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1
Katz, Richard F. y M. Grae Worster. "Stability of ice-sheet grounding lines". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 466, n.º 2118 (13 de enero de 2010): 1597–620. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspa.2009.0434.
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Recent observations of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet document rapid changes in the mass balance of its component glaciers. These observations raise the question of whether changing climatic conditions have triggered a dynamical instability in the ice-sheet–ice-shelf system. The dynamics of marine ice sheets are sensitive to grounding-line position and variation, characteristics that are poorly captured by most current models. We present a theory for grounding-line dynamics in three spatial dimensions and time. Our theory is based on a balance of forces across the grounding line; it is expressed as a differential equation that is analogous to the canonical Stefan condition. We apply this theory to the question of grounding-line stability under conditions of retrograde bed slope in a suite of calculations with different basal topography. A subset of these have basal topography inspired by the Pine Island glacier, where basal depth varies in both the along-flow and across-flow directions. Our results indicate that unstable retreat of the grounding line over retrograde beds is a robust feature of models that evolve based on force balance at the grounding line. We conclude, based on our simplified model, that unstable grounding-line recession may already be occurring at the Pine Island glacier.
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Matero, Ilkka S. O., Lauren J. Gregoire y Ruza F. Ivanovic. "Simulating the Early Holocene demise of the Laurentide Ice Sheet with BISICLES (public trunk revision 3298)". Geoscientific Model Development 13, n.º 9 (25 de septiembre de 2020): 4555–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-13-4555-2020.
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Abstract. Simulating the demise of the Laurentide Ice Sheet covering Hudson Bay in the Early Holocene (10–7 ka) is important for understanding the role of accelerated changes in ice sheet topography and melt in the 8.2 ka event, a century long cooling of the Northern Hemisphere by several degrees. Freshwater released from the ice sheet through a surface mass balance instability (known as the saddle collapse) has been suggested as a major forcing for the 8.2 ka event, but the temporal evolution of this pulse has not been constrained. Dynamical ice loss and marine interactions could have significantly accelerated the ice sheet demise, but simulating such processes requires computationally expensive models that are difficult to configure and are often impractical for simulating past ice sheets. Here, we developed an ice sheet model setup for studying the Laurentide Ice Sheet's Hudson Bay saddle collapse and the associated meltwater pulse in unprecedented detail using the BISICLES ice sheet model, an efficient marine ice sheet model of the latest generation which is capable of refinement to kilometre-scale resolutions and higher-order ice flow physics. The setup draws on previous efforts to model the deglaciation of the North American Ice Sheet for initialising the ice sheet temperature, recent ice sheet reconstructions for developing the topography of the region and ice sheet, and output from a general circulation model for a representation of the climatic forcing. The modelled deglaciation is in agreement with the reconstructed extent of the ice sheet, and the associated meltwater pulse has realistic timing. Furthermore, the peak magnitude of the modelled meltwater equivalent (0.07–0.13 Sv) is compatible with geological estimates of freshwater discharge through the Hudson Strait. The results demonstrate that while improved representations of the glacial dynamics and marine interactions are key for correctly simulating the pattern of Early Holocene ice sheet retreat, surface mass balance introduces by far the most uncertainty. The new model configuration presented here provides future opportunities to quantify the range of plausible amplitudes and durations of a Hudson Bay ice saddle collapse meltwater pulse and its role in forcing the 8.2 ka event.
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Ritz, Stefan P., Thomas F. Stocker y Fortunat Joos. "A Coupled Dynamical Ocean–Energy Balance Atmosphere Model for Paleoclimate Studies". Journal of Climate 24, n.º 2 (15 de enero de 2011): 349–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jcli3351.1.
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Abstract The Bern3D coupled three-dimensional dynamical ocean–energy balance atmosphere model is introduced and the atmospheric component is discussed in detail. The model is of reduced complexity, developed to perform extensive sensitivity studies and ensemble simulations extending over several glacial–interglacial cycles. On large space scales, the modern steady state of the model compares well with observations. In a first application, several 800 000-yr simulations with prescribed orbital, greenhouse gas, and ice sheet forcings are performed. The model shows an increase of Atlantic meridional overturning circulation strength at glacial inceptions followed by a decrease throughout the glaciation and ending in a circulation at glacial maxima that is weaker than at present. The sensitivity of ocean temperature to atmospheric temperature, Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC), and Antarctic bottom water (AABW) strength is analyzed at 23 locations. In a second application the climate sensitivities of the modern and of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) state are compared. The temperature rise for a doubling of the CO2 concentration from LGM conditions is 4.3°C and thus notably larger than in the modern case (3°C). The relaxation time scale is strongly dependent on the response of AABW to the CO2 change, since it determines the ventilation of the deep Pacific and Indian Ocean.
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Gillet-Chaulet, F., O. Gagliardini, H. Seddik, M. Nodet, G. Durand, C. Ritz, T. Zwinger, R. Greve y D. G. Vaughan. "Greenland ice sheet contribution to sea-level rise from a new-generation ice-sheet model". Cryosphere 6, n.º 6 (21 de diciembre de 2012): 1561–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1561-2012.
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Abstract. Over the last two decades, the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) has been losing mass at an increasing rate, enhancing its contribution to sea-level rise (SLR). The recent increases in ice loss appear to be due to changes in both the surface mass balance of the ice sheet and ice discharge (ice flux to the ocean). Rapid ice flow directly affects the discharge, but also alters ice-sheet geometry and so affects climate and surface mass balance. Present-day ice-sheet models only represent rapid ice flow in an approximate fashion and, as a consequence, have never explicitly addressed the role of ice discharge on the total GrIS mass balance, especially at the scale of individual outlet glaciers. Here, we present a new-generation prognostic ice-sheet model which reproduces the current patterns of rapid ice flow. This requires three essential developments: the complete solution of the full system of equations governing ice deformation; a variable resolution unstructured mesh to resolve outlet glaciers and the use of inverse methods to better constrain poorly known parameters using observations. The modelled ice discharge is in good agreement with observations on the continental scale and for individual outlets. From this initial state, we investigate possible bounds for the next century ice-sheet mass loss. We run sensitivity experiments of the GrIS dynamical response to perturbations in climate and basal lubrication, assuming a fixed position of the marine termini. We find that increasing ablation tends to reduce outflow and thus decreases the ice-sheet imbalance. In our experiments, the GrIS initial mass (im)balance is preserved throughout the whole century in the absence of reinforced forcing, allowing us to estimate a lower bound of 75 mm for the GrIS contribution to SLR by 2100. In one experiment, we show that the current increase in the rate of ice loss can be reproduced and maintained throughout the whole century. However, this requires a very unlikely perturbation of basal lubrication. From this result we are able to estimate an upper bound of 140 mm from dynamics only for the GrIS contribution to SLR by 2100.
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Gandy, Niall, Lauren J. Gregoire, Jeremy C. Ely, Christopher D. Clark, David M. Hodgson, Victoria Lee, Tom Bradwell y Ruza F. Ivanovic. "Marine ice sheet instability and ice shelf buttressing of the Minch Ice Stream, northwest Scotland". Cryosphere 12, n.º 11 (23 de noviembre de 2018): 3635–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-3635-2018.
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Abstract. Uncertainties in future sea level projections are dominated by our limited understanding of the dynamical processes that control instabilities of marine ice sheets. The last deglaciation of the British–Irish Ice Sheet offers a valuable example to examine these processes. The Minch Ice Stream, which drained a large proportion of ice from the northwest sector of the British–Irish Ice Sheet during the last deglaciation, is constrained with abundant empirical data which can be used to inform, validate, and analyse numerical ice sheet simulations. We use BISICLES, a higher-order ice sheet model, to examine the dynamical processes that controlled the retreat of the Minch Ice Stream. We perform simplified experiments of the retreat of this ice stream under an idealised climate forcing to isolate the effect of marine ice sheet processes, simulating retreat from the continental shelf under constant “warm” surface mass balance and sub-ice-shelf melt. The model simulates a slowdown of retreat as the ice stream becomes laterally confined at the mouth of the Minch strait between mainland Scotland and the Isle of Lewis, resulting in a marine setting similar to many large tidewater glaciers in Greenland and Antarctica. At this stage of the simulation, the presence of an ice shelf becomes a more important control on grounded ice volume, providing buttressing to upstream ice. Subsequently, the presence of a reverse slope inside the Minch strait produces an acceleration in retreat, leading to a “collapsed” state, even when the climate returns to the initial “cold” conditions. Our simulations demonstrate the importance of the marine ice sheet instability and ice shelf buttressing during the deglaciation of parts of the British–Irish Ice Sheet. We conclude that geological data could be applied to further constrain these processes in ice sheet models used for projecting the future of contemporary ice sheets.
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Kuipers Munneke, P., S. R. M. Ligtenberg, B. P. Y. Noël, I. M. Howat, J. E. Box, E. Mosley-Thompson, J. R. McConnell et al. "Elevation change of the Greenland ice sheet due to surface mass balance and firn processes, 1960–2013". Cryosphere Discussions 9, n.º 3 (30 de junio de 2015): 3541–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-9-3541-2015.
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Abstract. Observed changes in the surface elevation of the Greenland ice sheet are caused by ice dynamics, basal elevation change, surface mass balance (SMB) variability, and by compaction of the overlying firn. The latter two contributions are quantified here using a firn model that includes compaction, meltwater percolation, and refreezing. The model is forced with surface mass fluxes and temperature from a regional climate model for the period 1960–2013. The model results agree with observations of surface density, density profiles from 62 firn cores, and altimetric observations from regions where ice-dynamical surface height changes are likely small. We find that the firn layer in the high interior is generally thickening slowly (1–5 cm yr−1). In the percolation and ablation areas, firn and SMB processes account for a surface elevation lowering of up to 20–50 cm yr−1. Most of this firn-induced marginal thinning is caused by an increase in melt since the mid-1990s, and partly compensated by an increase in the accumulation of fresh snow around most of the ice sheet. The total firn and ice volume change between 1980 and 2013 is estimated at −3900 ± 1030 km3 due to firn and SMB, corresponding to an ice-sheet average thinning of 2.32 ± 0.61 m. Most of this volume decrease occurred after 1995. The computed changes in surface elevation can be used to partition altimetrically observed volume change into surface mass balance and ice-dynamically related mass changes.
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Xie, Zhiang, Dietmar Dommenget, Felicity S. McCormack y Andrew N. Mackintosh. "GREB-ISM v1.0: A coupled ice sheet model for the Globally Resolved Energy Balance model for global simulations on timescales of 100 kyr". Geoscientific Model Development 15, n.º 9 (10 de mayo de 2022): 3691–719. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-3691-2022.
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Abstract. We introduce a newly developed global ice sheet model coupled to the Globally Resolved Energy Balance (GREB) climate model for the simulation of global ice sheet evolution on timescales of 100 kyr or longer (GREB-ISM v1.0). Ice sheets and ice shelves are simulated on a global grid, fully interacting with the climate simulation of surface temperature, precipitation, albedo, land–sea mask, topography and sea level. Thus, it is a fully coupled atmosphere, ocean, land and ice sheet model. We test the model in ice sheet stand-alone and fully coupled simulations. The ice sheet model dynamics behave similarly to other hybrid SIA (shallow ice approximation) and SSA (shallow shelf approximation) models, but the West Antarctic Ice Sheet accumulates too much ice using present-day boundary conditions. The coupled model simulations produce global equilibrium ice sheet volumes and calving rates like those observed for present-day boundary conditions. We designed a series of idealized experiments driven by oscillating solar radiation forcing on periods of 20, 50 and 100 kyr in the Northern Hemisphere. These simulations show clear interactions between the climate system and ice sheets, resulting in slow buildup and fast decay of ice-covered areas and global ice volume. The results also show that Northern Hemisphere ice sheets respond more strongly to timescales longer than 100 kyr. The coupling to the atmosphere and sea level leads to climate interactions between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The model can run global simulations of 100 kyr d−1 on a desktop computer, allowing the simulation of the whole Quaternary period (2.6 Myr) within 1 month.
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Helsen, M. M., R. S. W. van de Wal, M. R. van den Broeke, W. J. van de Berg y J. Oerlemans. "Towards direct coupling of regional climate models and ice sheet models by mass balance gradients: application to the Greenland Ice Sheet". Cryosphere Discussions 5, n.º 4 (12 de agosto de 2011): 2115–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-5-2115-2011.
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Abstract. It is notoriously difficult to couple surface mass balance (SMB) results from climate models to the changing geometry of an ice sheet model. This problem is traditionally avoided by using only accumulation fields from a climate model, and deriving SMB by parameterizing the run-off as a function of temperature, which is often related to surface elevation. In this study, a new parameterization of SMB is presented, designed for use in ice dynamical models to allow a direct adjustment of SMB as a result of a change in elevation (Hs) or a change in climate forcing. This method is based on spatial gradients in the present-day SMB field as computed by a regional climate model. Separate linear relations are derived for ablation and accumulation regimes, using only those pairs of Hs an SMB that are found within a minimum search radius. This approach enables a dynamic SMB forcing of ice sheet models, also for initially non-glaciated areas in the peripheral areas of an ice sheet, and circumvents traditional temperature lapse rate assumptions. The method is applied to the Greenland Ice Sheet (GrIS). Model experiments using both steady-state forcing and more realistic glacial-interglacial forcing result in ice sheet reconstructions and behavior that compare favorably with present-day observations of ice thickness.
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Kuipers Munneke, P., S. R. M. Ligtenberg, B. P. Y. Noël, I. M. Howat, J. E. Box, E. Mosley-Thompson, J. R. McConnell et al. "Elevation change of the Greenland Ice Sheet due to surface mass balance and firn processes, 1960–2014". Cryosphere 9, n.º 6 (2 de noviembre de 2015): 2009–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2009-2015.
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Abstract. Observed changes in the surface elevation of the Greenland Ice Sheet are caused by ice dynamics, basal elevation change, basal melt, surface mass balance (SMB) variability, and by compaction of the overlying firn. The last two contributions are quantified here using a firn model that includes compaction, meltwater percolation, and refreezing. The model is forced with surface mass fluxes and temperature from a regional climate model for the period 1960–2014. The model results agree with observations of surface density, density profiles from 62 firn cores, and altimetric observations from regions where ice-dynamical surface height changes are likely small. In areas with strong surface melt, the firn model overestimates density. We find that the firn layer in the high interior is generally thickening slowly (1–5 cm yr−1). In the percolation and ablation areas, firn and SMB processes account for a surface elevation lowering of up to 20–50 cm yr−1. Most of this firn-induced marginal thinning is caused by an increase in melt since the mid-1990s and partly compensated by an increase in the accumulation of fresh snow around most of the ice sheet. The total firn and ice volume change between 1980 and 2014 is estimated at −3295 ± 1030 km3 due to firn and SMB changes, corresponding to an ice-sheet average thinning of 1.96 ± 0.61 m. Most of this volume decrease occurred after 1995. The computed changes in surface elevation can be used to partition altimetrically observed volume change into surface mass balance and ice-dynamically related mass changes.
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Hinck, Sebastian, Evan J. Gowan, Xu Zhang y Gerrit Lohmann. "PISM-LakeCC: Implementing an adaptive proglacial lake boundary in an ice sheet model". Cryosphere 16, n.º 3 (14 de marzo de 2022): 941–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-16-941-2022.
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Abstract. During the Late Pleistocene and Holocene retreat of paleo-ice sheets in North America and Europe, vast proglacial lakes existed along the land terminating margins. These proglacial lakes impacted ice sheet dynamics by imposing boundary conditions analogous to a marine terminating margin. Such lacustrine boundary conditions cause changes in the ice sheet geometry, stress balance and frontal ablation and therefore affect the mass balance of the entire ice sheet. Despite this, dynamically evolving proglacial lakes have rarely been considered in detail in ice sheet modeling endeavors. In this study, we describe the implementation of an adaptive lake boundary in the Parallel Ice Sheet Model (PISM), which we call PISM-LakeCC. We test our model with a simplified glacial retreat setup of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS). By comparing the experiments with lakes to control runs with no lakes, we show that the presence of proglacial lakes locally enhances the ice flow, which leads to a lowering of the ice sheet surface. In some cases, this also results in an advance of the ice margin and the emergence of ice lobes. In the warming climate, increased melting on the lowered ice surface drives the glacial retreat. For the LIS, the presence of lakes triggers a process similar to marine ice sheet instability, which caused the collapse of the ice saddle over Hudson Bay. In the control experiments without lakes, Hudson Bay is still glaciated when the climate reaches present-day (PD) conditions. The results of our study demonstrate that glacio-lacustrine interactions play a significant role in the retreat of land terminating ice sheet margins.
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Ganopolski, A., R. Calov y M. Claussen. "Simulation of the last glacial cycle with a coupled climate ice-sheet model of intermediate complexity". Climate of the Past 6, n.º 2 (13 de abril de 2010): 229–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-229-2010.
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Abstract. A new version of the Earth system model of intermediate complexity, CLIMBER-2, which includes the three-dimensional polythermal ice-sheet model SICOPOLIS, is used to simulate the last glacial cycle forced by variations of the Earth's orbital parameters and atmospheric concentration of major greenhouse gases. The climate and ice-sheet components of the model are coupled bi-directionally through a physically-based surface energy and mass balance interface. The model accounts for the time-dependent effect of aeolian dust on planetary and snow albedo. The model successfully simulates the temporal and spatial dynamics of the major Northern Hemisphere (NH) ice sheets, including rapid glacial inception and strong asymmetry between the ice-sheet growth phase and glacial termination. Spatial extent and elevation of the ice sheets during the last glacial maximum agree reasonably well with palaeoclimate reconstructions. A suite of sensitivity experiments demonstrates that simulated ice-sheet evolution during the last glacial cycle is very sensitive to some parameters of the surface energy and mass-balance interface and dust module. The possibility of a considerable acceleration of the climate ice-sheet model is discussed.
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Ganopolski, A., R. Calov y M. Claussen. "Simulation of the last glacial cycle with a coupled climate ice-sheet model of intermediate complexity". Climate of the Past Discussions 5, n.º 5 (12 de octubre de 2009): 2269–309. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cpd-5-2269-2009.
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Abstract. A new version of the Earth system model of intermediate complexity, CLIMBER-2, which includes the three-dimensional polythermal ice-sheet model SICOPOLIS, is used to simulate the last glacial cycle forced by variations of the Earth's orbital parameters and atmospheric concentration of major greenhouse gases. The climate and ice-sheet components of the model are coupled bi-directionally through a physically based surface energy and mass-balance interface. The model accounts for the time-dependent effect of aeolian dust on planetary and snow albedo. The model successfully simulates the temporal and spatial dynamics of the major Northern Hemisphere (NH) ice sheets, including rapid glacial inception, strong asymmetry between the ice-sheet growth phase and glacial termination. Spatial extent and elevation of the ice sheets during the last glacial maximum agree reasonably well with palaeoclimate reconstructions. A suite of sensitivity experiments demonstrates that simulated ice-sheet evolution during the last glacial cycle is very sensitive to some parameters of the surface energy and mass-balance interface and dust module. The possibility of a considerable acceleration of the climate ice-sheet model is discussed.
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van Kampenhout, Leonardus, Alan M. Rhoades, Adam R. Herrington, Colin M. Zarzycki, Jan T. M. Lenaerts, William J. Sacks y Michiel R. van den Broeke. "Regional grid refinement in an Earth system model: impacts on the simulated Greenland surface mass balance". Cryosphere 13, n.º 6 (3 de junio de 2019): 1547–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1547-2019.
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Abstract. In this study, the resolution dependence of the simulated Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance (GrIS SMB) in the variable-resolution Community Earth System Model (VR-CESM) is investigated. Coupled atmosphere–land simulations are performed on two regionally refined grids over Greenland at 0.5∘ (∼55 km) and 0.25∘ (∼28 km), maintaining a quasi-uniform resolution of 1∘ (∼111 km) over the rest of the globe. On the refined grids, the SMB in the accumulation zone is significantly improved compared to airborne radar and in situ observations, with a general wetting (more snowfall) at the margins and a drying (less snowfall) in the interior GrIS. Total GrIS precipitation decreases with resolution, which is in line with best-available regional climate model results. In the ablation zone, CESM starts developing a positive SMB bias with increased resolution in some basins, notably in the east and the north. The mismatch in ablation is linked to changes in cloud cover in VR-CESM, and a reduced effectiveness of the elevation classes subgrid parametrization in CESM. Overall, our pilot study introduces VR-CESM as a new tool in the cryospheric sciences, which could be used to dynamically downscale SMB in scenario simulations and to force dynamical ice sheet models through the CESM coupling framework.
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Callens, Denis, Nicolas Thonnard, Jan T. M. Lenaerts, Jan M. Van Wessem, Willem Jan Van de Berg, Kenichi Matsuoka y Frank Pattyn. "Mass balance of the Sør Rondane glacial system, East Antarctica". Annals of Glaciology 56, n.º 70 (2015): 63–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/2015aog70a010.
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AbstractMass changes of polar ice sheets have an important societal impact, because they affect global sea level. Estimating the current mass budget of ice sheets is equivalent to determining the balance between surface mass gain through precipitation and outflow across the grounding line. For the Antarctic ice sheet, grounding line outflow is governed by oceanic processes and outlet glacier dynamics. In this study, we compute the mass budget of major outlet glaciers in the eastern Dronning Maud Land sector of the Antarctic ice sheet using the input/output method. Input is given by recent surface accumulation estimates (SMB) of the whole drainage basin. The outflow at the grounding line is determined from the radar data of a recent airborne survey and satellite-based velocities using a flow model of combined plug flow and simple shear. This approach is an improvement on previous studies, as the ice thickness is measured, rather than being estimated from hydrostatic equilibrium. In line with the general thickening of the ice sheet over this sector, we estimate the regional mass balance in this area at 3.15 ± 8.23 Gt a−1 according to the most recent SMB model results.
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Berends, Constantijn J., Heiko Goelzer, Thomas J. Reerink, Lennert B. Stap y Roderik S. W. van de Wal. "Benchmarking the vertically integrated ice-sheet model IMAU-ICE (version 2.0)". Geoscientific Model Development 15, n.º 14 (21 de julio de 2022): 5667–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-5667-2022.
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Abstract. Ice-dynamical processes constitute a large uncertainty in future projections of sea-level rise caused by anthropogenic climate change. Improving our understanding of these processes requires ice-sheet models that perform well at simulating both past and future ice-sheet evolution. Here, we present version 2.0 of the ice-sheet model IMAU-ICE, which uses the depth-integrated viscosity approximation (DIVA) to solve the stress balance. We evaluate its performance in a range of benchmark experiments, including simple analytical solutions and both schematic and realistic model intercomparison exercises. IMAU-ICE has adopted recent developments in the numerical treatment of englacial stress and sub-shelf melt near the grounding line, which result in good performance in experiments concerning grounding-line migration (MISMIP, MISMIP+) and buttressing (ABUMIP). This makes it a model that is robust, versatile, and user-friendly, which will provide a firm basis for (palaeo-)glaciological research in the coming years.
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Quiquet, Aurélien y Christophe Dumas. "The GRISLI-LSCE contribution to the Ice Sheet Model Intercomparison Project for phase 6 of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (ISMIP6) – Part 1: Projections of the Greenland ice sheet evolution by the end of the 21st century". Cryosphere 15, n.º 2 (26 de febrero de 2021): 1015–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-15-1015-2021.
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Abstract. Polar amplification will result in amplified temperature changes in the Arctic with respect to the rest of the globe, making the Greenland ice sheet particularly vulnerable to global warming. While the ice sheet has been showing an increased mass loss in the past decades, its contribution to global sea level rise in the future is of primary importance since it is at present the largest single-source contribution after the thermosteric contribution. The question of the fate of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets for the next century has recently gathered various ice sheet models in a common framework within the Ice Sheet Model Intercomparison Project for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project – phase 6 (ISMIP6). While in a companion paper we present the GRISLI-LSCE (Grenoble Ice Sheet and Land Ice model of the Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement) contribution to ISMIP6-Antarctica, we present here the GRISLI-LSCE contribution to ISMIP6-Greenland. We show an important spread in the simulated Greenland ice loss in the future depending on the climate forcing used. The contribution of the ice sheet to global sea level rise in 2100 can thus be from as low as 20 mm sea level equivalent (SLE) to as high as 160 mm SLE. Amongst the models tested in ISMIP6, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project – phase 6 (CMIP6) models produce larger ice sheet retreat than their CMIP5 counterparts. Low-emission scenarios in the future drastically reduce the ice mass loss. The oceanic forcing contributes to about 10 mm SLE in 2100 in our simulations. In addition, the dynamical contribution to ice thickness change is small compared to the impact of surface mass balance. This suggests that mass loss is mostly driven by atmospheric warming and associated ablation at the ice sheet margin. With additional sensitivity experiments we also show that the spread in mass loss is only weakly affected by the choice of the ice sheet model mechanical parameters.
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Marsiat, I. "The waxing and waning of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets". Annals of Glaciology 21 (1995): 96–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500015664.
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Past modelling studies have shown that the energy balance of the ice-sheet surface is of primary importance in representing the 100 000 year glacial cycle. In particular, modelling of the net mass-balance function is an important part of coupled ice-sheet/climate models. We conduct a series of palaeoclimatic simulations with a vertically integrated ice-flow model coupled to the two-dimensional statistical-dynamical LLN (Louvain-la-Neuve) climate model. The models are coupled through a land-surface model which computes seasonal cycles of surface temperature and precipitation at the real altitude of the surface and evaluates the annual snow and/or ice-mass budget. The present-day climate of the Northern Hemisphere, the Greenland mass balance and the snowfield characteristics are quite well represented despite the relative simplicity of the model. Total ice-volume and sea-level variations during the last glacial cycle are well simulated. This suggests that the physical mechanisms included in the models are sufficient to explain the most striking features of the ice-age cycle. Introducing an improved and more detailed topography improves the simulation of the total ice volume but fails to correct inadequacies in the simulated ice distribution on the surface of the Earth.
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Marsiat, I. "The waxing and waning of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets". Annals of Glaciology 21 (1995): 96–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500015664.
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Past modelling studies have shown that the energy balance of the ice-sheet surface is of primary importance in representing the 100 000 year glacial cycle. In particular, modelling of the net mass-balance function is an important part of coupled ice-sheet/climate models. We conduct a series of palaeoclimatic simulations with a vertically integrated ice-flow model coupled to the two-dimensional statistical-dynamical LLN (Louvain-la-Neuve) climate model. The models are coupled through a land-surface model which computes seasonal cycles of surface temperature and precipitation at the real altitude of the surface and evaluates the annual snow and/or ice-mass budget. The present-day climate of the Northern Hemisphere, the Greenland mass balance and the snowfield characteristics are quite well represented despite the relative simplicity of the model. Total ice-volume and sea-level variations during the last glacial cycle are well simulated. This suggests that the physical mechanisms included in the models are sufficient to explain the most striking features of the ice-age cycle. Introducing an improved and more detailed topography improves the simulation of the total ice volume but fails to correct inadequacies in the simulated ice distribution on the surface of the Earth.
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PEANO, DANIELE, FLORENCE COLLEONI, AURÉLIEN QUIQUET y SIMONA MASINA. "Ice flux evolution in fast flowing areas of the Greenland ice sheet over the 20th and 21st centuries". Journal of Glaciology 63, n.º 239 (28 de marzo de 2017): 499–513. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jog.2017.12.
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ABSTRACTThis study investigates the evolution of Greenland ice sheet flux focusing on five of the main fast flowing regions (Petermann glacier, North East Greenland Ice Stream, Kangerdlugssuaq glacier, Helheim glacier and Jakobshavn glacier) in response to 20th and 21st century climate change. A hybrid (shallow ice and shallow shelf) ice-sheet model (ISM) is forced with the combined outputs of a set of seven CMIP5 models and the regional climate model MAR. The ISM simulates the present-day ice velocity pattern, topography and surface mass balance (SMB) in good agreement with observations. Except for the Kangerdlugssuaq glacier, over the 21st century all the fast-flowing areas have exhibited a decrease in ice flux as a result of a negative SMB rather than dynamical changes. Only the fronts of Kangerdlugssuaq and Helheim glaciers have shown an interannual variability driven by dynamical rather than climate changes. Finally, the results predict a substantial inland ice margin retreat by the end of the 21st century, especially along the northern coasts.
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Bénézet, Cyril, Jérémie Bonnefoy, Jean-François Chassagneux, Shuoqing Deng, Camilo Garcia Trillos y Lionel Lenôtre. "A sparse grid approach to balance sheet risk measurement". ESAIM: Proceedings and Surveys 65 (2019): 236–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/proc/201965236.
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In this work, we present a numerical method based on a sparse grid approximation to compute the loss distribution of the balance sheet of a financial or an insurance company. We first describe, in a stylised way, the assets and liabilities dynamics that are used for the numerical estimation of the balance sheet distribution. For the pricing and hedging model, we chose a classical Black & choles model with a stochastic interest rate following a Hull & White model. The risk management model describing the evolution of the parameters of the pricing and hedging model is a Gaussian model. The new numerical method is compared with the traditional nested simulation approach. We review the convergence of both methods to estimate the risk indicators under consideration. Finally, we provide numerical results showing that the sparse grid approach is extremely competitive for models with moderate dimension.
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Franco, B., X. Fettweis, C. Lang y M. Erpicum. "Impact of spatial resolution on the modelling of the Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance between 1990–2010, using the regional climate model MAR". Cryosphere Discussions 6, n.º 1 (13 de febrero de 2012): 635–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-6-635-2012.
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Abstract. With the aim to force an ice dynamical model, the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) surface mass balance (SMB) was modelled at different spatial resolutions (15–50 km) for the period 1990–2010, using the regional climate model MAR (Modèle Atmosphérique Régional) forced by the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis. This comparison revealed that (i) the inter-annual variability of the SMB components is consistent within the different spatial resolutions investigated, (ii) the MAR model simulates heavier precipitation on average over the GrIS with diminishing spatial resolution, and (iii) the SMB components (except precipitation) can be derived from a simulation at lower resolution with an ''intelligent'' interpolation. This interpolation can also be used to approximate the SMB components over another topography/ice sheet mask of the GrIS. These results are important for the forcing of an ice dynamical model, needed to enable future projections of the GrIS contribution to sea level rise over the coming centuries.
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Franco, B., X. Fettweis, C. Lang y M. Erpicum. "Impact of spatial resolution on the modelling of the Greenland ice sheet surface mass balance between 1990–2010, using the regional climate model MAR". Cryosphere 6, n.º 3 (27 de junio de 2012): 695–711. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-695-2012.
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Abstract. With the aim to force an ice dynamical model, the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) surface mass balance (SMB) was modelled at different spatial resolutions (15–50 km) for the period 1990–2010, using the regional climate model MAR (Modèle Atmosphérique Régional) forced by the ERA-INTERIM reanalysis. This comparison revealed that (i) the inter-annual variability of the SMB components is consistent within the different spatial resolutions investigated, (ii) the MAR model simulates heavier precipitation on average over the GrIS with decreasing spatial resolution, and (iii) the SMB components (except precipitation) can be derived from a simulation at lower resolution with an "intelligent" interpolation. This interpolation can also be used to approximate the SMB components over another topography/ice sheet mask of the GrIS. These results are important for the forcing of an ice dynamical model needed to enable future projections of the GrIS contribution to sea level rise over the coming centuries.
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Mottram, Ruth, Sebastian B. Simonsen, Synne Høyer Svendsen, Valentina R. Barletta, Louise Sandberg Sørensen, Thomas Nagler, Jan Wuite et al. "An Integrated View of Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Changes Based on Models and Satellite Observations". Remote Sensing 11, n.º 12 (13 de junio de 2019): 1407. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/rs11121407.
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The Greenland ice sheet is a major contributor to sea level rise, adding on average 0.47 ± 0.23 mm year − 1 to global mean sea level between 1991 and 2015. The cryosphere as a whole has contributed around 45% of observed global sea level rise since 1993. Understanding the present-day state of the Greenland ice sheet is therefore vital for understanding the processes controlling the modern-day rates of sea level change and for making projections of sea level rise into the future. Here, we provide an overview of the current state of the mass budget of Greenland based on a diverse range of remote sensing observations to produce the essential climate variables (ECVs) of ice velocity, surface elevation change, grounding line location, calving front location, and gravimetric mass balance as well as numerical modelling that together build a consistent picture of a shrinking ice sheet. We also combine these observations with output from a regional climate model and from an ice sheet model to gain insight into existing biases in ice sheet dynamics and surface mass balance processes. Observations show surface lowering across virtually all regions of the ice sheet and at some locations up to −2.65 m year − 1 between 1995 and 2017 based on radar altimetry analysis. In addition, calving fronts at 28 study sites, representing a sample of typical glaciers, have retreated all around Greenland since the 1990s and in only two out of 28 study locations have they remained stable. During the same period, two of five floating ice shelves have collapsed while the locations of grounding lines at the remaining three floating ice shelves have remained stable over the observation period. In a detailed case study with a fracture model at Petermann glacier, we demonstrate the potential sensitivity of these floating ice shelves to future warming. GRACE gravimetrically-derived mass balance (GMB) data shows that overall Greenland has lost 255 ± 15 Gt year − 1 of ice over the period 2003 to 2016, consistent with that shown by IMBIE and a marked increase compared to a rate of loss of 83 ± 63 Gt year − 1 in the 1993–2003 period. Regional climate model and ice sheet model simulations show that surface mass processes dominate the Greenland ice sheet mass budget over most of the interior. However, in areas of high ice velocity there is a significant contribution to mass loss by ice dynamical processes. Marked differences between models and observations indicate that not all processes are captured accurately within models, indicating areas for future research.
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Sørensen, L. S., S. B. Simonsen, K. Nielsen, P. Lucas-Picher, G. Spada, G. Adalgeirsdottir, R. Forsberg y C. S. Hvidberg. "Mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet – a study of ICESat data, surface density and firn compaction modelling". Cryosphere Discussions 4, n.º 4 (15 de octubre de 2010): 2103–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-4-2103-2010.
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Abstract. ICESat has provided surface elevation measurements of the ice sheets since the launch in January 2003, resulting in a unique data set for monitoring the changes of the cryosphere. Here we present a novel method for determining the mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet derived from ICESat altimetry data. Four different methods for deriving the elevation changes from the ICESat altimetry data set are used. This multi method approach gives an understanding of the complexity associated with deriving elevation changes from the ICESat altimetry data set. The altimetry can not stand alone in estimating the mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet. We find firn dynamics and surface densities to be important factors in deriving the mass loss from remote sensing altimetry. The volume change derived from ICESat data is corrected for firn compaction, vertical bedrock movement and an intercampaign elevation bias in the ICESat data. Subsequently, the corrected volume change is converted into mass change by surface density modelling. The firn compaction and density models are driven by a dynamically downscaled simulation of the HIRHAM5 regional climate model using ERA-Interim reanalysis lateral boundary conditions. We find an annual mass loss of the Greenland ice sheet of 210 ± 21 Gt yr−1 in the period from October 2003 to March 2008. This result is in good agreement with other studies of the Greenland ice sheet mass balance, based on different remote sensing techniques.
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Goeller, S., M. Thoma, K. Grosfeld y H. Miller. "A balanced water layer concept for subglacial hydrology in large scale ice sheet models". Cryosphere Discussions 6, n.º 6 (17 de diciembre de 2012): 5225–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tcd-6-5225-2012.
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Abstract. There is currently no doubt about the existence of a wide-spread hydrological network under the Antarctic ice sheet, which lubricates the ice base and thus leads to increased ice velocities. Consequently, ice models should incorporate basal hydrology to obtain meaningful results for future ice dynamics and their contribution to global sea level rise. Here, we introduce the balanced water layer concept, covering two prominent subglacial hydrological features for ice sheet modeling on a continental scale: the evolution of subglacial lakes and balance water fluxes. We couple it to the thermomechanical ice-flow model RIMBAY and apply it to a synthetic model domain inspired by the Gamburtsev Mountains, Antarctica. In our experiments we demonstrate the dynamic generation of subglacial lakes and their impact on the velocity field of the overlaying ice sheet, resulting in a negative ice mass balance. Furthermore, we introduce an elementary parametrization of the water flux–basal sliding coupling and reveal the predominance of the ice loss through the resulting ice streams against the stabilizing influence of less hydrologically active areas. We point out, that established balance flux schemes quantify these effects only partially as their ability to store subglacial water is lacking.
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Goeller, S., M. Thoma, K. Grosfeld y H. Miller. "A balanced water layer concept for subglacial hydrology in large-scale ice sheet models". Cryosphere 7, n.º 4 (13 de julio de 2013): 1095–106. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1095-2013.
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Abstract. There is currently no doubt about the existence of a widespread hydrological network under the Antarctic Ice Sheet, which lubricates the ice base and thus leads to increased ice velocities. Consequently, ice models should incorporate basal hydrology to obtain meaningful results for future ice dynamics and their contribution to global sea level rise. Here, we introduce the balanced water layer concept, covering two prominent subglacial hydrological features for ice sheet modeling on a continental scale: the evolution of subglacial lakes and balance water fluxes. We couple it to the thermomechanical ice-flow model RIMBAY and apply it to a synthetic model domain. In our experiments we demonstrate the dynamic generation of subglacial lakes and their impact on the velocity field of the overlaying ice sheet, resulting in a negative ice mass balance. Furthermore, we introduce an elementary parametrization of the water flux–basal sliding coupling and reveal the predominance of the ice loss through the resulting ice streams against the stabilizing influence of less hydrologically active areas. We point out that established balance flux schemes quantify these effects only partially as their ability to store subglacial water is lacking.
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Born, Andreas, Michael A. Imhof y Thomas F. Stocker. "An efficient surface energy–mass balance model for snow and ice". Cryosphere 13, n.º 5 (28 de mayo de 2019): 1529–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-1529-2019.
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Abstract. A comprehensive understanding of the state and dynamics of the land cryosphere and associated sea level rise is not possible without taking into consideration the intrinsic timescales of the continental ice sheets. At the same time, the ice sheet mass balance is the result of seasonal variations in the meteorological conditions. Simulations of the coupled climate–ice-sheet system thus face the dilemma of skillfully resolving short-lived phenomena, while also being computationally fast enough to run over tens of thousands of years. As a possible solution, we present the BErgen Snow SImulator (BESSI), a surface energy and mass balance model that achieves computational efficiency while simulating all surface and internal fluxes of heat and mass explicitly, based on physical first principles. In its current configuration it covers most land areas of the Northern Hemisphere. Input data are daily values of surface air temperature, total precipitation, and shortwave radiation. The model is calibrated using present-day observations of Greenland firn temperature, cumulative Greenland mass changes, and monthly snow extent over the entire domain. The results of the calibrated simulations are then discussed. Finally, as a first application of the model and to illustrate its numerical efficiency, we present the results of a large ensemble of simulations to assess the model's sensitivity to variations in temperature and precipitation.
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Sellevold, Raymond, Leonardus van Kampenhout, Jan T. M. Lenaerts, Brice Noël, William H. Lipscomb y Miren Vizcaino. "Surface mass balance downscaling through elevation classes in an Earth system model: application to the Greenland ice sheet". Cryosphere 13, n.º 12 (4 de diciembre de 2019): 3193–208. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-3193-2019.
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Abstract. The modeling of ice sheets in Earth system models (ESMs) is an active area of research with applications to future sea level rise projections and paleoclimate studies. A major challenge for surface mass balance (SMB) modeling with ESMs arises from their coarse resolution. This paper evaluates the elevation class (EC) method as an SMB downscaling alternative to the dynamical downscaling of regional climate models. To this end, we compare EC-simulated elevation-dependent surface energy and mass balance gradients from the Community Earth System Model 1.0 (CESM1.0) with those from the regional climate model RACMO2.3. The EC implementation in CESM1.0 combines prognostic snow albedo, a multilayer snow model, and elevation corrections for two atmospheric forcing variables: temperature and humidity. Despite making no corrections for incoming radiation and precipitation, we find that the EC method in CESM1.0 yields similar SMB gradients to RACMO2.3, in part due to compensating biases in snowfall, surface melt, and refreezing gradients. We discuss the sensitivity of the results to the lapse rate used for the temperature correction. We also evaluate the impact of the EC method on the climate simulated by the ESM and find minor cooling over the Greenland ice sheet and Barents and Greenland seas, which compensates for a warm bias in the ESM due to topographic smoothing. Based on our diagnostic procedure to evaluate the EC method, we make several recommendations for future implementations.
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Sørensen, L. S., S. B. Simonsen, K. Nielsen, P. Lucas-Picher, G. Spada, G. Adalgeirsdottir, R. Forsberg y C. S. Hvidberg. "Mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet (2003–2008) from ICESat data – the impact of interpolation, sampling and firn density". Cryosphere 5, n.º 1 (9 de marzo de 2011): 173–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-5-173-2011.
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Abstract. ICESat has provided surface elevation measurements of the ice sheets since the launch in January 2003, resulting in a unique dataset for monitoring the changes of the cryosphere. Here, we present a novel method for determining the mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet, derived from ICESat altimetry data. Three different methods for deriving elevation changes from the ICESat altimetry dataset are used. This multi-method approach provides a method to assess the complexity of deriving elevation changes from this dataset. The altimetry alone can not provide an estimate of the mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet. Firn dynamics and surface densities are important factors that contribute to the mass change derived from remote-sensing altimetry. The volume change derived from ICESat data is corrected for changes in firn compaction over the observation period, vertical bedrock movement and an intercampaign elevation bias in the ICESat data. Subsequently, the corrected volume change is converted into mass change by the application of a simple surface density model, in which some of the ice dynamics are accounted for. The firn compaction and density models are driven by the HIRHAM5 regional climate model, forced by the ERA-Interim re-analysis product, at the lateral boundaries. We find annual mass loss estimates of the Greenland ice sheet in the range of 191 ± 23 Gt yr−1 to 240 ± 28 Gt yr−1 for the period October 2003 to March 2008. These results are in good agreement with several other studies of the Greenland ice sheet mass balance, based on different remote-sensing techniques.
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Gregory, J. M. y P. Huybrechts. "Ice-sheet contributions to future sea-level change". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 364, n.º 1844 (25 de mayo de 2006): 1709–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2006.1796.
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Accurate simulation of ice-sheet surface mass balance requires higher spatial resolution than is afforded by typical atmosphere–ocean general circulation models (AOGCMs), owing, in particular, to the need to resolve the narrow and steep margins where the majority of precipitation and ablation occurs. We have developed a method for calculating mass-balance changes by combining ice-sheet average time-series from AOGCM projections for future centuries, both with information from high-resolution climate models run for short periods and with a 20 km ice-sheet mass-balance model. Antarctica contributes negatively to sea level on account of increased accumulation, while Greenland contributes positively because ablation increases more rapidly. The uncertainty in the results is about 20% for Antarctica and 35% for Greenland. Changes in ice-sheet topography and dynamics are not included, but we discuss their possible effects. For an annual- and area-average warming exceeding in Greenland and in the global average, the net surface mass balance of the Greenland ice sheet becomes negative, in which case it is likely that the ice sheet would eventually be eliminated, raising global-average sea level by 7 m.
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Wingham, D. J., A. Shepherd, A. Muir y G. J. Marshall. "Mass balance of the Antarctic ice sheet". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 364, n.º 1844 (25 de mayo de 2006): 1627–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2006.1792.
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The Antarctic contribution to sea-level rise has long been uncertain. While regional variability in ice dynamics has been revealed, a picture of mass changes throughout the continental ice sheet is lacking. Here, we use satellite radar altimetry to measure the elevation change of 72% of the grounded ice sheet during the period 1992–2003. Depending on the density of the snow giving rise to the observed elevation fluctuations, the ice sheet mass trend falls in the range −5–+85 Gt yr −1 . We find that data from climate model reanalyses are not able to characterise the contemporary snowfall fluctuation with useful accuracy and our best estimate of the overall mass trend—growth of 27±29 Gt yr −1 —is based on an assessment of the expected snowfall variability. Mass gains from accumulating snow, particularly on the Antarctic Peninsula and within East Antarctica, exceed the ice dynamic mass loss from West Antarctica. The result exacerbates the difficulty of explaining twentieth century sea-level rise.
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Bamber, J. L., R. J. Hardy, P. Huybrechts y Ian Joughin. "A comparison of balance velocities, measured velocities and thermomechanically modelled velocities for the Greenland ice sheet". Annals of Glaciology 30 (2000): 211–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/172756400781820589.
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AbstractBalance velocities for the Greenland ice sheet have been calculated from a new digital-elevation model, accumulation-rates compilation and an existing ice-thickness grid, using a two-dimensional finite-difference scheme. The pattern of velocities over the ice sheet is presented and compared with velocities derived from synthetic-aperture-radar interferometry for part of northern Greenland and a limited number of global positioning system data. This comparison indicated that the balance-velocity scheme and boundary conditions used here provide a remarkably good representation of the dynamics of the ice sheet inland from the margins. It is suggested, therefore, that these balance-velocity data could provide a valuable method of constraining a numerical ice-sheet model. The balance velocities were compared with the diagnostic velocity field calculated from several different configurations of a numerical ice-sheet model. The general pattern of flow agrees well. The detail, however, is quite different. For example, the large (>300km) ice stream in the northeast is not generated by the numerical model and much of the detailed flow pattern is completely lost due to the limited model resolution and limitations in the model physics.
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Basu, Moumita, Jonaki Sengupta y Ranjanendra Narayan Nag. "Exchange Rate Dynamics, Endogenous Risk Premium and the Balance Sheet Effect: An Effective Demand Model". South Asian Journal of Macroeconomics and Public Finance 7, n.º 2 (26 de septiembre de 2018): 212–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2277978718795775.
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This article describes a macroeconomic framework for analysing the interaction between output, domestic interest rate and exchange rate in the presence of the endogenous risk premium and balance sheet effect of exchange rate depreciation on investment demand. Output is demand determined. There are three assets: money, domestic bonds and foreign bonds. Domestic bonds and foreign bonds are not perfect substitutes due to the presence of risk premium. The endogenous risk premium depends on certain macroeconomic fundamentals, namely budget deficit and current account balance. Using this framework, we will examine implications of monetary policy, fiscal policy, tariff liberalization and global interest rate hike for exchange rate dynamics and output. The balance sheet effect and the risk premium together explain how an expansionary fiscal policy may generate recession, while tariff liberalization may produce favourable macroeconomic outcomes. Moreover, the model shows that an increase in world interest rate may have contractionary effect on the domestic output level due to the presence of the balance sheet effect of exchange rate depreciation. JEL Classification: E27, E63, F13, F32
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Verjans, Vincent, Alexander A. Robel, Helene Seroussi, Lizz Ultee y Andrew F. Thompson. "The Stochastic Ice-Sheet and Sea-Level System Model v1.0 (StISSM v1.0)". Geoscientific Model Development 15, n.º 22 (18 de noviembre de 2022): 8269–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-15-8269-2022.
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Abstract. We introduce the first version of the Stochastic Ice-sheet and Sea-level System Model (StISSM v1.0), which adds stochastic parameterizations within a state-of-the-art large-scale ice sheet model. In StISSM v1.0, stochastic parameterizations target climatic fields with internal variability, as well as glaciological processes exhibiting variability that cannot be resolved at the spatiotemporal resolution of ice sheet models: calving and subglacial hydrology. Because both climate and unresolved glaciological processes include internal variability, stochastic parameterizations allow StISSM v1.0 to account for the impacts of their high-frequency variability on ice dynamics and on the long-term evolution of modeled glaciers and ice sheets. StISSM v1.0 additionally includes statistical models to represent surface mass balance and oceanic forcing as autoregressive processes. Such models, once appropriately calibrated, allow users to sample irreducible uncertainty in climate prediction without the need for computationally expensive ensembles from climate models. When combined together, these novel features of StISSM v1.0 enable quantification of irreducible uncertainty in ice sheet model simulations and of ice sheet sensitivity to noisy forcings. We detail the implementation strategy of StISSM v1.0, evaluate its capabilities in idealized model experiments, demonstrate its applicability at the scale of a Greenland ice sheet simulation, and highlight priorities for future developments. Results from our test experiments demonstrate the complexity of ice sheet response to variability, such as asymmetric and/or non-zero mean responses to symmetric, zero-mean imposed variability. They also show differing levels of projection uncertainty for stochastic variability in different processes. These features are in line with results from stochastic experiments in climate and ocean models, as well as with the theoretical expected behavior of noise-forced non-linear systems.
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Chiarella, Carl, Peter Flaschel y Graeme Wells. "THE DYNAMICS OF KEYNESIAN MONETARY GROWTH". Macroeconomic Dynamics 7, n.º 3 (25 de marzo de 2003): 473–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1365100502020072.
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The objective of this book is to provide “a systematic theory of endogenous business fluctuations and growth with a hierarchical structure of integrated macro-dynamical models” (p. 372). The starting point is Tobin's neoclassical model of monetary growth, and successive chapters show how Tobin's model can be extended in various “realistic” directions while preserving the relevant adding-up and balance-sheet constraints of a macro model. The work reported here is squarely in an ongoing European theoretical tradition that eschews the stochastic, representative-agent, approach to macroeconomic modeling. Absent stochastic disturbances, the authors provide a qualitative analysis of dynamic behavior for a variety of closed-economy models—a variety that, as the authors themselves point out, is closely related to three prototype models studied in Part I of Sargent's 1977 book, Macroeconomic Theory.
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Price, Stephen F., Matthew J. Hoffman, Jennifer A. Bonin, Ian M. Howat, Thomas Neumann, Jack Saba, Irina Tezaur et al. "An ice sheet model validation framework for the Greenland ice sheet". Geoscientific Model Development 10, n.º 1 (17 de enero de 2017): 255–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-255-2017.
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Abstract. We propose a new ice sheet model validation framework – the Cryospheric Model Comparison Tool (CmCt) – that takes advantage of ice sheet altimetry and gravimetry observations collected over the past several decades and is applied here to modeling of the Greenland ice sheet. We use realistic simulations performed with the Community Ice Sheet Model (CISM) along with two idealized, non-dynamic models to demonstrate the framework and its use. Dynamic simulations with CISM are forced from 1991 to 2013, using combinations of reanalysis-based surface mass balance and observations of outlet glacier flux change. We propose and demonstrate qualitative and quantitative metrics for use in evaluating the different model simulations against the observations. We find that the altimetry observations used here are largely ambiguous in terms of their ability to distinguish one simulation from another. Based on basin-scale and whole-ice-sheet-scale metrics, we find that simulations using both idealized conceptual models and dynamic, numerical models provide an equally reasonable representation of the ice sheet surface (mean elevation differences of < 1 m). This is likely due to their short period of record, biases inherent to digital elevation models used for model initial conditions, and biases resulting from firn dynamics, which are not explicitly accounted for in the models or observations. On the other hand, we find that the gravimetry observations used here are able to unambiguously distinguish between simulations of varying complexity, and along with the CmCt, can provide a quantitative score for assessing a particular model and/or simulation. The new framework demonstrates that our proposed metrics can distinguish relatively better from relatively worse simulations and that dynamic ice sheet models, when appropriately initialized and forced with the right boundary conditions, demonstrate a predictive skill with respect to observed dynamic changes that have occurred on Greenland over the past few decades. An extensible design will allow for continued use of the CmCt as future altimetry, gravimetry, and other remotely sensed data become available for use in ice sheet model validation.
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Darakananda, Darwin y Jeff D. Eldredge. "A versatile taxonomy of low-dimensional vortex models for unsteady aerodynamics". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 858 (12 de noviembre de 2018): 917–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2018.792.
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Inviscid vortex models have been demonstrated to capture the essential physics of massively separated flows past aerodynamic surfaces, but they become computationally expensive as coherent vortex structures are formed and the wake is developed. In this work, we present a two-dimensional vortex model in which vortex sheets represent shear layers that separate from sharp edges of the body and point vortices represent the rolled-up cores of these shear layers and the other coherent vortices in the wake. We develop a circulation transfer procedure that enables each vortex sheet to feed its circulation into a point vortex instead of rolling up. This procedure reduces the number of computational elements required to capture the dynamics of vortex formation while eliminating the spurious force that manifests when transferring circulation between vortex elements. By tuning the rate at which the vortex sheets are siphoned into the point vortices, we can adjust the balance between the model’s dimensionality and dynamical richness, enabling it to span the entire taxonomy of inviscid vortex models. This hybrid model can capture the development and subsequent shedding of the starting vortices with insignificant wall-clock time and remain sufficiently low-dimensional to simulate long-time-horizon events such as periodic bluff-body shedding. We demonstrate the viability of the method by modelling the impulsive translation of a wing at various fixed angles of attack, pitch-up manoeuvres that linearly increase the angle of attack from $0^{\circ }$ to $90^{\circ }$, and oscillatory pitching and heaving. We show that the proposed model correctly predicts the dynamics of large-scale vortical structures in the flow by comparing the distributions of vorticity and force responses from results of the proposed model with a model using only vortex sheets and, in some cases, high-fidelity viscous simulation.
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Feldmann, Johannes y Anders Levermann. "From cyclic ice streaming to Heinrich-like events: the grow-and-surge instability in the Parallel Ice Sheet Model". Cryosphere 11, n.º 4 (16 de agosto de 2017): 1913–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-1913-2017.
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Abstract. Here we report on a cyclic, physical ice-discharge instability in the Parallel Ice Sheet Model, simulating the flow of a three-dimensional, inherently buttressed ice-sheet-shelf system which periodically surges on a millennial timescale. The thermomechanically coupled model on 1 km horizontal resolution includes an enthalpy-based formulation of the thermodynamics, a nonlinear stress-balance-based sliding law and a very simple subglacial hydrology. The simulated unforced surging is characterized by rapid ice streaming through a bed trough, resulting in abrupt discharge of ice across the grounding line which is eventually calved into the ocean. We visualize the central feedbacks that dominate the subsequent phases of ice buildup, surge and stabilization which emerge from the interaction between ice dynamics, thermodynamics and the subglacial till layer. Results from the variation of surface mass balance and basal roughness suggest that ice sheets of medium thickness may be more susceptible to surging than relatively thin or thick ones for which the surge feedback loop is damped. We also investigate the influence of different basal sliding laws (ranging from purely plastic to nonlinear to linear) on possible surging. The presented mechanisms underlying our simulations of self-maintained, periodic ice growth and destabilization may play a role in large-scale ice-sheet surging, such as the surging of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which is associated with Heinrich events, and ice-stream shutdown and reactivation, such as observed in the Siple Coast region of West Antarctica.
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Braithwaite, Roger J. "Models of ice-atmosphere interactions for the Greenland ice sheet". Annals of Glaciology 23 (1996): 149–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500013379.
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Simple models to calculate melt and refreezing are reviewed. Both degree-day and energy-balance models can give distributed melt inputs to ice-dynamics models but have only been tested extensively in West Greenland, and more data are needed from the remoter parts of Greenland. The energy-balance model is more realistic but needs input data that are not generally available over the whole ice sheet. On the other hand, degree-day factors vary from situation to situation although a value of about 8 kg m−2 d−1 deg−1 for ice ablation is a reasonable first approximation as assumed in recent ice-dynamics models. Meltwater refreezing in the accumulation area can be modelled very simply but more detailed physical models are needed to describe the shifts in accumulation zones under different climates.
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Braithwaite, Roger J. "Models of ice-atmosphere interactions for the Greenland ice sheet". Annals of Glaciology 23 (1996): 149–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500013379.
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Simple models to calculate melt and refreezing are reviewed. Both degree-day and energy-balance models can give distributed melt inputs to ice-dynamics models but have only been tested extensively in West Greenland, and more data are needed from the remoter parts of Greenland. The energy-balance model is more realistic but needs input data that are not generally available over the whole ice sheet. On the other hand, degree-day factors vary from situation to situation although a value of about 8 kg m−2d−1deg−1for ice ablation is a reasonable first approximation as assumed in recent ice-dynamics models. Meltwater refreezing in the accumulation area can be modelled very simply but more detailed physical models are needed to describe the shifts in accumulation zones under different climates.
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Budd, W. F. y D. Jenssen. "The Dynamics of the Antarctic Ice Sheet". Annals of Glaciology 12 (1989): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s026030550000690x.
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A three-dimensional dynamic, thermodynamic ice-sheet model has been developed to simulate the past, present, and future behaviour of the Antarctic ice sheet. The present ice velocities depend on the deep ice temperatures which in turn depend on the past changes of the ice sheet, including surface temperature, accumulation rate, and ice thickness. The basal temperatures are also strongly dependent on the geothermal heat flux. The model has therefore been used to study the effect on the basal temperatures, of changes to the geothermal heat flux, as well as the past changes of surface temperature and accumulation rate based on results obtained from the Vostok deep ice core. The model is also used to compute the distribution of surface velocity required to balance the present accumulation rate and the dynamics velocity based on the stress, temperature, and flow properties of ice, for the internal deformation, plus a component due to ice sliding. These velocities are compared to observed surface velocities in East Antarctica to assess the state of balance and the performance of the dynamics formulation.
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Budd, W. F. y D. Jenssen. "The Dynamics of the Antarctic Ice Sheet". Annals of Glaciology 12 (1989): 16–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s026030550000690x.
Texto completoResumen
A three-dimensional dynamic, thermodynamic ice-sheet model has been developed to simulate the past, present, and future behaviour of the Antarctic ice sheet. The present ice velocities depend on the deep ice temperatures which in turn depend on the past changes of the ice sheet, including surface temperature, accumulation rate, and ice thickness. The basal temperatures are also strongly dependent on the geothermal heat flux. The model has therefore been used to study the effect on the basal temperatures, of changes to the geothermal heat flux, as well as the past changes of surface temperature and accumulation rate based on results obtained from the Vostok deep ice core. The model is also used to compute the distribution of surface velocity required to balance the present accumulation rate and the dynamics velocity based on the stress, temperature, and flow properties of ice, for the internal deformation, plus a component due to ice sliding. These velocities are compared to observed surface velocities in East Antarctica to assess the state of balance and the performance of the dynamics formulation.
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Le clec'h, Sébastien, Sylvie Charbit, Aurélien Quiquet, Xavier Fettweis, Christophe Dumas, Masa Kageyama, Coraline Wyard y Catherine Ritz. "Assessment of the Greenland ice sheet–atmosphere feedbacks for the next century with a regional atmospheric model coupled to an ice sheet model". Cryosphere 13, n.º 1 (1 de febrero de 2019): 373–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-13-373-2019.
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Abstract. In the context of global warming, growing attention is paid to the evolution of the Greenland ice sheet (GrIS) and its contribution to sea-level rise at the centennial timescale. Atmosphere–GrIS interactions, such as the temperature–elevation and the albedo feedbacks, have the potential to modify the surface energy balance and thus to impact the GrIS surface mass balance (SMB). In turn, changes in the geometrical features of the ice sheet may alter both the climate and the ice dynamics governing the ice sheet evolution. However, changes in ice sheet geometry are generally not explicitly accounted for when simulating atmospheric changes over the Greenland ice sheet in the future. To account for ice sheet–climate interactions, we developed the first two-way synchronously coupled model between a regional atmospheric model (MAR) and a 3-D ice sheet model (GRISLI). Using this novel model, we simulate the ice sheet evolution from 2000 to 2150 under a prolonged representative concentration pathway scenario, RCP8.5. Changes in surface elevation and ice sheet extent simulated by GRISLI have a direct impact on the climate simulated by MAR. They are fed to MAR from 2020 onwards, i.e. when changes in SMB produce significant topography changes in GRISLI. We further assess the importance of the atmosphere–ice sheet feedbacks through the comparison of the two-way coupled experiment with two other simulations based on simpler coupling strategies: (i) a one-way coupling with no consideration of any change in ice sheet geometry; (ii) an alternative one-way coupling in which the elevation change feedbacks are parameterized in the ice sheet model (from 2020 onwards) without taking into account the changes in ice sheet topography in the atmospheric model. The two-way coupled experiment simulates an important increase in surface melt below 2000 m of elevation, resulting in an important SMB reduction in 2150 and a shift of the equilibrium line towards elevations as high as 2500 m, despite a slight increase in SMB over the central plateau due to enhanced snowfall. In relation with these SMB changes, modifications of ice sheet geometry favour ice flux convergence towards the margins, with an increase in ice velocities in the GrIS interior due to increased surface slopes and a decrease in ice velocities at the margins due to decreasing ice thickness. This convergence counteracts the SMB signal in these areas. In the two-way coupling, the SMB is also influenced by changes in fine-scale atmospheric dynamical processes, such as the increase in katabatic winds from central to marginal regions induced by increased surface slopes. Altogether, the GrIS contribution to sea-level rise, inferred from variations in ice volume above floatation, is equal to 20.4 cm in 2150. The comparison between the coupled and the two uncoupled experiments suggests that the effect of the different feedbacks is amplified over time with the most important feedbacks being the SMB–elevation feedbacks. As a result, the experiment with parameterized SMB–elevation feedback provides a sea-level contribution from GrIS in 2150 only 2.5 % lower than the two-way coupled experiment, while the experiment with no feedback is 9.3 % lower. The change in the ablation area in the two-way coupled experiment is much larger than those provided by the two simplest methods, with an underestimation of 11.7 % (14 %) with parameterized feedbacks (no feedback). In addition, we quantify that computing the GrIS contribution to sea-level rise from SMB changes only over a fixed ice sheet mask leads to an overestimation of ice loss of at least 6 % compared to the use of a time variable ice sheet mask. Finally, our results suggest that ice-loss estimations diverge when using the different coupling strategies, with differences from the two-way method becoming significant at the end of the 21st century. In particular, even if averaged over the whole GrIS the climatic and ice sheet fields are relatively similar; at the local and regional scale there are important differences, highlighting the importance of correctly representing the interactions when interested in basin scale changes.
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DeVoria, A. C. y K. Mohseni. "The vortex-entrainment sheet in an inviscid fluid: theory and separation at a sharp edge". Journal of Fluid Mechanics 866 (13 de marzo de 2019): 660–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2019.134.
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In this paper a model for viscous boundary and shear layers in three dimensions is introduced and termed a vortex-entrainment sheet. The vorticity in the layer is accounted for by a conventional vortex sheet. The mass and momentum in the layer are represented by a two-dimensional surface having its own internal tangential flow. Namely, the sheet has a mass density per-unit-area making it dynamically distinct from the surrounding outer fluid and allowing the sheet to support a pressure jump. The mechanism of entrainment is represented by a discontinuity in the normal component of the velocity across the sheet. The velocity field induced by the vortex-entrainment sheet is given by a generalized Birkhoff–Rott equation with a complex sheet strength. The model was applied to the case of separation at a sharp edge. No supplementary Kutta condition in the form of a singularity removal is required as the flow remains bounded through an appropriate balance of normal momentum with the pressure jump across the sheet. A pressure jump at the edge results in the generation of new vorticity. The shedding angle is dictated by the normal impulse of the intrinsic flow inside the bound sheets as they merge to form the free sheet. When there is zero entrainment everywhere the model reduces to the conventional vortex sheet with no mass. Consequently, the pressure jump must be zero and the shedding angle must be tangential so that the sheet simply convects off the wedge face. Lastly, the vortex-entrainment sheet model is demonstrated on several example problems.
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Bernales, Jorge, Irina Rogozhina, Ralf Greve y Maik Thomas. "Comparison of hybrid schemes for the combination of shallow approximations in numerical simulations of the Antarctic Ice Sheet". Cryosphere 11, n.º 1 (27 de enero de 2017): 247–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-11-247-2017.
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Abstract. The shallow ice approximation (SIA) is commonly used in ice-sheet models to simplify the force balance equations within the ice. However, the SIA cannot adequately reproduce the dynamics of the fast flowing ice streams usually found at the margins of ice sheets. To overcome this limitation, recent studies have introduced heuristic hybrid combinations of the SIA and the shelfy stream approximation. Here, we implement four different hybrid schemes into a model of the Antarctic Ice Sheet in order to compare their performance under present-day conditions. For each scheme, the model is calibrated using an iterative technique to infer the spatial variability in basal sliding parameters. Model results are validated against topographic and velocity data. Our analysis shows that the iterative technique compensates for the differences between the schemes, producing similar ice-sheet configurations through quantitatively different results of the sliding coefficient calibration. Despite this we observe a robust agreement in the reconstructed patterns of basal sliding parameters. We exchange the calibrated sliding parameter distributions between the schemes to demonstrate that the results of the model calibration cannot be straightforwardly transferred to models based on different approximations of ice dynamics. However, easily adaptable calibration techniques for the potential distribution of basal sliding coefficients can be implemented into ice models to overcome such incompatibility, as shown in this study.
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Smith, Benjamin E., Brooke Medley, Xavier Fettweis, Tyler Sutterley, Patrick Alexander, David Porter y Marco Tedesco. "Evaluating Greenland surface-mass-balance and firn-densification data using ICESat-2 altimetry". Cryosphere 17, n.º 2 (16 de febrero de 2023): 789–808. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-17-789-2023.
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Abstract. Surface-mass-balance (SMB) and firn-densification (FD) models are widely used in altimetry studies as a tool to separate atmospheric-driven from ice-dynamics-driven ice-sheet mass changes and to partition observed volume changes into ice-mass changes and firn-air-content changes. Until now, SMB models have been principally validated based on comparison with ice core and weather station data or comparison with widely separated flight radar-survey flight lines. Firn-densification models have been primarily validated based on their ability to match net densification over decades, as recorded in firn cores, and the short-term time-dependent component of densification has rarely been evaluated at all. The advent of systematic ice-sheet-wide repeated ice-surface-height measurements from ICESat-2 (the Ice Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite, 2) allows us to measure the net surface-height change of the Greenland ice sheet at quarterly resolution and compare the measured surface-height differences directly with those predicted by three FD–SMB models: MARv3.5.11 (Modèle Atmosphérique Régional version 3.5.11) and GSFCv1.1 and GSFCv1.2 (the Goddard Space Flight Center FD–SMB models version 1.1 and 1.2). By segregating the data by season and elevation, and based on the timing and magnitude of modelled processes in areas where we expect minimal ice-dynamics-driven height changes, we investigate the models' accuracy in predicting atmospherically driven height changes. We find that while all three models do well in predicting the large seasonal changes in the low-elevation parts of the ice sheet where melt rates are highest, two of the models (MARv3.5.11 and GSFCv1.1) systematically overpredict, by around a factor of 2, the magnitude of height changes in the high-elevation parts of the ice sheet, particularly those associated with melt events. This overprediction seems to be associated with the melt sensitivity of the models in the high-elevation part of the ice sheet. The third model, GSFCv1.2, which has an updated high-elevation melt parameterization, avoids this overprediction.
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Huybrechts, Philippe y Stephen T’siobbel. "A three-dimensional climate—ice-sheet model applied to the Last Glacial Maximum". Annals of Glaciology 25 (1997): 333–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500014245.
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A quasi-three-dimensional (3-D) climate model (Sellers, 1983) was used to simulate the climate of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in order to provide climatic input for the modelling of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. The climate model is basically a coarse-gridded general circulation (GCM) with simplified dynamics, and was subject to appropriate boundary conditions for ice-sheet elevation, atmospheric CO2 concentration and orbital parameters. When compared with the present-daysimulation, the simulated climate at the Last Glacial Maximum is characterized by a global annual cooling of 3.5°C and a reduction in global annualprecipitation of 7.5%, which agrees well with results from other, more complex GCMs. Also the patterns of temperature change compare fairly with mostother GCM results, except for a smaller cooling over the North Atlantic and the larger cooling predicted for the summer rather than for the winter over Eurasia.The climate model is able to simulate changes in Northern Hemisphere tropospheric circulation, yielding enhanced westerlies in the vicinity of the Laurentide and Eurasian ice sheets. However, the simulated precipitation patterns are less convincing, and show a distinct mean precipitation increase over the Laurentide ice sheet. Nevertheless, when using the mean-monthly fields of LGM minus present-day anomalies of temperature and precipitation rate to drive a three-dimensional thermomechanical ice-sheet model, it was demonstrated that within realistic bounds of the ice-flow and mass-balance parameters, veryreasonable reconstructions of the Last Glacial Maximum ice sheets could be obtained.
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Huybrechts, Philippe y Stephen T’siobbel. "A three-dimensional climate—ice-sheet model applied to the Last Glacial Maximum". Annals of Glaciology 25 (1997): 333–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500014245.
Texto completoResumen
A quasi-three-dimensional (3-D) climate model (Sellers, 1983) was used to simulate the climate of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) in order to provide climatic input for the modelling of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. The climate model is basically a coarse-gridded general circulation (GCM) with simplified dynamics, and was subject to appropriate boundary conditions for ice-sheet elevation, atmospheric CO2concentration and orbital parameters. When compared with the present-daysimulation, the simulated climate at the Last Glacial Maximum is characterized by a global annual cooling of 3.5°C and a reduction in global annualprecipitation of 7.5%, which agrees well with results from other, more complex GCMs. Also the patterns of temperature change compare fairly with mostother GCM results, except for a smaller cooling over the North Atlantic and the larger cooling predicted for the summer rather than for the winter over Eurasia.The climate model is able to simulate changes in Northern Hemisphere tropospheric circulation, yielding enhanced westerlies in the vicinity of the Laurentide and Eurasian ice sheets. However, the simulated precipitation patterns are less convincing, and show a distinct mean precipitation increase over the Laurentide ice sheet. Nevertheless, when using the mean-monthly fields of LGM minus present-day anomalies of temperature and precipitation rate to drive a three-dimensional thermomechanical ice-sheet model, it was demonstrated that within realistic bounds of the ice-flow and mass-balance parameters, veryreasonable reconstructions of the Last Glacial Maximum ice sheets could be obtained.
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Berends, Constantijn J., Heiko Goelzer y Roderik S. W. van de Wal. "The Utrecht Finite Volume Ice-Sheet Model: UFEMISM (version 1.0)". Geoscientific Model Development 14, n.º 5 (5 de mayo de 2021): 2443–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/gmd-14-2443-2021.
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Abstract. Improving our confidence in future projections of sea-level rise requires models that can simulate ice-sheet evolution both in the future and in the geological past. A physically accurate treatment of large changes in ice-sheet geometry requires a proper treatment of processes near the margin, like grounding line dynamics, which in turn requires a high spatial resolution in that specific region, so that small-scale topographical features are resolved. This leads to a demand for computationally efficient models, where such a high resolution can be feasibly applied in simulations of 105–107 years in duration. Here, we present and evaluate a new ice-sheet model that solves the hybrid SIA–SSA approximation of the stress balance, including a heuristic rule for the grounding-line flux. This is done on a dynamic adaptive mesh which is adapted to the modelled ice-sheet geometry during a simulation. Mesh resolution can be configured to be fine only at specified areas, such as the calving front or the grounding line, as well as specified point locations such as ice-core drill sites. This strongly reduces the number of grid points where the equations need to be solved, increasing the computational efficiency. A high resolution allows the model to resolve small geometrical features, such as outlet glaciers and sub-shelf pinning points, which can significantly affect large-scale ice-sheet dynamics. We show that the model reproduces the analytical solutions or model intercomparison benchmarks for a number of schematic ice-sheet configurations, indicating that the numerical approach is valid. Because of the unstructured triangular mesh, the number of vertices increases less rapidly with resolution than in a square-grid model, greatly reducing the required computation time for high resolutions. A simulation of all four continental ice sheets during an entire 120 kyr glacial cycle, with a 4 km resolution near the grounding line, is expected to take 100–200 wall clock hours on a 16-core system (1600–3200 core hours), implying that this model can be feasibly used for high-resolution palaeo-ice-sheet simulations.
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Vettoretti, G., W. R. Peltier y N. A. McFarlane. "Global water balance and atmospheric water vapour transport at last glacial maximum: climate simulations with the Canadian Climate Centre for Modelling and Analysis atmospheric general circulation model". Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 37, n.º 5 (1 de mayo de 2000): 695–723. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/e99-092.
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A series of new simulations of the climate state at last glacial maximum has been performed using the Canadian second-generation atmospheric general circulation model and are described herein. The primary goal has been to assess the dynamic changes in the global water balance and water vapour transport that were characteristic of the climate state during this epoch of Earth's history. We pay special attention to comparisons of the atmospheric model simulations of last glacial maximum climate with those produced with a much simpler coupled energy balance-ice-sheet model, which has been designed to simulate the late Pleistocene cycle of glacial-interglacial ice volume variations. Our analyses, using the atmospheric model, demonstrate that the vigour of the hydrological cycle was markedly decreased under last glacial maximum conditions, as would be expected on the simplest thermodynamic grounds. The primary components of the hydrological cycle in the atmospheric model, namely precipitation and evaporation, constitute essential mechanisms that control ice-sheet mass balance. We also investigate changes in the Northern Hemisphere stationary wave patterns, as well as changes in the total and eddy moisture transport by the global circulation at last glacial maximum to illustrate the role played by the dynamics of the atmosphere in the maintenance of the Northern Hemisphere ice sheets. In particular, we find that the enhancement of the stationary wave pattern along with the convergence in atmospheric water vapour transport produces increased cooling and snow accumulation at last glacial maximum over the southeastern lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. This suggests an explanation for the previously unexplained extension of these lobes deep into the New England states.