a mental process composed of a set of attitudes and feelings of skills (or competencies) favorable to an entrepreneurial orientation. The university, along with other factors of socialization, could develop such by evolving towards an entrepreneurial university for the adoption of an entrepreneurial orientation. To this effect, it is brought to adopt entrepreneurship practices at both at the internal and external levels of its environment. We conducted a preliminary empirical investigation through semi-directive interviews with 24 persons in charge of the Tunisian universities so as to investigate, identify and encircle the factors of development of the entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial spirit a Tunisian universities. Besides, the hypothetic-inductive approach allowed us to stack the theoretical propositions stemming from the literature with the main results of investigation. In so doing, we managed to refine and enrich the conceptual model through the addition of new variables: • The university type influences the development of the entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial spirit; • The importance of the role of the person in charge of the university in the development of the entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial spirit for the university: it is called to become an entrepreneur; • The importance of the refitting of the study schedule; • At the level of the entrepreneurial education: importance of the original and playful pedagogies and those based on TRICK and the training(formation) of the trainers in entrepreneurship; • Integration of the communication with and between students and their motivation; • Importance to knot partnerships universities / universities and more contact with the society. The proposed conceptual model refined by the exploratory study can serve as reference or point of departure for later researches aiming at studying the development factors of the entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial spirit at the university. It can also serve as a tool given to universities intending to introduce and concretize a policy for the promotion of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial spirit within their context. The originality of this thesis is to offer a new conception of the entrepreneurship: a state of mind, a domain of teaching and education and an option of possible career. So, its value consists in contributing to the conceptualization of the entrepreneurial spirit, in feeding the reflection around the factors of development of the entrepreneurship and the entrepreneurial spirit at the university and in approaching new concepts: entrepreneurial university and entrepreneurial orientation of the university. Keys words University, entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial spirit, conceptualization, entrepreneurial education, factors of development, entrepreneurial orientation

This thesis presents a study of the ‘Entrepreneurial University’. It develops a framework for conceptualising the entrepreneurial university by interrogating literature and secondary sources. Regardless of the increasing body of literature on the entrepreneurial university concept, it is revealed to be under-theorized. This literature starting from Clark’s initiatives up until recent publications focus on case studies which are not analytically driven. This gap in the theory of the entrepreneurial university inspired the study aim, which is to develop an analytical framework that can be used as a tool to identify ‘The Entrepreneurial University’ from any other ‘classic university. The study argues that there are three main aspects affecting universities' transformation toward entrepreneurial organization. These are: organization, external environment, and the interaction between organization and external environment. The first aspect investigates the entrepreneurial organizational dimensions, with a comprehensive framework of five organizational dimensions namely managerial, funding resource, mission, external collaboration, and cultural dimension. This been developed as a ‘compass’ to characterize two ideal types of entrepreneurial university. The second and third aspects address the concepts of the entrepreneurial environment and the coherence between the entrepreneurial organization and the entrepreneurial environment where the university exists. The concept of National Education, Research and Innovation (ERI) Funding and Policy Spaces (NERI-FPS) (Nedeva et.al 2013) has been selected as the most appropriate framework for characterizing the entrepreneurial coherence, and analyzed for this purpose, where the variety of opportunities and flexible selection process are seen to be the key elements for the coherence between them. This adds a new development to the theory. Both the entrepreneurial framework and the NERI-FPS have been tested using four European case universities, from the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. The framework is applied to the universities and policy environment in Oman as an example of a developing country seeking to use entrepreneurship as a solution to socio-economic problems. Using qualitative analysis of documentation and detailed interviews, the framework is shown to reveal characteristics of the universities which can be used to develop policy actions. The results reveal that Omani universities are “classic” universities. However, to shift toward an entrepreneurial approach, five scenarios are suggested for Oman, and a pathway toward fully-fledged entrepreneurial universities is illustrated. First an online survey served as a pilot study, the results of which were then used to formulate the second stage which was semi- structured interviews with two Omani universities, and the third stage was in-depth interviews with Omani policy makers. This approach improves the internal validity of the research, and provides a rich picture of the universities and their environment. Finally, the study provides a framework which characterises entrepreneurial universities along a number of context-neutral dimensions which could take the research forward. The novelty of using case of Oman as an empirical study added new contribution into the field. In addition, this study contributes to a better understanding of policy actions with regard to entrepreneurial transformation.

L’entrepreneuriat en équipe constitue une réalité, diversement mesurée, de la conduite des entreprises. La recherche s’est intéressée à cette dimension du phénomène entrepreneurial. Dans ce travail, nous nous appuyons sur l’attente de l’individu entrepreneur afin de qualifier l’effectivité de l’équipe au sens de la satisfaction de ses membres, dans une perspective de pérennisation de l’acte entrepreneurial. Le secteur de l’agriculture offre un terrain qui intéresse la recherche. Le renouvellement des chefs d’entreprises, l’évolution du métier, l’agrandissement des structures productives, plaident pour un développement de formes sociétaires impliquant plusieurs exploitants propriétaires. La psychologie comportementale et la socio-psychologie nous aident à percevoir les attentes de l’entrepreneur dans le cadre d’un entrepreneuriat à plusieurs. L’installation dans un cadre d’équipe entrepreneuriale est largement mise en avant lors d’une étude par les modèles d’intention, auprès d’étudiants. Nous interrogeons, par la suite, des agriculteurs sur leur vécu, au regard de leurs aspirations initiales. Les analyses des organisations professionnelles portent ces sujets et viennent conforter notre problématique. Nous proposons un éclairage nouveau sur l’équipe entrepreneuriale et des pistes de réflexion pour l’accompagnement dans ce contexte
Team entrepreneurship is a reality for many businesses. Research works aim to study this side of management phenomenon. For this contribution we examine the individual expectation for self-employment and describe the effectiveness of the team, in the sense of satisfaction of the members, as an element for the survival of the business. The farm sector gives the opportunity for our discipline to examine this form of entrepreneurship. Farms succession, the size of the enterprises, justifies the development of multi owner organisations. Behavioural psychology and social psychology, help us to analyse the entrepreneur believes. Entrepreneurial initiative in a team context is widely mentioned by students, in a study based on entrepreneurial intention models. Then we ask farmers about the reality of their situation in regards of initial expectations. We challenge the professional organisations analysis to confirm our research.We offer to have a new approach of team entrepreneurship, helping entrepreneurs and consultants toward durability of the project. (JEL: L26, D23, D91, Q12)

L’engagement dans la création d’entreprise est un évènement rare et tardif chez les ingénieurs français. Pour changer cette situation et former davantage des ingénieurs-entrepreneurs, nous étudions l’impact de la formation dans une grande école d’ingénieurs en France. La problématique s’inscrit dans le cadre théorique du comportement planifié complété par la théorie de la carrière entrepreneuriale et la notion d’esprit d’entreprendre. Nous avons suivi une approche longitudinale afin d’étudier l’évolution des intentions et de la construction des identités professionnelles ainsi que les comportements observables associés au cours de leur formation. La thèse s’appuie sur un questionnaire posé chaque année au cours du curriculum et des entretiens semi-directifs en fin de cursus auprès des élèves ingénieurs. Elle aboutit à l’identification de plusieurs identités professionnelles d’ingénieurs (ingénieur technique, manager, entrepreneur) et la caractérisation de la trajectoire de l’intention qui mène au choix de carrière entrepreneuriale. L’impact des facteurs socioculturels, scolaires et extrascolaires sur la trajectoire de l’intention a été modélisé. Il permet d’expliquer la construction de chaque identité professionnelle
Although many researchers point out the emergence of new generations of engineers, the traditional model of the French engineer remains reluctant to entrepreneurship, few engineers are moving towards entrepreneurial careers and they do it rather late in their career. To reverse this trend and train more entrepreneurial engineers, we study educational impact of an engineering Grande Ecole in France. Drawing on the theory of planned behaviour completed by the theory of entrepreneurial career and the notion of entrepreneurial spirit, we use a longitudinal approach to measure the evolution of intention, together with the construction of professional identities and observable behaviours of students during their school years. This study is based on a longitudinal survey completed each year by engineering students and semi-structured interviews with them at the end of the curriculum. The findings include the identification of three engineering professional identities (technical engineer, manager, and entrepreneur) and the definition of the entrepreneurial intention trajectory Leading to entrepreneurial career choice. The impacts of socio-cultural, pedagogical and extra curriculum factors on the trajectory of intention have been modelled. They can explain the building up process of each engineering professional identity

In the first essay, I show that the transition to public equity markets have important implications to firms’ innovative process. To establish a causal effect of the IPO, I compare the long-run innovation of firms that completed their filing and went public with that of firms that withdrew their filing and remained private. I use NASDAQ fluctuations during the book-building period as a source of exogenous variation that affects IPO completion but is unlikely to affect long-run innovation. Using this approach, I find that the quality of internal innovation declines by 50 percent relative to firms that remained private. The decline in innovation is driven by both an exodus of skilled inventors and a decline in productivity among remaining inventors. However, going public allows firms to attract new human capital and purchase externally generated innovations through mergers and acquisitions. In the second essay, we explore the effects of private equity investments on the industries they invest at. This analysis looks across nations and industries to assess the impact of private equity on industry performance. Industries where PE funds have invested in the past five years have grown more quickly in terms of productivity and employment. It is hard to find support for claims that economic activity in industries with private equity backing is more exposed to aggregate shocks. The results using lagged private equity investments suggest that the results are not driven by reverse causality. Finally, in the third essay we model situations in which a principal offers a set of contracts to a group of agents to participate in a project. Agents’ benefits from participation depend on the identity of other participating agents. We show that when assuming multilateral externalities, the optimal contracts’ payoff relies on a ranking of the agents, which can be described as arising from a tournament among the agents. Rather than simply ranking agents according to a measure of popularity, the optimal contracting scheme makes use of a more refined two-way comparison between the agents. We derive results on the principal’s revenue extraction and the role of the level of externalities’ asymmetry.
Economics

In this thesis, I examine the socio-cognitive processes of sensemaking in entrepreneurial ventures, through observing the language and behaviour of board directors in such ventures. Entrepreneurial ventures often require venture capital as a source of finance and the venture capitalist often places a non-executive director, termed an investor director, on the board of the venture to primarily look after their interests. Although there are many minor deviations from the business plan over time, substantial adverse deviations from plan also occur, which if not addressed, have the potential to jeopardise the survival of the business. These more substantial deviations from plan may invoke the investor directors to consider changing the direction of the venture, which is an ideal setting in which to study sensemaking because there is a need for the venture’s stakeholders, whom the board of directors represent, to seek new understanding of the change. Processes such as sensemaking and sensegiving involve observing and interpreting individuals and groups of homogeneous actors, and in the context of entrepreneurial ventures, this has yet to be considered involving the constructions and accounts of such actors constituting the board of directors. My study calls for a qualitative method, like previous studies in this area, with the potential to compare situations across similar case studies of comparable organisations, and hence I obtained longitudinal data through semi-structured interviews and desk research over thirteen years from archival, historical and real-time field observations from board directors to observe how board processes unfold over time. In total, six sensemaking episodes were selected where the companies adversely deviated substantially from the warranted business plan. The decisions that followed each sensemaking episode were varied; two episodes were followed by consensual board decisions, two episodes were followed by forced board decisions whereby some board members disagreed or agreed reluctantly to support the board decision, and two were followed by protracted indecision, resulting in board paralysis and eventual company failure. From this empirical study, I present new processes with discrete phases for both encapsulated and open sensemaking; the two types of sensemaking observed from the empirical data. I argue that the use of economic capital and power dynamics used during encapsulated sensemaking may be antagonistic to consensual decision-making and these findings run counter to the traditionally held view that sensemaking assists in moving chaotic situations to a more ordered environment and one in which sensemaking unfolds in a manner which progressively increases the likelihood of venture failure, suggesting that not all sensemaking is positive. In understanding the various phases, I present relationships between actors’ social positions and their sensemaking in entrepreneurial ventures and consider the effects of sensemaking, power and the mediation skills of the Chair on the strategic decision-making outcomes of the sensemaking process.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sloan School of Management, 2007.
"June 2007."
Includes bibliographical references.
There is growing belief that countries with better financing environments are associated with higher economic growth because they facilitate entrepreneurship and hence the Schumpeterian process of 'creative destruction'. This dissertation explores this hypothesis in more detail by understanding how the financing environment for new ventures impacts outcomes such as individuals' decision to become entrepreneurs, their sources of financing and the growth and survival of their firms. Rather than performing cross-country analyses however, the approach used in this dissertation is to perform within-country studies that shed more light on the mechanisms through which the financing environment impacts entrepreneurial activity. The first two essays in the dissertation exploit institutional reforms - one in Denmark and another in the US - that changed the financing environment for new businesses to study how they impacted individuals' entry and survival. These natural experiments are supplemented with detailed and comprehensive micro data that allow me to both explore and the refine the mechanisms at play in more detail. The final paper is more descriptive in nature and examines how the variation in entrepreneurs' use of Diaspora networks in developing countries is related to the financing and networking environment of the city in which they are based.
by Ramana Nanda.
Ph.D.

This thesis studies entrepreneurial model of internationalization process, testing its validity by conducting a case study utilizing the model as a theoretical framework. The model is an adjusted version of the business network internationalization process model, adding theories of effectuation, dynamic capabilities and opportunity identification and development to better describe the entrepreneurial nature of the process. The phenomenon the model describes is defined in the study as entrepreneurial change. The model contributes to the internationalization research as it brings a new perspective, seeing internationalization as a by-product of entrepreneurial activity, rather than a firm’s primary goal itself. The research was conducted as a single case study with Polish entrepreneur using interviews as method for data collection. Data was then analyzed and reflected to the theoretical framework. Data analysis revealed that the processes described by the model were evident in the empirical data as well. Personality traits and market knowledge were primary antecedes for entrepreneurial alertness that enables opportunity identification and development. Especially self efficacy and optimism seemed be important personality traits that helped to act on the perceived opportunity. Dynamic capabilities acted as competitive advantage in order to penetrate the networks in competitive environment. Network position improves gradually as mutual trust building between parties is needed and it takes time. Network relationships are multilateral where the resources of the networks are combined to create new opportunities. Entrepreneurial change process relies heavily on the effectuation logic as the process in underlined with unpredictability. Entrepreneur uses his “means” in form of knowledge, networks and entrepreneurial capabilities to create multiple goals.

This thesis aims to better understand the process of the funding of young innovative

ventures, and how a deeper understanding of this process can help public policy to better

stimulate entrepreneurial firms—especially in high-technology industries. I interpret

entrepreneurial finance broadly to mean financing issues facing young innovative

ventures. It includes three essays which deal with a set of economic, institutional, and

public policy issues to examine entrepreneurial finance.
Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion
info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The overall aim of this study is to provide insights into the process of entrepreneurial opportunity evaluation, as it is really exercised by successful entrepreneurs. First part addresses the theoretical background of the problem and provides a comprehensive overview of the existing literature. Six propositions for the construct of entrepreneurial opportunity evaluation theory are designed. Second part focuses on empirical testing and analysing of the six propositions. The research is based on personal interviews with 31 highly-experienced entrepreneurs in the Czech Republic. Practical suggestions are provided for academics, and 10 main recommendations are presented for the entrepreneurs.

In Chapter 1, a theory of optimal fund size in venture capital is developed. Fund managers - the VCs - add value to the projects they finance, but their human capital is scarce. A matching model is proposed where VCs span their nurturing activity over more projects, and entrepreneurs, who own the projects, direct their search to VCs based on their projects’ quality. The work provides necessary and sufficient conditions for positive and negative assortative matching over VC attention and project quality to emerge and shows when VCs fundraising decision is distorted by selection considerations. The chapter ends with an investigation of the effects of entry of less skilled intermediaries. By attracting the worse entrepreneurs, these new agents alleviate the adverse selection problem associated to managing a larger fund. This offers a new angle to think about policies encouraging entry in the venture capital industry. In Chapter 2, the model developed in Chapter 1 is extended to a dynamic setting, where projects need time to develop and produce returns. VCs can choose to enter in a short-term contract with investors, giving them access to investors liquidity for a given period of time, and an open credit relationship that allows them to raise investors money at any point in time. The model illustrates a novel advantage of closed, finite-horizon funds, which emerge in equilibrium even when they are socially undesirable: they attract the best entrepreneurs, who value the most the exclusive relationship that only a closed-end fund can guarantee. The interpretation is that VCs benefit from committing to a size in the first place. In Chapter 3, the focus moves to the study of the distortions in fund managers’ behavior that may occur within a fund’s life. A setting is introduced where information about a manager’s ability is imperfect and managers are interested in their reputation. Given the application to investments in young firms, managers in the model are agents that create value because they can experiment and learn about a projects potential. Their incentive to take on risk is distorted by career concerns, and can result in under or over risk-taking. The result contrasts with Holmstrom (1999) where managers directly affect the project’s success rate, and career concerns can only produce inefficiently low risk-taking. It is shown that the inefficiency is reduced when the market can also observe the outcome of projects with the same fundamental.

African Americans are among the fastest growing entrepreneurial minority group in the United States, but they continue to struggle with sustaining these new business ventures. Evidence suggests that African American business entrepreneurs experience an increased failure rate with a 4-year business survival rate of 39%. Reducing the failure rate would significantly add to the U.S. economy (an estimated $2.5 trillion) and create nearly 12 million more jobs. The purpose of this single case study was to explore the strategies and behaviors of an award-winning African American entrepreneur in Miami Dade County who has remained in business over 20 years. The conceptual framework for this study was entrepreneurship theory. The data were collected through a semistructured interview with the participant, a review of published news media data, and a review of financial and marketing documents. Member checking was completed with the participant to strengthen credibility and trustworthiness of interpretations. The findings revealed several qualities about this entrepreneur, including innovativeness, internal locus of control, and self-efficacy attributed to business success. The participant also leveraged education and family networks as social capital to reach firm sustainability, as well as bootstrapping to mitigate the lack of financial capital. The information learned from these findings may contribute to social change by providing insight into the necessary strategies and behaviors required by African American entrepreneurs to stay in business beyond 4 years.

This dissertation is composed of three essays on entrepreneurial spawning. Using a mix of qualitative and quantitative approaches, each essay addresses a specific aspect related to the (i) formation, (ii) development, and (iii) performance outcomes of spinoffs or entrepreneurial ventures founded by former employees of incumbent firms. In particular, the first essay aims at providing a fine-grained understanding of the mechanisms that underlie parental imprinting, the contingencies, and its consequences within spinoff ventures. The organizational antecedent of different patterns of spinoff formation, when unexploited knowledge created by the industry incumbents spurs entrepreneurial spawning is subject of the second essay. Finally, the third essay explores the impact of knowledge relatedness with the incumbent parents on the performance of spinoff ventures. The results of these studies contribute to the literatures on genealogical perspective on firm formation, organizational imprinting, knowledge spillover theory of entrepreneurship, and entry by spinoff ventures.

L’objectif de cette recherche consiste à identifier et comparer les potentialités de l'entrepreneur migrant de retour à celles de son homologue Local. Rappelons que bien qu'un nombre important de recherches a traité l'entrepreneuriat et les caractéristiques entrepreneuriales, aucune, à notre connaissance, n'a étudié les potentialités de l'entrepreneur migrant de retour. Le souci de combler le manque de recherches gestionnaires et de contribuer au débat scientifique sur cette thématique nous a conduit à nous appuyer sur deux principaux paradigmes des traits et des faits de l'entrepreneur pour asseoir le concept de potentialités entrepreneuriales. Le corpus théorique obtenu s'appuie sur le modèle d'Yvon GASSE. Il établit un lien entre les différentes approches des traits et faits (caractéristiques et comportements), intègre les facteurs extrinsèques (milieu) et conduit à faire émerger le modèle conceptuel de notre thèse. Ce corpus théorique est relayé par le questionnaire adapté de Gasse qui a été administré à un échantillon de 393 entrepreneurs Marocains MRE (40%) et Locaux (60%). Les MRE sont les Marocains Résidents à l’Etranger revenus au Maroc pour créer leur entreprise. Les Locaux sont ceux qui résident depuis toujours au Maroc et qui sont entrepreneurs. Ce sont donc deux types d'entrepreneurs d'origine Marocaine mais avec des parcours de vie différents (migrants et non-migrants). Les 393 questionnaires sont soumis aux techniques multidimensionnelles d’analyse de données approfondies. Les résultats obtenus permettent de répondre à notre question de recherche : le niveau des potentialités de l’entrepreneur migrant de retour est diffèrent de celui de l’entrepreneur Local. L'expérience migratoire a permis à l'entrepreneur MRE de développer un niveau de potentialités entrepreneuriales plus élevé que celui de son homologue Local. De tels résultats font émerger des leviers originaux pouvant alimenter les dispositifs d’accompagnement endogènes. Leur combinaison au test de Cronbach fournit une grille réduite et adaptée du modèle de Gasse augurant un accompagnement différencié des futurs entrepreneurs MRE et Locaux
The objective of this research is to identify and compare the potentiality of the return migrant entrepreneur back to those of his Local counterpart. It should be recalled that while a significant number of research has addressed entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial characteristics, none, to our knowledge, has studied the potential of the returning migrant entrepreneur in relation to his Local counterpart. The concern to fill the lack of managerial research and to contribute to the scientific debate on this topic has led us to rely on two main paradigms of the traits and the facts of the entrepreneur to establish the concept of entrepreneurial potentials. The theoretical corpus obtained is based on the model of Yvon GASSE. It establishes a link between the different approaches of traits and facts (characteristics and behaviors), incorporates extrinsic factors (middle) and leads to the emergence of the conceptual model of our thesis. This theoretical corpus is relayed by the adapted questionnaire of Gasse which was administered to a sample of 393 Moroccan entrepreneurs MRE (40%) and Local (60%). The MRE are Moroccan residents abroad who have returned to Morocco to create their business. The premises are those who have always been resident in Morocco and who are entrepreneurs. They are therefore two types of entrepreneurs of Moroccan origin but with different life paths (migrant and non-migrant). The 393 questionnaires are subject to multi-dimensional data analysis techniques. The results obtained allow us to answer our research question: the level of the potential of the returning entrepreneur is different from that of the Local contractor. The migratory experience has enabled the MRE entrepreneur to develop a higher level of entrepreneurial potential than that of his Local counterpart. Such results are emerging from the original levers that can feed the endogenous accompaniment devices. Their combination with the Cronbach test provides a reduced and adapted grid of the Gasse model, auguring a differentiated accompaniment of future MRE and Local entrepreneurs

Le processus de création d’une entreprise par une équipe d’entrepreneurs est un phénomène multidimensionnel. A cet effet, cette recherche essaye de classifier les équipes entrepreneuriales, de déterminer les différents facteurs favorisant la prise de décision d’équiprendre et d’extraire les processus d’engagement équipreneurial à partir des perceptions des équipreneurs. La vérification adopte une approche qualitative par l’intermédiaire d’un entretien approfondi et son analyse sur la base de l’approche avancée par Miles et Huberman (2003) et des analyses lexicales et linguistiques par l’intermédiaire de deux logiciels : IRamuteQ et TROPES. Les résultats mettent en relief deux formes équipreneuriales : les entreprises équipreneuriales et les entreprises collectives. Le processus de création varie selon cette typologie. En effet, cette étude essaie de rechercher un processus type qui prédit le mieux la création d’entreprise en équipe et qui peut être utile aux opérateurs en entrepreneuriat
The process of firm creation by a team of entrepreneurs is a multidimensional phenomenon. This search tries to classify the entrepreneurial teams, to determine the various factors favoring the decision-making of team entrepreneurship and to extract the processes of entrepreneurial team commitment from the perceptions of the teams. The verification adopts a qualitative approach through an in-depth interviews analysis based on the approach presented by Miles and Huberman (2003) and lexical and linguistic analyses through two software: IRamuteQ and TROPES. The results demonstrate two forms of entrepreneurial teams: ‘’equipreneurial’’ firms and collective firms. The process of creation varies according to this typology. Indeed, this study tries to look for a typical process which predicts the new firm creation by a team and which can be useful for the operators in entrepreneurship