Literatura académica sobre el tema "Conditions de validité du contrat"

L'imputation de la responsabilité des pertes et dommages subis par la cargaison des navires dans les ports québécois est une question non encore tranchée. Le problème se complique du fait de l'introduction, dans la plupart des contrats de transport maritime international par connaissement, de la clause dite « Himalaya ». Cette clause représente à peu près en common law l'équivalent de la stipulation pour autrui. La validité de ces clauses a souvent été contestée avec succès devant les tribunaux de plusieurs pays, notamment de Grande-Bretagne, des États-Unis et du Canada. Par ailleurs, en droit civil, si la stipulation pour autrui est admise, ce n'est qu'à titre d'exception et sous des conditions très précises. L'auteur recense la jurisprudence des pays de common law relativement à la clause Himalaya, et examine ensuite la validité de cette clause en droit civil à titre de stipulation pour autrui. Il traite également du contrat de porte fort, et de la validité des clauses de non-responsabilité en cas de faute lourde. Enfin, il analyse cinq décisions québécoises récentes, ainsi qu'une importante décision de la High Court australienne.

Malgré les efforts déployés par le législateur lors de la réforme du Code civil du Québec, la notion d'ordre public demeure vague, floue et difficile à définir en des termes précis. La disparition de la notion de bonnes moeurs n'a pas en effet réglé toutes les questions controversées soulevées sous l'empire de l'ancien Code civil ni dissipé toute la confusion qui régnait. Certaines questions se posent toujours relativement à la distinction entre l'ordre public de direction et l'ordre public de protection, entre l'ordre public économique et l’ordre public politique et social, ainsi qu'au sujet des sanctions applicables en cas de violation d'une disposition d'ordre public en vigueur au moment de la formation du contrat ou d'une disposition qui prend effet alors que le contrat est déjà formé et en cours d'exécution. Les nouvelles dispositions traitant de l'ordre public, malgré leur multiplication et leur précision, n'apportent pas de réponses claires quant à leur applicabilité rétroactive, quant aux effets particuliers qu'engendre la nullité absolue qui frappe un contrat fait en violation de ces dispositions, ni quant aux conditions de la validité d'une renonciation à une règle d'ordre public. La doctrine et les tribunaux conservent leur rôle traditionnel, leur intervention étant toujours requise pour clarifier certaines ambiguïtés persistantes et pour répondre à certaines interrogations qui surgissent dans des situations tout à fait exceptionnelles et imprévisibles à la suite de la réforme du Code civil du Québec.

La grande récession a relativement peu frappé la France mais le pays n’a connu ensuite qu’une reprise faible et tardive. Malgré le ralentissement de la productivité, le taux de chômage reste élevé ainsi que les différentes formes de sous-emploi. La récession a accentué le développement des emplois de très courte durée et, de ce fait, des inégalités de revenu salarial. La politique de l’emploi, qui traditionnellement donnait priorité aux catégories les plus défavorisées sur le marché du travail, a connu un redéploiement de ses ressources en faveur des mesures d’abaissement du coût du travail pour les entreprises. Les réformes des institutions du marché du travail ont touché principalement, en premier lieu, la représentativité des organisations patronales et syndicales et les conditions de validité des accords collectifs; en second lieu, la hiérarchie des normes de la relation d’emploi; en troisième lieu, les modes de représentation des salariés dans l’entreprise; en quatrième lieu, les conditions de rupture du contrat de travail.

Afin de clarifier la question délicate de la validité d’un contrat d’assurance portant sur une activité illicite, nous nous proposons de passer en revue les notions d’objet et de cause du contrat d’assurance et les principes qui gouvernent la nullité du contrat à l’aube de l’entrée en vigueur du Livre 5 du nouveau Code civil.

Si le concept de « contrat psychologique » est désormais largement répandu dans la littérature, les instruments de sa mesure font encore défaut. Rousseau a proposé en 1990 le Psychological Contract Index (PCI), qu’elle a actualisé en 1998-2000. Cet article vise à adapter cet outil en France et à le compléter en testant deux mesures de la réalisation du contrat psychologique : une mesure directe et une mesure soustractive. Il pose aussi le problème de la mesure de la réciprocité propre au contrat psychologique et s’appuie sur le modèle de Morrison et Robinson pour tester une relation modératrice entre les scores de réalisation de l’entreprise et ceux de l’employé. Les résultats d’une enquête menée auprès de 217 cadres français confirment partiellement les hypothèses de l’auteure. Ils montrent que la structure factorielle du PCI manque de stabilité et doit faire l’objet de nouvelles recherches quant à sa validité : 14 facteurs sont identifiés au lieu des sept avancés par Rousseau dans le PCI. Conformément aux hypothèses posées, c’est la mesure directe de la réalisation du contrat qui démontre la meilleure validité. En outre, l’auteur valide le rôle modérateur de la réalisation du contrat psychologique par le salarié.

Malgré le caractère semi-urbain de plusieurs réserves indiennes au Québec, les Indiens ont souvent le statut de locataires. Puisque les réserves sont des terres de compétence fédérale en vertu de l’article 91(24) de la Loi constitutionnelle de 1867, les règles de droit provincial portant sur le bail résidentiel ne peuvent recevoir application. La Loi sur les Indiens établit qui a le droit de possession ou d’occupation d’une terre de réserve indienne et la validité de tout bail résidentiel est soumise aux conditions impératives de cette loi. Alors que le législateur provincial ajoute au contrat de louage un certain nombre de dispositions impératives permettant au locataire et à ses parents d’être maintenus dans les lieux, le Parlement veut exclure de la réserve toutes les personnes sauf celles qui ont droit d’y être. Le Code civil et la Loi sur la Régie du logement ne peuvent donc venir ajouter aux conditions posées par la Loi sur les Indiens afin de déterminer qui a le droit d’être en possession d’une résidence située sur réserve, ni créer des droits de résidence qui ne sont pas autorisés par la Loi sur les Indiens. Seules les règles du Code civil régissant à la fois le bail mobilier et le bail immobilier pourraient être applicables sur réserve à titre de règles générales portant sur l’acte de contracter un bail. Pourtant, même ces règles ne devraient s’appliquer que sous réserve des règles impératives créées par la Loi sur les Indiens. Par ailleurs, la Régie du logement n’est pas compétente pour juger d’un litige portant sur un logement situé sur une réserve car elle doit appliquer l’ensemble des règles établies par le Code civil du Québec et par sa loi constitutive mais elle n’est pas compétente pour appliquer la Loi sur les Indiens.

Résumé L’étude de la portée du contrat d’insertion du Revenu minimum d’insertion (RMI) permet d’appréhender les relations des populations vulnérables avec les institutions de l’État social, notamment avec la norme d’autonomie individuelle qu’il cherche de plus en plus à promouvoir. À partir d’enquêtes par entretiens semi-directifs réalisées de 2005 à 2007 auprès de plus de 70 allocataires vivant dans la région de Paris en France et ayant un contrat d’insertion en cours de validité, cet article élabore une typologie des relations des allocataires du RMI avec cet instrument et explore les relations entre les deux acceptions qui peuvent être données à l’autonomie des pauvres.

La recherche en stratégie et management fait un large usage des théories de l’entreprise d’inspiration économique. Ces théories privilégient des aspects de contrat, de transaction ou de compétence dont l’importance est incontestable. Mais ces lectures ne sauraient épuiser la compréhension de l’émergence et de la construction des entreprises. La théorie de l’entreprise fondée sur le Projet ne vise pas directement à les critiquer (voice) ou les rejeter (exit) dès lors que l’on accepte leur propre domaine de validité (loyalty). Elle propose d’adopter une posture théorique englobante porteuse d’une fécondité interprétative indispensable pour aborder les questions d’entreprise et de management.

The administrative contract is the tool used by the administration to maintain the continuity of the public facility and its steady progress in order to meet the needs of citizens, in way would achieve the public interest. The administrative contract consists of procedures paving the way for its conclusion, represented by the administrative decisions issued by this department with the public authority it has in accordance with the laws and regulations. These decisions are part of and component of the administrative contract. Therefore, the elements of the administrative contract are; that the public authority is one of its parties, the contract relates to a public facility service, and the contract should be subject to public law. However, the conditions of validity of the contract are; the administration shall abide by the laws and regulations in selecting the contractor, the administrative contract includes contractual and regulatory provisions and, and the public person has a generic feature throughout the life of an administrative contract. Key words; administrative law, administrative decision, elements of administrative law, conditions of validity of administrative contract, legal system of administrative law, conclusion of the administrative contract

L'expression « contrat portant sur une chose future » signifie que les contractants peuvent valablement stipuler que la chose due sera future ; ils peuvent ainsi contracter sur une chose corporelle ou incorporelle qui n'existe pas encore, du moins dans son entièreté. Depuis la vente romaine de chose future, les contrats portant sur une chose future se sont diversifiés. La pratique de ces contrats est devenue courante en raison de leur importance économique. Prenant la mesure de cette diversité et de cette richesse, la réflexion sur le contrat portant sur une chose future a été envisagée sous le propos de théorie générale.Les contrats portant sur une chose future sont des figures familières sans que l'on les remarque forcément. Il convenait de les identifier dans un premier temps. Ce qui les caractérise et que l'on voit rapidement est que, chacun de ces contrats suppose une chose future qui en constitue l'objet ; la présente étude en propose une définition claire et distincte. Ce que l'on perçoit peut-être moins à l'analyse de ces contrats et qui, pourtant, leur est caractéristique, est qu'ils sont toujours des contrats commutatifs et non des contrats aléatoires. Ce trait montre que la théorie romaine de la vente de chose future, telle qu'elle a été toujours présentée, doit être utilisée aujourd'hui avec beaucoup de précautions pour expliquer tout le mécanisme du contrat portant sur une chose future.L'identification du contrat portant sur une chose future s'est poursuivie avec une référence à l'anticipation. Celle-ci est une explication doctrinale de l'article 1130 ancien, alinéa 1er, du Code civil qui disposait : « L'obligation peut avoir pour objet une chose future. » Elle explique aujourd'hui encore, après la réforme du droit des contrats, le nouvel article 1163, alinéa 1er. Ces trois références ou critères (la chose future, l'absence d'aléa et l'anticipation) ont permis d'identifier, d'un côté, les contrats spéciaux portant sur une chose future et, de l'autre côté, les sûretés conventionnelles portant sur une chose future.Après identification des divers contrats portant sur une chose future, il importait d'étudier leur régime juridique dans un second temps. Le contrat portant sur une chose future se distingue par deux règles communes et spécifiques : d'abord la naissance à la charge du débiteur d'une obligation préalable de faire consistant à faire advenir la chose promise en participant à sa création ou en exécutant un autre contrat ; et ensuite, la naissance au profit du créancier d'un droit éventuel, qui est le droit pur et simple en germe. En outre, la plupart des développements sur la validité et sur l'inexécution du contrat portant sur une chose future relèvent du droit commun du contrat. Les problématiques abordées n’ont pas permis de relever des spécificités tenant à l'aspect chose future, objet de la prestation.Sur le plan de la notion et du régime, il y a au total cinq critères et règles communs sur lesquels on peut s'appuyer pour parler de théorie générale du contrat portant sur une chose future
The expression "contract relating to a future thing" means that the contracting parties may validly stipulate that the thing due will be future; they may thus contract on a tangible or intangible thing that does not yet exist, at least in its entirety. Since the Roman sale of a future thing, contracts relating to a future thing have diversified. The practice of these contracts has become commonplace because of their economic importance. Taking the measure of this diversity and richness, reflection on the contract for a future thing has been considered under the heading of general theory. Contracts relating to a future thing are familiar figures without necessarily being noticed. It was necessary to identify them first of all. What characterizes them, and what is quickly apparent, is that each of these contracts presupposes a future thing which constitutes their object; this study proposes a clear and distinct definition of them. What is perhaps less obvious from an analysis of these contracts, and yet characteristic of them, is that they are always commutative contracts and not random contracts. This feature shows that the Roman theory of the sale of a future thing, as it has always been presented, must be used today with great care to explain the whole mechanism of the contract for a future thing. The identification of the contract relating to a future thing continued with a reference to anticipation. This is a doctrinal explanation of former article 1130, paragraph 1, of the Civil Code, which provided: "The subject-matter of an obligation may be a future thing". It explains even today, after the reform of the law of contract, the new article 1163, paragraph 1. These three references or criteria (the future thing, the absence of contingency and anticipation) have made it possible to identify, on the one hand, special contracts relating to a future thing and, on the other hand, contractual securities relating to a future thing. Once the various contracts relating to a future thing had been identified, it was important to study their legal regime in a second stage. A contract relating to a future thing is distinguished by two common and specific rules: first, the debtor is under a prior obligation to do something which consists in making the promised thing happen by participating in its creation or by executing another contract; and second, the creditor has a possible right, which is the pure and simple right in germ, in favour of the creditor. Moreover, most of the developments on the validity and non-performance of a contract relating to a future thing fall under the general law of contract. The problems discussed did not make it possible to identify any specific features relating to the aspect of the future thing, the object of the service.In terms of the concept and the regime, there are a total of five common criteria and rules on which to base a general theory of the contract relating to a thing in the future

Our new civil code gives a new meaning to the cosmetic surgery contract. Given that this medical agreement is innominate, we believe that it is essentially a contract for services. Yet what makes it distinctive is the fact that the surgeon operates on a healthy organ. Cosmetic surgery is not a vital necessity but instead is based entirely on aesthetic appearances. In this light, the validation of the contract is handled very differently from a traditional medical contract. The goal of the cosmetic surgery contract is to render surgical services for the purpose of relieving the distress caused by a physical deformity. The capacity to exercise and consent is very restrictive in this field, a factor that is dictated by the non-urgent nature of the surgery and the fact that it leaves permanent results. We can conclude that consent in cosmetic care surgery requires the complete disclosure of risks and obliges the surgeon to refuse the surgery if the risks are disproportionate with its benefits.

L'affectio societatis demeure une notion utile. Les magistrats et les auteurs tiennent compte de la présence de l'affectio societatis pour déterminer la nullité, la fictivité et la qualification de "société" ou d'"associé". Dépassant le simple consentement à un contrat, l'affectio societatis est un criterium utilisé sur deux plans. D'un côté, l'affectio societatis est un critère de validité des structures sociales. En son absence, la nullité de la société peut être prononcée et la fictivité du groupement peut être reconnue. A l'opposé, sa présence rend plus que douteux la validité des sociétés créées en sommeil. D'un autre côté, l'affectio societatis est un critère de qualification du contrat. Premièrement, elle intervient afin d'établir l'existence de sociétés dépourvues de personnalité morale. Deuxièmement, elle intervient afin de distinguer la société d'autres formes de propriété commune (indivision), de groupements (association, G.I.E., syndicat) ou de contrats (travail, prêt, bail, vente, mandat, franchise, concession, croupier, entreprise, édition, collaboration). La caractéristique malléable de l'affectio societatis n'empêchant pas nécessairement de la circonscrire, une proposition de définition peut être faite : l'affectio societatis est la volonté d'intégrer un groupement, doté ou non de la personnalité juridique, et dans lequel chacun collaborera activement avec les autres membres ou organes à la marche de l'affaire, à la réalisation d'un objectif économique nouveau et commun, en même temps que chacun contribuera aux risques de l'entreprise
The affectio societatis remains a useful notion. The judges and the authors take into account its presence to determine the nullity, the fictivité and the qualification of "company" or "partner". The affectio societatis is a criterium used on two plans. On one side, the affectio societatis is a criterion of validity of the social orders. In its absence, the nullity of the company can be pronounced and the fictivité of the grouping can be recognized. In contrast, its presence returns more than doubtful the validity of companies created in sleep. On the other hand, the affectio societatis is a criterion of qualification of the contract. In the first place, it intervenes to establish the existence of companies devoid of moral personality. Secondly, it intervenes to distinguish the company of the other forms of common property, groupings (association, G.I.E., syndicate) or of contracts (work, loan, lease, sale, mandate, franchising, concession, enterprise, publishing, collaboration). The moldable characteristic of the affectio societatis not preventing inevitably from confining it, a proposition of definition can be made : the affectio societatis is the will to integrate a group, endowed or not with the legal personality and in whom each will collaborate actively with the other members or the organs in the march of the business, in the realization of a new and common economic objective, at the same time as each will contribute to the risks of the company

L'élastographie par résonance magnétique (ERM) est une technique d'imagerie, reconnue comme une méthode pertinente pour la caractérisation mécanique des tissus humains in vivo. Celle-ci représente un intérêt fondamental en diagnostic clinique car le développement d'un processus pathologique s'accompagne la plupart du temps d'altérations des propriétés mécaniques des tissus atteints. L'ERM consiste à enregistrer le champ de déplacement induit au passage d'une onde de cisaillement généré dans le milieu étudié. Les paramètres mécaniques comme la vitesse, v, et les modules de viscoélasticité de cisaillement, G' et G'', peuvent être cartographiés. La quantification des paramètres mécaniques dépend à la fois de la fréquence mécanique, fexc, de la taille de voxel, a, de l'amplitude des champs de déplacement induits, A, de l'amplitude du rotationnel du champ de déplacement, q, des erreurs de mesure, ΔA et Δq, donc du rapport signal à bruit, RSB, et enfin de la méthode de reconstruction. En inversant les équations différentielles du champ de déplacement acquis selon les trois dimensions de l'espace, ces paramètres ont été considérés pour déterminer la précision et l'exactitude des modules mécaniques obtenus et établir les conditions de validité de l'ERM. Dans cette thèse, nous avons tout d'abord considéré A et A/ΔA afin de définir un premier seuil de validité pour l'ERM. Nous avons étudié l'influence de ces deux paramètres sur un fantôme hétérogène dans un appareil IRM 1,5 T avec deux types d'antennes. Dans une première étude, les champs de déplacement ont été acquis en fonction de A en utilisant deux séquences écho de spin (RFE) et écho de gradient (FFE) sensibilisées au mouvement pour une taille de voxel isotrope de 1 mm. Dans une seconde étude, ils ont été acquis en RFE en fonction de A pour trois résolutions spatiales différentes. Ces études ont révélé l'existence d'un seuil en A/ΔA au-delà duquel les paramètres extraits (G', G'') atteignent un plateau et l'ERM est fiable. Nous avons ensuite considéré le nombre de voxel par longueur d'onde, λ/a, comme paramètre déterminant des conditions de validité de l'ERM et nous avons caractérisé la qualité des données acquises par le rapport q/Δq. Sur des simulaitons dans un milieu élastique, homogène et isotrope avec un RSB variant entre 5 et 30, la précision et l'exactitude des mesures se sont avérées optimales pour 6 à 9 voxels par longueur d'onde. Nous avons reproduit expérimentalement à 2 kHz les conditions des siimulations sur un fantôme de PVA. Les champs de déplacement ont été acquis à 11,7 T en utilisant une séquence RFE sensibilisée au mouvement pour des résolutions spatiales de 150 μm à 300 μm afin de balayer le rapport λ/a de 1 à 20. Les résultats expérimentaux confirment pleinement les prédictions de la simulation. La vitesse de cisaillement diminue et tend vers la vitesse de référence attendue lorsque l'acquisition est réalisée dans le domaine optimal, à savoir ici lorsque a est inférieure ou égale à 200 μm. En outre la dispersion de la vitesse est réduite dans le domaine optimal et des estimations plus précises des paramètres mécaniques ont pu être déduites. Cette thèse montre d'une part que la précision et l'exactitude de l'ERM sont optimales lorsque les acquisitions sont réalisées ou traitées pour un domaine d'échantillonnage de la longueur d'onde déterminé par le RSB. Elle montre d'autre part que la comparaison des résultats obtenus doit être menée dans une gamme similaire de q/Δq. La prise en compte des conditions de validité de l'ERM, déterminées par les rapports λ/a et q/Δq, conduit à une mesure quantitative effective des paramètres mécaniques. Il est ainsi possible d'envisager un diagnostic clinique pertinent au sein d'un même organe, d'un même sujet, entre sujets ou au cours du temps
Magnetic Resonance Elastography (MRE) is a imaging technique, recognized as a pertinent method for the mechanical characterization of human tissue in vivo. It offersa particular interest in clinical diagnosis because the development of a pathological process is often accompanied by modifications of the mechanical properties of diseased tissues. MRE consists of recording, along the three spatial dimensions, the displacement field induced by the propagation of a shear wave generated by excitation of the investigated tissue. Mechanical parameters such as shear wave velocity, v, and shear moduli, G' and G'', can then be mapped. The quantification of the mechanical parameters depends on the frequency of the mechanical excitation, fexc, the spatial resolution, a, the amplitude of the induced displacement field, A and the amplitude of the curl field displacement, q, with associated measurement errors, ΔA and Δq, (related to the signal-to-noise ratio, SNR) and finally the reconstruction method. All these parameters were considered to determine the precision and the accuracy of the estimated mechanical moduli and to establish the conditions of validity of MRE following the inversion of the differential equations of the displacement field. In this work, first A and A/ΔA were considered to define a validity threshold for MRE. The influence of A and A/ΔA was studied on a heterogeneous phantom acquired using a 1.5 T MRI with two different types of coils. In a first study, the displacement fields were acquired as a function of A using motion-sensitized spin-echo (REF) and gradient-echo (FFE) sequences for an isotropic spatial resolution of 1 mm. In a second study, the displacement field was acquired as a function of A using RFE for three different spatial resolutions. These studies revealed the existence of a threshold in A/ΔA beyond which the extracted parameters (G', G'') reach a plateau and the MRE is reliable. Then the number of voxels per wavelength, λ/a was considered as a parameter determining the conditions of validity of MRE. This parameter was studied according to the quality of the acquired data characterized by the ratio q//Δq. Simulations were carried in a homogeneous and isotropic elastic medium with a SNR between 5 and 30. The accuracy and the precision of the measurements were found optimal for 6 to 9 voxels per wavelength. The simulation conditions were experimentally reproduced at 2 kHz on a home-made polyvinyl alcohol phantom. The displacement fields were acquired at 11.7 T using a motion-sensitized RFE sequence with spatial resolutions ranging from 150 μm to 300 μm in order to obtain a λ/a ratio ranging from 1 to 20. The experimental results fully confirm the predictions of the simulation. The shear wave velocity decreases with λ/a. It tends towards the expected reference value when the acquisition is performed in the optimal condition, namely here when a is less than or equal to 200 μm. In addition, the standard deviation of the shear wave velocity is reduced for the optimal conditions. Therefore, accurate estimation of mechanical parameters could be deduced. This thesis first demonstrates that the precision and accuracy of MRE are optimal when the acquisitions are performed or processed for a certain wavelength sampling range determined by the SNR. We also showed that for fair comparison of the results, MRE must be carried out in a similar range of q/Δq. Taking into account the conditions of validity of MRE, determined by the ratios λ/a and q/Δq, leads to an effective quantitative measurement of the mechanical parameters making it possible to establish a relevant clinical diagnosis within the same organ, the same subject, between subjects or over time

La Thèse soutenue par Monsieur Jean-Bernard POURRE, le 30 septembre 2003, consacrée aux conditions de formation du contrat sur Internet se propose d’examiner comment se forme l’acte juridique qu’est le contrat au moyen d’Internet. Suivant l’analyse traditionnelle, cette thèse destinée aux praticiens présente selon deux parties, l’expression du consentement sur Internet, puis l’existence d’un échange de consentements. La première partie analyse les modalités d’expression du consentement au travers des instruments électroniques : l’offre et l’acceptation. La seconde partie, après avoir évoqué la question de la loi applicable à la validité et à la preuve du contrat développe la problématique du formalisme probatoire relatif au consentement et la validité de l’échange des consentements. La thèse s’attache particulièrement aux aspects techniques d’Internet et à la signature électronique tant comme moyen d’expression du consentement que comme élément de preuve de l’existence du consentement
The Thesis supported by Mr Jean Bernard POURRE, on September 30th 2003, devoted to the conditions of the formation of the contract on Internet proposes to examine how is formed the legal document which is the contract by means of Internet. According to the traditional analysis, this thesis intended for the experts present according to two parts, the expression of the consent on Internet, then the existence of an exchange of consents. The first part analyses the expression’s method of the consent through electronic instruments: the offer and acceptance. The second part, after having mentioned the question of the law applicable to the validity and the proof of the contract develops the problems of the proof formalism relating to the consent and the validity of the exchange of the consents. The thesis studies particularly to the technical aspects of Internet and the electronic signature as well like expression means of the consent as like proof of the existence of the consent

Au-delà des diversités de la notion, la condition est un élément essentiel. La condition de l'article 1168 qui intéresse les effets de l'obligation, se distingue de la condition constitutive qui en affecte l'existence. Son origine peut être contractuelle ou légale, implicite ou tacite. Elle est une notion fonctionnelle recherchée pour ses effets que déterminent sa forme suspensive ou résolutoire. Son domaine technique est délimite par les diverses espèces de condition et par le caractère futur et incertain de l'évènement. Les diverses espèces de conditions déterminent le domaine de l'obligation conditionnelle en tant que rapport juridique. La condition casuelle ne pose pas de difficulté particulière. En théorie la condition potestative se distingue du droit potestatif d'option et de l'exécution d'une obligation. Mais l'obligation conditionnelle peut être le pendant d'un droit d'option portant sur la formation du contrat, comme dans la promesse unilatérale. Certains droits d'option d'exécution, comme le droit de dédît ou de retour, mettent en œuvre une obligation conditionnelle. L'exécution ou l'inexécution d'une obligation contractuelle peut être une condition de certains effets du contrat ou d'un droit d'option, comme dans la clause de réserve de propriété ou la clause résolutoire. La condition mixte intervient dans les opérations juridiques triangulaires. L'intervention du tiers est une condition de la force obligatoire ou de l'opposabilité du contrat a son égard. Lorsque le contrat est soumis a l'autorisation obligatoire d'un tiers, la condition est le moyen technique permettant de surseoir a la réalisation de la formalité légale de validité. La technique de l'obligation conditionnelle, dans son sens restreint, révèle son utilité dans les prestations ayant par nature des effets futurs et incertains, comme l'obligation d'une chose future, le contrat aléatoire ou les obligations plurales par leurs objets ou leurs sujets
Beyond the various meanings of the concept of condition, this notion remains essential in contractual theorie. Under the article 1168, a condition produces its effets upon the obligation and disthinghishes itself from a constructive condition, affecting the existence of the obligation. Its origin may be contractual ou legal, implicit or tacit. This is a functional notion applied for its effects, determined by their resolutory or suspensive characters. Technically, this notion is delimited by the different categories of conditions and by occurance of a futur and uncertain event. The different conditions determine the very scope of an obligation. The fortuitous condition does not lead to particular problems. Theoretically, a potestative condition distinguishes itself from the potestative right of option and from the performance of an obligation as well. Homever, the conditional obligation may be the conterpart of an option right, underlying the formation of a contract, such as in the case of unilateral promise. Certain option rights of performance, such as the option of withdrawal or the right of reversion, involve a conditional obligation. Fulfillment or non-performance of a contractual obligation may condition certain effects of a contract or an option right, such as in the clause of reservation of property or in the resolutory clause. The mixted condition acts in triangular legal transactions. A third party intervening is a condition to the binding power or the opposability of a contract. When the contract is subject to an autorisation by a third party, the condition becommes a technical mean to put off the legal formality of validity. The conditional obligation, in its restricted sense, is all very useful in the cas of services witch have by essense futur and uncertain effects, such as the obligation of future thing, the aleatory contract or plural obligations by their subjects or their objects

La présente étude se propose de théoriser la pratique de l’entrée payante dans le contrat. Elle peut être envisagée comme l’obligation monétaire préalable et déterminante imposée à l’une des parties, conditionnant la conclusion d’un contrat. La réunion sous ce seul vocable d’un certain nombre d’obligations précontractuelles permet de dégager une vision unitaire de la question, avant de s’attacher à leurs particularités. L’entrée payante connaît, de fait, diverses manifestations et ses justifications le sont tout autant. « Engagement » ou « supplément », la validité de ces obligations interroge nécessairement au regard du principe de la liberté contractuelle. Si l’on ne peut nier l’existence d’instruments juridiques susceptibles d’en assurer le contrôle, ce dernier demeure néanmoins non efficient. Dès lors, doit être sérieusement envisagée la création d’une norme générale encadrant ces pratiques
This study intends to theorize the application of admission charge into contracts. It can be regarded as a preliminary and decisive monetary obligation imposed upon one of the parties, determining the finalization of the contract. The union of several pre-contractual duties under this sole term allows to put forward a unified vision of the question before going into particularities. De facto, admission charge is subject to various manifestations and so are its justifications. «Engagement» or «supplementary» pre-contractual monetary obligation issues continue to arise regarding the validity of these obligations in accordance with the principle of freedom of contract. While there can be no denying the existence of legal instruments likely to ensure its regulation, it remains inefficient nonetheless. Henceforth, creating a general standard to regulate such practices ought to be seriously considered

La téléréadaptation, une application de la télésanté, qui se définit par le suivi thérapeutique d'un patient par un clinicien via un lien Internet, est en pleine émergence au Québec et au Canada. Que ce soit pour procéder à une consultation ou pour prodiguer des traitements, il est inévitable pour le clinicien d'effectuer éventuellement une évaluation de la condition de l'usager. Actuellement, aucune étude ne s'est intéressée à l'évaluation physique d'une condition orthopédique d'un centre de services vers le domicile du patient. Le but de cette étude est de: Objectif 1. Démontrer la faisabilité d'une évaluation en téléréadaptation à l'aide de tests cliniques auprès de personnes présentant des conditions orthopédiques au membre inférieur pour les variables suivantes: état de la cicatrice, présence de signes inflammatoires (gonflement articulaire) et circulatoires, les amplitudes articulaires de la hanche et du genou (flexion et extension), la force globale aux membres inférieurs, la capacité de se mouvoir, la description de la marche ainsi que l'équilibre. Objectif 2. Comparer les données d'évaluation d'une condition orthopédique au membre inférieur prises par le physiothérapeute en téléréadaptation à celles recueillies par le physiothérapeute en observation face-à-face (mesure étalon). Matériel et méthodes. Il s'agit d'un devis de validité de critère où l'évaluation du physiothérapeute, réalisée au domicile du patient (mesure étalon), a été comparée à l'évaluation, des mêmes variables, effectuée en téléréadaptation à l'aide d'un système de visioconférence. L'étude a été effectuée auprès d'hommes et de femmes (n=17) en phase de réadaptation ayant une atteinte physique de type orthopédique affectant la fonction des membres inférieurs. Deux conditions expérimentales ont été exploitées. Un sous-groupe de notre échantillon (n=7) a été évalué dans un environnement contrôlé, soit sans la présence d'obstacles et avec une luminosité appropriée pour les systèmes de visioconférence. Concernant l'autre sous-groupe (n=1D), l'évaluation en téléréadaptation a été réalisée au domicile du patient dans des conditions réelles. L'intérêt de procéder aux évaluations dans deux environnements différents est pour mieux comprendre l'influence potentielle des environnements domiciliaires sur la faisabilité et la validité des tests inclus dans le protocole. Les tests physiques s'intéressaient à dix variables quantifiés à l'aide de sept outils de mesure soit: la cicatrice (New quantitative scale for clinical scar assessment), la mesure du gonflement au genou (bilan circonférentiel), l'amplitude articulaire à la hanche (flexion/extension) et au genou (flexion/extension) à l'aide du goniomètre universel, la force globale aux membres inférieurs (30-sec chair-stand test), la capacité de se mouvoir (Timed up and Go) et la description de la marche (test de Tinetti) ainsi que l'équilibre (test de Berg). Résultats. La comparaison entre les mesures en téléréadaptation et les valeurs étalons a montré d'excellents résultats (Rhô de Spearman) pour le gonflement articulaire (r s =.94), les amplitudes articulaires de la flexion de la hanche (r s =.93) et de la flexion du genou (r s =.82), la la capacité de se mouvoir (r s =.91), la description de la marche (r s =.88) et la force musculaire aux membres inférieurs (r s =.92). Par contre, l'évaluation de la cicatrice (r s =.56) et l'amplitude articulaire de l'extension de la hanche (r s =.19) et du genou (r s =.67) ont démontré des coefficients inférieurs. Un dernier test a présenté des résultats mitigés, soit celui de l'épreuve d'équilibre de Berg (r s =.79). Conclusion. Notre étude a permis de démontrer qu'avec une certaine adaptation, il est possible d'évaluer plusieurs variables cliniques importantes en téléréadaptation au même titre que si nous avions réalisé l'évaluation dans un mode conventionnel en face-à-face. Les coefficients de corrélation ne différaient pas même si le patient était évalué à son domicile ou dans un environnement propice à ce type d'évaluation. En effet, les coefficients de corrélation sont élevés (r s >.79) pour l'ensemble des variables cliniques à l'étude. Seulement l'évaluation de la cicatrice et la mesure de l'extension de la hanche ont obtenu des coefficients de validité sous le seuil clinique acceptable.

Après le contrat, que reste-t-il ? La réponse la plus spontanée est qu'il ne reste rien, sinon un souvenir évanescent et le retour à la liberté. Pourtant, l’étude du droit des contrats montre le contraire. L’extinction laisse subsister des intérêts économiques qui doivent être protégés. Il n’est d’ailleurs pas anodin de constater une prise de conscience des parties et des rédacteurs d’actes : un regain de prudence a commandé le développement des clauses postcontractuelles. Mais, même en l’absence de telles stipulations, une régulation existe, formant des après-contrats standardisés par le législateur, ou encadrés par le juge. Une véritable optimisation du droit de l’extinction est observable, dont le but est de maximiser les bénéfices apportés par l’exécution ou par l’effet extinctif, mais aussi de minimiser les risques succédant à l’extinction. Le contrat apparaît ainsi sous la forme d’une institution sociale devant prendre en compte le contexte dans lequel l’opération économique se développe, au service de la relation inter partes, laquelle transcende la seule durée de la convention. Soulignant la dimension relationnelle de la convention, l’après-contrat permet de remettre le contrat en perspective dans sa somme existentielle, c’est-à-dire en tant qu’expérience totalisant la période précontractuelle, l’exécution et le temps postcontractuel. Dans la compréhension de cette trilogie, le terme extinctif marque un repère qui tire son utilité d’une double nature : il clôt une durée (critère temporel) et signe un ordre de bouleversement dans le sort des obligations (critère substantiel)
Does anything remain after the end of a contract? Generally, we easily believe that the relationship between economic partners and the duration of their contract stop at the same time. But this belief is built on a simplistic vision of the real economic world. When the contract duration is over, some economic interest must be preserved. That is why wise partners anticipate a follow-up to the extinguished contract, by stipulating postcontractual obligations. But, even if there is no anticipation, a regulation does exist with standard legal rules or judges’ framework. A real optimization of the contract law is expanding, to maximize the benefits arising from the contractual experience and minimize the risks led by the postcontractual freedom. That is how the Contract shows a specific aspect: it becomes a social institution which considers its economic context, serving the relational dimension of the partnership. Definitely, the relationship between the partners can last above the duration of the contractual instrument. By this way, the post-contract put into perspective the contract in an existential addition which is composed of three parts: the precontractual, the execution and the postcontractual time periods. In this configuration, the term is seen as a mark which encloses a duration (temporal criterion) and turns the contractual obligation (substantial criterion). Indeed, the post-contract nature is dual, contractual and extracontractual at the same time. That is why we will treat our subject from both and complementary criterions, saying that the post-contract is a time period out of the contract, whereas it shows concurrently the contract out of its own duration

AbstractThe effectiveness of governance depends on the knowledge upon which decisions are based. Knowledge veracity is particularly significant when future conditions are uncertain. In the context of global climate change, communities around the world, including the residents of Rapa Nui (Easter Island, Chile), face tremendous uncertainty in resource availability. In the context of these looming challenges, prehistoric Rapa Nui is often treated as a warning about human-induced ecological catastrophe. With contemporary populations of the island wrestling about issues of governance, it is vital that researchers carefully validate their knowledge about the island’s past. Despite the claims of traditional narratives, new empirical research on Rapa Nui indicates that the traditional “collapse” narrative has no basis. Instead, the island is now known to have been sustainable from its prehistory until European contact. These findings point to the potential of alternative action models and new governance structures.

AbstractEnergy and fatigue carry important implications for vitality and overall quality of life. Lacking energy and experiencing fatigue can be both burdensome as well as adaptive. This chapter first classifies energy and fatigue and then reviews their measurement. This chapter closes with opportunities for future directions.Energy and fatigue are present under varying conditions including in daily performance, during and after acute physical or mental strain (capacity), and in the context of chronic conditions. Energy and fatigue have been measured both subjectively and objectively. Subjective outcomes can be derived from self-reported scales and prompts; objective outcomes may be derived from performance and capacity tasks and technology-reported physiological, biological, and behavioural markers. The scales and tasks employed to measure energy have been traditionally validated but may lack daily life context and ecological validity. Prompts and behavioural monitoring methods are emerging as promising alternatives.Energy and fatigue have also been routinely monitored for specific diseases and occupations. However, fewer studies monitor healthy individuals through consumer technology in daily life contexts. More research is needed for an objective, unobtrusive, longitudinal, and contextual measurement of energy and fatigue in the healthy general population, in service of improving health, wellbeing, and quality of life.

AbstractResearch conducted during epidemics may warrant adaptations or adaptive designs owing to practical constraints, time pressures, uncertainty, the importance of flexibility, and the potential for research to detract from epidemic response. Adapting research entails choosing different research designs or methods if research goals, contexts or constraints justify or require a different approach. Adaptive research, by contrast, is a type of research that prospectively plans for modifications after research has been initiated, while maintaining the validity and integrity of the research. While adaptation and adaptive designs introduce an important degree of flexibility to research conducted during epidemics and help to address research objectives and constraints, adaptation and adaptive designs require close ethical scrutiny and are no different from other research in that they are expected to align with universally accepted ethical standards. Important ethical questions exist regarding the conditions that justify adaptations to research, the kinds of adaptive research designs that can be ethically justified, and how ethics review bodies ought to evaluate such novel approaches to research in epidemic contexts. The five cases included in this chapter prompt reflection on the ethical considerations and implications of adapting research in response to epidemic-related risks and the public health measures deployed in response to those risks, as well as the ethical implications of not adapting research in such contexts. These cases also highlight ethical questions and issues arising during the conduct of adaptive trials, including when treatments under study, treatment doses, sample size, and other study features are reviewed in response to evolving evidence. This chapter invites reflection on these key ethical dimensions when considering adaptive designs and adaptations to standard research procedures during epidemics. What these cases make clear is that adaptive designs and adaptations to research do not reduce the need for rigorous scientific evaluation and adherence to universal ethical standards, and must be explicitly ethically justified and reviewed through transparent and inclusive processes.

AbstractGender equality is an increasingly topical issue, but it has deep historical roots. The principle of gender equality found its legitimacy, even if limited to salary, in the 1957 Treaty of Rome, establishing the European Economic Community (EEC). This treaty, in Article 119, sanctioned the principle of equal pay between male and female workers. The EEC continued to protect women’s rights in the 1970s through equal opportunity policies. These policies referred, first, to the principle of equal treatment between men and women regarding education, access to work, professional promotion, and working conditions (Directive 75/117/EEC); second, to the principle of equal pay for male and female workers (Directive 76/207/EEC); and finally, enshrined the principle of equal treatment between men and women in matters of social security (Directive 79/7/EEC). Since the 1980s, several positive action programmes have been developed to support the role of women in European society. Between 1982 and 2000, four multiyear action programmes were implemented for equal opportunities. The first action programme (1982–1985) called on the Member States, through recommendations and resolutions by the Commission, to disseminate greater knowledge of the types of careers available to women, encourage the presence of women in decision-making areas, and take measures to reconcile family and working life. The second action programme (1986–1990) proposed interventions related to the employment of women in activities related to new technologies and interventions in favour of the equal distribution of professional, family, and social responsibilities (Sarcina, 2010). The third action programme (1991–1995) provided an improvement in the condition of women in society by raising public awareness of gender equality, the image of women in mass media, and the participation of women in the decision-making process at all levels in all areas of society. The fourth action programme (1996–2000) strengthened the existing regulatory framework and focused on the principle of gender mainstreaming, a strategy that involves bringing the gender dimension into all community policies, which requires all actors in the political process to adopt a gender perspective. The strategy of gender mainstreaming has several benefits: it places women and men at the heart of policies, involves both sexes in the policymaking process, leads to better governance, makes gender equality issues visible in mainstream society, and, finally, considers the diversity among women and men. Among the relevant interventions of the 1990s, it is necessary to recall the Treaty of Maastricht (1992) which guaranteed the protection of women in the Agreement on Social Policy signed by all Member States (except for Great Britain), and the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997), which formally recognised gender mainstreaming. The Treaty of Amsterdam includes gender equality among the objectives of the European Union (Article 2) and equal opportunity policies among the activities of the European Commission (Article 3). Article 13 introduces the principle of non-discrimination based on gender, race, ethnicity, religion, or handicaps. Finally, Article 141 amends Article 119 of the EEC on equal treatment between men and women in the workplace. The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the Nice Union of 2000 reaffirms the prohibition of ‘any discrimination based on any ground such as sex’ (Art. 21.1). The Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union also recognises, in Article 23, the principle of equality between women and men in all areas, including employment, work, and pay. Another important intervention of the 2000s is the Lisbon strategy, also known as the Lisbon Agenda or Lisbon Process. It is a reform programme approved in Lisbon by the heads of state and governments of the member countries of the EU. The goal of the Lisbon strategy was to make the EU the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy by 2010. To achieve this goal, the strategy defines fields in which action is needed, including equal opportunities for female work. Another treaty that must be mentioned is that of Lisbon in 2009, thanks to which previous treaties, specifically the Treaty of Maastricht and the Treaty of Rome, were amended and brought together in a single document: the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Thanks to the Lisbon Treaty, the Charter of Fundamental Rights has assumed a legally binding character (Article 6, paragraph 1 of the TEU) both for European institutions and for Member States when implementing EU law. The Treaty of Lisbon affirms the principle of equality between men and women several times in the text and places it among the values and objectives of the union (Articles 2 and 3 of the TEU). Furthermore, the Treaty, in Art. 8 of the TFEU, states that the Union’s actions are aimed at eliminating inequalities, as well as promoting equality between men and women, while Article 10 of the TFEU provides that the Union aims to ‘combat discrimination based on sex, racial or ethnic origin, religion or belief, disability, age, or sexual orientation’. Concerning the principle of gender equality in the workplace, the Treaty, in Article 153 of the TFEU, asserts that the Union pursues the objective of equality between men and women regarding labour market opportunities and treatment at work. On the other hand, Article 157 of the TFEU confirms the principle of equal pay for male and female workers ‘for equal work or work of equal value’. On these issues, through ordinary procedures, the European Parliament and the Council may adopt appropriate measures aimed at defending the principle of equal opportunities and equal treatment for men and women. The Lisbon Treaty also includes provisions relating to the fight against trafficking in human beings, particularly women and children (Article 79 of the TFEU), the problem of domestic violence against women (Article 8 of the TFEU), and the right to paid maternity leave (Article 33). Among the important documents concerning gender equality is the Roadmap (2006–2010). In 2006, the European Commission proposed the Roadmap for equality between women and men, in addition to the priorities on the agenda, the objectives, and tools necessary to achieve full gender equality. The Roadmap defines six priority areas, each of which is associated with a set of objectives and actions that makes it easier to achieve them. The priorities include equal economic independence for women and men, reconciliation of private and professional life, equal representation in the decision-making process, eradication of all forms of gender-based violence, elimination of stereotypes related to gender, and promotion of gender equality in external and development policies. The Commission took charge of the commitments included in the Roadmap, which were indirectly implemented by the Member States through the principle of subsidiarity and the competencies provided for in the Treaties (Gottardi, 2013). The 2006–2010 strategy of the European Commission is based on a dual approach: on the one hand, the integration of the gender dimension in all community policies and actions (gender mainstreaming), and on the other, the implementation of specific measures in favour of women aimed at eliminating inequalities. In 2006, the European Council approved the European Pact for Gender Equality which originated from the Roadmap. The European Pact for Gender Equality identified three macro areas of intervention: measures to close gender gaps and combat gender stereotypes in the labour market, measures to promote a better work–life balance for both women and men, and measures to strengthen governance through the integration of the gender perspective into all policies. In 2006, Directive 2006/54/EC of the European Parliament and Council regulated equal opportunities and equal treatment between male and female workers. Specifically, the Directive aims to implement the principle of equal treatment related to access to employment, professional training, and promotion; working conditions, including pay; and occupational social security approaches. On 21 September 2010, the European Commission adopted a new strategy to ensure equality between women and men (2010–2015). This new strategy is based on the experience of Roadmap (2006–2010) and resumes the priority areas identified by the Women’s Charter: equal economic independence, equal pay, equality in decision-making, the eradication of all forms of violence against women, and the promotion of gender equality and women’s empowerment beyond the union. The 2010–2015 Strategic Plan aims to improve the position of women in the labour market, but also in society, both within the EU and beyond its borders. The new strategy affirms the principle that gender equality is essential to supporting the economic growth and sustainable development of each country. In 2010, the validity of the Lisbon Strategy ended, the objectives of which were only partially achieved due to the economic crisis. To overcome this crisis, the Commission proposed a new strategy called Europe 2020, in March 2010. The main aim of this strategy is to ensure that the EU’s economic recovery is accompanied by a series of reforms that will increase growth and job creation by 2020. Specifically, Europe’s 2020 strategy must support smart, sustainable, and inclusive growth. To this end, the EU has established five goals to be achieved by 2020 and has articulated the different types of growth (smart, sustainable, and inclusive) in seven flagship initiatives. Among the latter, the initiative ‘an agenda for new skills and jobs’, in the context of inclusive growth, is the one most closely linked to gender policies and equal opportunities; in fact, it substantially aims to increase employment rates for women, young, and elderly people. The strategic plan for 2010–2015 was followed by a strategic commitment in favour of gender equality 2016–2019, which again emphasises the five priority areas defined by the previous plan. Strategic commitment, which contributes to the European Pact for Gender Equality (2011–2020), identifies the key actions necessary to achieve objectives for each priority area. In March 2020, the Commission presented a new strategic plan for equality between women and men for 2020–2025. This strategy defines a series of political objectives and key actions aimed at achieving a ‘union of equality’ by 2025. The main objectives are to put an end to gender-based violence and combat sexist stereotypes, ensure equal opportunities in the labour market and equal participation in all sectors of the economy and political life, solve the problem of the pay and pension gap, and achieve gender equality in decision-making and politics. From the summary of the regulatory framework presented, for the European Economic Community first, then for the European Community, and finally for the European Union, gender equality has always been a fundamental value. Interest in the issues of the condition of women and equal opportunities has grown over time and during the process of European integration, moving from a perspective aimed at improving the working conditions of women to a new dimension to improve the life of the woman as a person, trying to protect her not only professionally but also socially, and in general in all those areas in which gender inequality may occur. The approach is extensive and based on legislation, the integration of the gender dimension into all policies, and specific measures in favour of women. From the non-exhaustive list of the various legislative interventions, it is possible to note a continuous repetition of the same thematic priorities which highlights, on the one hand, the poor results achieved by the implementation of the policies, but, on the other hand, the Commission’s willingness to pursue the path initially taken. Among the achievements in the field of gender equality obtained by the EU, there is certainly an increase in the number of women in the labour market and the acquisition of better education and training. Despite progress, gender inequalities have persisted. Even though women surpass men in terms of educational attainment, gender gaps still exist in employment, entrepreneurship, and public life (OECD, 2017). For example, in the labour market, women continue to be overrepresented in the lowest-paid sectors and underrepresented in top positions (according to the data released in the main companies of the European Union, women represent only 8% of CEOs).

Abstract The previous chapter examined the conditions under which the parties to an international transaction may express a choice of law or forum. As has been shown, the conditions are set by the law of each national forum, but there is a high degree of consensus as to what those conditions should be. The next question is the efficacy and validity of the choice. Assuming that the law of the forum permits the choice and that the condition of internationality of the transaction and the requirement of a choice of a living national legal system are satisfied, and there are no reasons of public policy or mandatory law in the international sense for the forum to avoid the choice, it may still occur that the choice made by the parties fails.

Abstract This chapter expounds on the validity of the contract. According to the Civil Code’s 1128 article, three conditions are required for a contract to be considered valid. The conditions are as such: the genuine and free consent of the parties, the parties’ capacity to enter the contract, and the lawful and certain content of the contract. Non-fulfilment of the requirements are mostly defects such as duress, fraud, mistakes, party consent, illegality, and uncertainty to the contract’s contents. Additionally, the 2016 reforms primarily codified established principles to improve clarity, certainty, and predictability. Reformed articles showcase notable features such as defects in consent, mistake, and fraudulent non-disclosure.

This chapter examines how English law defines breach of contract and what the immediate effect of breach is on the validity of the contract, along with the obligations of the parties under the contract. It first considers the core principles underlying the law’s approach to defining breach before explaining how the courts assess performance and the consequences of breach, with particular emphasis on cases involving repudiation. It then discusses three types or classes of contractual terms: conditions, warranties, and innominate terms. It also looks at how the law deals with situations of anticipatory breach and concludes with an analysis of the scope and limits of the right of a party to terminate the contract following a repudiatory breach by the other party.

Electronic agreement means an agreement concluded at a distance electronically, using electronic means. However, electronic means are used not only to conclude a contract, but also to negotiate and agree on its content and elements or to effect its implementation and execution. Modern societies are based on an economic system that is mainly based on contracts. In the conditions of development of globalization and digital economy, industry and service activities are focused on the achievements and advantages provided by the information society. However, without trust in electronically concluded contracts, new economies will not be able to realize their full potential and will lag behind the opportunities offered by new technologies. Therefore, it remains either to increase confidence in the technical possibilities and validity of the electronic contract or to find a completely new concept for regulating the exchange of goods and services within the new digital era. In any case, it is easier and more acceptable to create technical solutions for the legal validity of E-contracts in order to redefine legal contractual mechanisms that have been operating successfully for decades and centuries.

In this paper a conditional Extended Kalman Filter is applied to battery model parameter and state estimations. A decision logic, based on battery input and output data, is designed such that parameter update is stopped when persistent excitation conditions are not met. Persistent excitation conditions are represented by a simpler, easier to implement set of calibrations. Examples, both from desktop simulation, and real world vehicle testing, have been provided to support the validity of this algorithm. The proposed strategy has been successfully deployed in production FHEV/PHEV vehicles.

In the current ASME code procedure for the design of the gasketed bolted joints, the concept of the effective width is introduced to take into account the effect of the non-uniform gasket contact stress distribution. The code fixes a threshold value of the gasket width above which an adjustment of the gasket contact width is introduced. The validity of this threshold has never been verified. Under the normal operating conditions of flanges used with flat gaskets, the definition of this threshold is independent of the bolt load, the average gasket stress, the internal pressure and the flexibility of the joint. In this paper a study on the new limits of the concept of the effective gasket width is conducted. A new approach for the calculation of the effective gasket width, based on the results of an experimental investigation and undertaken in parallel to a numerical study, is presented. This approach takes into account the non-uniform distribution of the gasket stress, the flexibility of the flanges, the mechanical behavior and the sealing performance of the assembly.

The assessment of the seismic scrammability, which means the control rod insertability during a seismic event, is one of the most important design tasks for ensuring the seismic safety of nuclear power plants in Japan. This paper discusses the dynamic modeling of the control rod insertion behavior of a boiling water reactor (BWR) during an earthquake. A dynamic model of a control rod insertion system for BWR was developed based on multi-body dynamics. The coupled vibration behavior of the fuel assemblies in the fluid was modeled as an inertial coupling system. The effect of the interaction force between the control rod and the fuel assemblies was considered in a three-dimensional contact analysis. The hydraulic control unit and the control rod drive, which provide the control rod with drive force, were modeled in the concentrated parameter system. The model parameters, such as the friction coefficient between the control rod and the fuel assembly and the discharge coefficient of the scram piping, were obtained by conducting experiments. The validity of the model was confirmed by comparing the analytical results with the experimental ones. First, the validity of the fuel assembly model was verified through a comparison with the vibration testing in an underwater condition. It was confirmed that the calculation results for the frequency response of the fuel assembly were in good agreement with the experimental ones. Second, the validity of the modeling method of the drive system consisting of the hydraulic control unit and the control rod drive was verified through a comparison with the scram testing under non-vibration condition. The calculation results for the time history of the control rod insertion, the accumulator pressure, and the flow through the scram piping were in good agreement with the experimental ones. Finally, the validity of the modeling method of the whole system consisting of the fuel assemblies, the control rod, and the drive system was verified through a comparison with the scram testing under vibration condition. The calculation results for the time history of the control rod insertion stroke and the time delay of the insertion motion during an earthquake were in good agreement with the experimental ones. The results of these comparisons show that the developed analysis model can simulate the control rod insertion behavior during an earthquake.

Recently there has been increased interest in developing finite element modeling schemes where the geometry is independent of the mesh and is immersed in a uniform structured background mesh. The main motivation of this approach has been to avoid the difficulties of generating a conforming mesh for complex geometry. For this type of mesh independent analysis, modeling of assemblies, composite microstructures, and interaction at the interfaces is studied. In this paper, we present step boundary method as a well-suited method for applying essential boundary conditions, contact at interfaces as well as imposing periodic boundary conditions. This method uses step functions to construct trial solutions that satisfy boundary conditions as well as interface contact conditions and periodic boundary conditions. A generalized version of this approach is presented that allows arbitrary coordinate system for imposing boundary conditions and permits contact with sliding. Several test examples are used to validate this approach.

The objective of this research is to develop a web-based approach to remote machine condition monitoring and control enabled by Java technologies and based on publish-subscribe design pattern. On top of a Wise-ShopFloor framework (Web-based integrated sensor-driven e-ShopFloor), this system can serve real-time data from bottom up and can function as a constituent component of e-manufacturing, particularly for web-based collaborative manufacturing. It is designed to use the popular client-server architecture, VCM (view-control-model) design pattern, and publish-subscribe design pattern for secure device control and efficient machine condition monitoring. This paper presents the basis of the developed technology for building a web-based monitoring and control system that can be easily integrated to the e-manufacturing paradigm. A case study of a tripod parallel kinematic machine is carried out to demonstrate the effectiveness and validate our approach to web-based real-time machine condition monitoring and remote control for collaborative manufacturing.

Condition-based maintenance (CBM) is important to improve production system performance because it is capable to effectively prevent costly equipment failures. However, CBM usually has to stop machines for maintenance during operation and this may severely impede the normal production. This paper establishes a real-time CBM decision making method to minimize the negative impact of CBM stoppage events in a multistage manufacturing system. The method utilizes an event-based analysis method to estimate the permanent production loss resulted from a CBM event. An online control algorithm is introduced to effectively explore the optimal CBM control options. Simulation case studies are performed to validate the event-based CBM decision making method.

The scope of this paper is to assess the accuracy of the Lattice-Boltzmann/Very Large Eddy Simulation Method to predict the aerodynamics and aeroacoustics of helicopter rotors in strong Blade-Vortex Interaction conditions, and to validate a computational approach to include the effects associated to the rotor blade deflections into the numerical setup. The numerical flow solution is obtained by solving the explicit, transient and compressible Lattice-Boltzmann equation implemented in the high-fidelity CFD/CAA solver Simulia Power FLOW. The acoustic far-field is computed by using the Ffwocs-Williams & Hawkings integral solution applied to a permeable surface encompassing the whole helicopter geometry. The employed benchmark configuration is the 40% geometrically and aeroelastically scaled model of a BO-105 4-bladed main rotor tested in the open-jet anechoic test section of the German-Dutch wind tunnel in the framework of the HART-II project. In the present study, only the baseline operating condition of the HART-II test, without Higher-Harmonic Control enabled, is considered. Simulations are performed either assuming a fully-rigid blade motion or a computational strategy, based on a combination of a velocity wall boundary condition applied on the blade surface and fluid body-forces fields applied in proximity of the blade leading- and trailing-edge, to partially retrieve the effects related to the experimental blade flap and torsion deformations, respectively. The impact due to the inclusion of the blade elastic deformations into the computational setup on control settings, unsteady air-loads and noise footprint predictions is outlined.

A study was completed to demonstrate that a guide vane field refurbishment process and improved maintenance practices are effective at preventing corrosion and lock-up of the guide vanes of Solar�s Taurus 60-7802S gas turbine operated in intermittent duty. A Taurus 60 engine located at Dominion�s Crayne compressor station was refurbished and operated over a five year period using maintenance practices to slow the build-up of corrosion. The visible condition of the VGV assembly on this Test Unit was monitored and the guide vane actuator force measured to assess if corrosion build-up was occurring. A second co-located Taurus 60 served as a Control Unit to validate that the environment and operating profile were conducive to corrosion build-up. The Control Unit was not modified with the exception that electric actuators were installed on both units so that the VGV actuator force could be measured. The engines logged over 18,000 hours of operation during the test period after which, both units were pulled for overhaul. A detailed inspection and assessment was completed with extensive photographic documentation of the condition of the hardware. The actuator force measured during the start sequence for each of the engines was compared. The Test Unit actuator force varied from 180 to 265 lbf, while the Control Unit had a considerably larger variation of 170 to 315 lbf. The Control Unit suffered a guide vane lock-up event in June of 2014.

This report describes the output of two phases of the research contract on �Effects of Operating Practice on SCC Crack Growth�, GRI-05/8668, submitted to PRCI in August 2002 (Phase I) and in July 2003 (Phase II). The objective of the first phase of the work was to identify, through literature survey, a correlation model that relates the crack growth rate in low-pH or in high-pH environments to the deformation rate of the line pipe steel. The objective of the second phase of the project was to experimentally validate the correlation model(s) identified in Phase I. The ultimate goal of this work is to define the critical loading condit ions necessary for SCC so that operating practices can be assessed for the purpose of eventual avoidance of SCC. It is also hoped that such a deformation-rate-based model can provide insight for understanding the transition between �active� and �inactive� (or dormant) states of the cracking that is often observed in laboratory SCC tests. Understanding the causes for dormancy of stress corrosion cracks and the mechanism(s) of crack reactivation has significant practical implications. Service life is extended if conditions of dormancy can be maintained and conditions of growth or reactivation can be avoided.

Soil microorganisms interact with one another within soil pores and respond to external conditions such as temperature. Data on microbial community composition and potential function are commonly generated in studies of soils. However, these data do not provide direct insight into the drivers of community composition and can be difficult to interpret outside the context of ecological theory. In this study, we explore the effect of abiotic environmental variation on microbial species diversity. Using a modified version of the Lotka-Volterra Competition Model with temperature-dependent growth rates, we show that environmentally relevant temperature variability may expand the set of temperature-tolerance phenotype pairs that can coexist as two-species communities compared to constant temperatures. These results highlight a potential role of temperature variation in influencing microbial diversity. This in turn suggests a need to incorporate temperature into predictive models of microbial communities in soil and other environments. We recommend future work to parameterize the model applied in this study with empirical data from environments of interest, and to validate the model predictions using field observations and experimental manipulations.

Background Early detection and identification of faulty greenhouse operation is essential, if losses are to be minimized by taking immediate corrective actions. Automatic detection and identification would also free the greenhouse manager to tend to his other business. Original objectives The general objective was to develop a method, or methods, for the detection, identification and accommodation of faults in the greenhouse. More specific objectives were as follows: 1. Develop accurate systems models, which will enable the detection of small deviations from normal behavior (of sensors, control, structure and crop). 2. Using these models, develop algorithms for an early detection of deviations from the normal. 3. Develop identifying procedures for the most important faults. 4. Develop accommodation procedures while awaiting a repair. The Technion team focused on the shoot environment and the Cornell University team focused on the root environment. Achievements Models: Accurate models were developed for both shoot and root environment in the greenhouse, utilizing neural networks, sometimes combined with robust physical models (hybrid models). Suitable adaptation methods were also successfully developed. The accuracy was sufficient to allow detection of frequently occurring sensor and equipment faults from common measurements. A large data base, covering a wide range of weather conditions, is required for best results. This data base can be created from in-situ routine measurements. Detection and isolation: A robust detection and isolation (formerly referred to as 'identification') method has been developed, which is capable of separating the effect of faults from model inaccuracies and disturbance effects. Sensor and equipment faults: Good detection capabilities have been demonstrated for sensor and equipment failures in both the shoot and root environment. Water stress detection: An excitation method of the shoot environment has been developed, which successfully detected water stress, as soon as the transpiration rate dropped from its normal level. Due to unavailability of suitable monitoring equipment for the root environment, crop faults could not be detected from measurements in the root zone. Dust: The effect of screen clogging by dust has been quantified. Implications Sensor and equipment fault detection and isolation is at a stage where it could be introduced into well equipped and maintained commercial greenhouses on a trial basis. Detection of crop problems requires further work. Dr. Peleg was primarily responsible for developing and implementing the innovative data analysis tools. The cooperation was particularly enhanced by Dr. Peleg's three summer sabbaticals at the ARS, Northem Plains Agricultural Research Laboratory, in Sidney, Montana. Switching from multi-band to hyperspectral remote sensing technology during the last 2 years of the project was advantageous by expanding the scope of detected plant growth attributes e.g. Yield, Leaf Nitrate, Biomass and Sugar Content of sugar beets. However, it disrupted the continuity of the project which was originally planned on a 2 year crop rotation cycle of sugar beets and multiple crops (com and wheat), as commonly planted in eastern Montana. Consequently, at the end of the second year we submitted a continuation BARD proposal which was turned down for funding. This severely hampered our ability to validate our findings as originally planned in a 4-year crop rotation cycle. Thankfully, BARD consented to our request for a one year extension of the project without additional funding. This enabled us to develop most of the methodology for implementing and running the hyperspectral remote sensing system and develop the new analytical tools for solving the non-repeatability problem and analyzing the huge hyperspectral image cube datasets. However, without validation of these tools over a ful14-year crop rotation cycle this project shall remain essentially unfinished. Should the findings of this report prompt the BARD management to encourage us to resubmit our continuation research proposal, we shall be happy to do so.

One of the emerging technologies is the use of microbial agents for the control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables. A number of antagonistic microorganisms have been discovered which have the potential to effectively control postharvest diseases. Some of this technology has been patented and commercial products such as AspireTM (Ecogen Corporatin, Langhorne, PA, USA), Biosave 10TM and Biosave 11TM (Ecoscience Inc., Worchester, MA, USA) have been registered for commercial use. The principal investigator of this project was involved in developing the yeast-based biofungicide-AspireTM and testing its efficacy under commercial conditions. This research project was initiated to fill the gap between the knowledge available on development and commercial implementation of yeast biocontrol agents and basic understanding of various aspects related to introducing yeast antagonists to fruit surfaces, along with verification of population genetics. The main objectives of this study were: Study ecology, population dynamics and genetic diversity of the yeast antagonists Candida guilliermondii, C. oleophila, and Debaryomyces hansenii, and study the effect of preharvest application of the yeast antagonist C. oleophila naturally occurring epiphytic microbial population and on the development of postharvest diseases of citrus fruit during storage. Our findings, which were detailed in several publications, have shown that an epiphytic yeast population of grapefruit able to grow under high osmotic conditions and a wide range of temperatures was isolated and characterized for its biocontrol activity against green mold decay caused by Penicillium digitatum. Techniques based on random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and arbitrary primed polymerase chain reaction (ap-PCR), as well as homologies between sequences of the rDNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and 5.8S gene, were used to characterize the composition of the yeast population and to determine the genetic relationship among predominant yeast species. Epiphytic yeasts exhibiting the highest biocontrol activity against P. digitatum on grapefruit were identified as Candida guilliermondii, C. oleophila, C. sake, and Debaryomyces hansenii, while C. guilliermondii was the most predominant species. RAPD and ap-PCR analysis of the osmotolerant yeast population showed two different, major groups. The sequences of the ITS regions and the 5.8S gene of the yeast isolates, previously identified as belonging to different species, were found to be identical. Following the need to develop a genetically marked strain of the yeast C. oleophila, to be used in population dynamics studies, a transformation system for the yeast was developed. Histidine auxotrophy of C. oloephila produced using ethyl methanesulfonate were transformed with plasmids containing HIS3, HIS4 and HIS5 genes from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. In one mutant histidin auxotrophy was complemented by the HIS5 gene of S. cerevisiae is functionally homologous to the HIS5 gene in V. oleophila. Southern blot analysis showed that the plasmid containing the S. cerevisiae HIS5 gene was integrated at a different location every C. oleophila HIS+ transformant. There were no detectable physiological differences between C. oleophila strain I-182 and the transformants. The biological control ability of C. oleophila was not affected by the transformation. A genetically marked (with b-glucuronidase gene) transformant of C. oleophila colonized wounds on orange fruits and its population increased under field conditions. Effect of preharvest application of the yeast C. oleophila on population dynamics of epiphytic microbial population on wounded and unwounded grapefruit surface in the orchard and after harvest was also studied. In addition, the effect of preharvest application of the yeast C. oleophila on the development of postharvest decay was evaluated. Population studies conducted in the orchard showed that in control, non-treated fruit, colonization of wounded and unwounded grapefruit surface by naturally occurring filamentous fungi did not vary throughout the incubation period on the tree. On the other hand, colonization of intact and wounded fruit surface by naturally occurring yeasts was different. Yeasts colonized wounded surface rapidly and increased in numbers to about two orders of magnitude as compared to unwounded surface. On fruit treated with the yeast and kept on the tree, a different picture of fungal and yeast population had emerged. The detected fungal population on the yeast-treated intact surface was dramatically reduced and in treated wounds no fungi was detected. Yeast population on intact surface was relatively high immediately after the application of AspireTM and decreased to than 70% of that detected initially. In wounds, yeast population increased from 2.5 x 104 to about 4x106 after 72 hours of incubation at 20oC. Results of tests conducted to evaluate the effect of preharvest application of AspireTM on the development of postharvest decay indicated the validity of the approach.

Over the past several years, improvements in clamp-on ultrasonic meter technology have caused increased interest in applying this technology within the natural gas industry. Clamp-on ultrasonic meters (CUSMs), which are mounted on the outside of a pipe, send and receive ultrasonic waveforms through the pipe wall. This configuration offers several potential advantages over in-line meters, including portability and the ability to be installed without shutdown and disassembly of the pipeline. CUSMs, like their in-line counterparts, use sophisticated electronics to control the meter operation and to monitor parameters such as transducer signal strength, path velocities, and speed of sound. Because of these features, CUSMs are being considered for their potential as in-situ verification and as diagnostic tools. Having such portable tools to quickly verify meter performance would save considerable time in troubleshooting causes of lost and unaccounted-for (LAUF) gas, thus, minimizing overall LAUF totals. The ability to validate meter performance in-situ would also significantly reduce operating and maintenance costs of metering stations, particularly costs of unnecessary recalibrations. This project specifically addressed the ability of a CUSM to measure distorted profiles with sufficient resolution to determine if the flow is properly conditioned for flow measurement by other meter types. It also addressed the accuracy with which CUSM measurements, performed with sufficient spatial fidelity, can be used to provide a reference flow rate for in-situ meter proving. The test approach was to traverse a single ultrasonic transducer pair around the perimeter of the pipe in sufficiently small increments to measure the flow field at a given pipe cross section independent of the amount of flow distortion present. Velocity profile measurements performed at the same locations were used as an independent check of the CUSMs profile sensitivity.

Research objectives were: 1) To study the effect of diet energy density, level of exercise, thermal conditions and reproductive state on cardiovascular function as it relates to oxygen (O2) mobilization. 2) To validate the use of heart rate (HR) to predict energy expenditure (EE) of ruminants, by measuring and calculating the energy balance components at different productive and reproductive states. 3) To validate the use of HR to identify changes in the metabolizable energy (ME) and ME intake (MEI) of grazing ruminants. Background: The development of an effective method for the measurement of EE is essential for understanding the management of both grazing and confined feedlot animals. The use of HR as a method of estimating EE in free-ranging large ruminants has been limited by the availability of suitable field monitoring equipment and by the absence of empirical understanding of the relationship between cardiac function and metabolic rate. Recent developments in microelectronics provide a good opportunity to use small HR devices to monitor free-range animals. The estimation of O2 uptake (VO2) of animals from their HR has to be based upon a consistent relationship between HR and VO2. The question as to whether, or to what extent, feeding level, environmental conditions and reproductive state affect such a relationship is still unanswered. Studies on the basic physiology of O2 mobilization (in USA) and field and feedlot-based investigations (in Israel) covered a , variety of conditions in order to investigate the possibilities of using HR to estimate EE. In USA the physiological studies conducted using animals with implanted flow probes, show that: I) although stroke volume decreases during intense exercise, VO2 per one heart beat per kgBW0.75 (O2 Pulse, O2P) actually increases and measurement of EE by HR and constant O2P may underestimate VO2unless the slope of the regression relating to heart rate and VO2 is also determined, 2) alterations in VO2 associated with the level of feeding and the effects of feeding itself have no effect on O2P, 3) both pregnancy and lactation may increase blood volume, especially lactation; but they have no effect on O2P, 4) ambient temperature in the range of 15 to 25°C in the resting animal has no effect on O2P, and 5) severe heat stress, induced by exercise, elevates body temperature to a sufficient extent that 14% of cardiac output may be required to dissipate the heat generated by exercise rather than for O2 transport. However, this is an unusual situation and its affect on EE estimation in a freely grazing animal, especially when heart rate is monitored over several days, is minor. In Israel three experiments were carried out in the hot summer to define changes in O2P attributable to changes in the time of day or In the heat load. The animals used were lambs and young calves in the growing phase and highly yielding dairy cows. In the growing animals the time of day, or the heat load, affected HR and VO2, but had no effect on O2P. On the other hand, the O2P measured in lactating cows was affected by the heat load; this is similar to the finding in the USA study of sheep. Energy balance trials were conducted to compare MEI recovery by the retained energy (RE) and by EE as measured by HR and O2P. The trial hypothesis was that if HR reliably estimated EE, the MEI proportion to (EE+RE) would not be significantly different from 1.0. Beef cows along a year of their reproductive cycle and growing lambs were used. The MEI recoveries of both trials were not significantly different from 1.0, 1.062+0.026 and 0.957+0.024 respectively. The cows' reproductive state did not affect the O2P, which is similar to the finding in the USA study. Pasture ME content and animal variables such as HR, VO2, O2P and EE of cows on grazing and in confinement were measured throughout three years under twenty-nine combinations of herbage quality and cows' reproductive state. In twelve grazing states, individual faecal output (FO) was measured and MEI was calculated. Regression analyses of the EE and RE dependent on MEI were highly significant (P<0.001). The predicted values of EE at zero intake (78 kcal/kgBW0.75), were similar to those estimated by NRC (1984). The EE at maintenance condition of the grazing cows (EE=MEI, 125 kcal/kgBW0.75) which are in the range of 96.1 to 125.5 as presented by NRC (1996 pp 6-7) for beef cows. Average daily HR and EE were significantly increased by lactation, P<0.001 and P<0.02 respectively. Grazing ME significantly increased HR and EE, P<0.001 and P<0.00l respectively. In contradiction to the finding in confined ewes and cows, the O2P of the grazing cows was significantly affected by the combined treatments (P<0.00l ); this effect was significantly related to the diet ME (P<0.00l ) and consequently to the MEI (P<0.03). Grazing significantly increased O2P compared to confinement. So, when EE of grazing animals during a certain season of the year is estimated using the HR method, the O2P must be re measured whenever grazing ME changes. A high correlation (R2>0.96) of group average EE and of HR dependency on MEI was also found in confined cows, which were fed six different diets and in growing lambs on three diets. In conclusion, the studies conducted in USA and in Israel investigated in depth the physiological mechanisms of cardiovascular and O2 mobilization, and went on to investigate a wide variety of ruminant species, ages, reproductive states, diets ME, time of intake and time of day, and compared these variables under grazing and confinement conditions. From these combined studies we can conclude that EE can be determined from HR measurements during several days, multiplied by O2P measured over a short period of time (10-15 min). The study showed that RE could be determined during the growing phase without slaughtering. In the near future the development microelectronic devices will enable wide use of the HR method to determine EE and energy balance. It will open new scopes of physiological and agricultural research with minimizes strain on animals. The method also has a high potential as a tool for herd management.

Tillage modifies soil structure, altering conditions for plant growth and transport processes through the soil. However, the resulting loose structure is unstable and susceptible to collapse due to aggregate fragmentation during wetting and drying cycles, and coalescense of moist aggregates by internal capillary forces and external compactive stresses. Presently, limited understanding of these complex processes often leads to consideration of the soil plow layer as a static porous medium. With the purpose of filling some of this knowledge gap, the objectives of this Project were to: 1) Identify and quantify the major factors causing breakdown of primary soil fragments produced by tillage into smaller secondary fragments; 2) Identify and quantify the. physical processes involved in the coalescence of primary and secondary fragments and surfaces of weakness; 3) Measure temporal changes in pore-size distributions and hydraulic properties of reconstructed aggregate beds as a function of specified initial conditions and wetting/drying events; and 4) Construct a process-based model of post-tillage changes in soil structural and hydraulic properties of the plow layer and validate it against field experiments. A dynamic theory of capillary-driven plastic deformation of adjoining aggregates was developed, where instantaneous rate of change in geometry of aggregates and inter-aggregate pores was related to current geometry of the solid-gas-liquid system and measured soil rheological functions. The theory and supporting data showed that consolidation of aggregate beds is largely an event-driven process, restricted to a fairly narrow range of soil water contents where capillary suction is great enough to generate coalescence but where soil mechanical strength is still low enough to allow plastic deforn1ation of aggregates. The theory was also used to explain effects of transient external loading on compaction of aggregate beds. A stochastic forInalism was developed for modeling soil pore space evolution, based on the Fokker Planck equation (FPE). Analytical solutions for the FPE were developed, with parameters which can be measured empirically or related to the mechanistic aggregate deformation model. Pre-existing results from field experiments were used to illustrate how the FPE formalism can be applied to field data. Fragmentation of soil clods after tillage was observed to be an event-driven (as opposed to continuous) process that occurred only during wetting, and only as clods approached the saturation point. The major mechanism of fragmentation of large aggregates seemed to be differential soil swelling behind the wetting front. Aggregate "explosion" due to air entrapment seemed limited to small aggregates wetted simultaneously over their entire surface. Breakdown of large aggregates from 11 clay soils during successive wetting and drying cycles produced fragment size distributions which differed primarily by a scale factor l (essentially equivalent to the Van Bavel mean weight diameter), so that evolution of fragment size distributions could be modeled in terms of changes in l. For a given number of wetting and drying cycles, l decreased systematically with increasing plasticity index. When air-dry soil clods were slightly weakened by a single wetting event, and then allowed to "age" for six weeks at constant high water content, drop-shatter resistance in aged relative to non-aged clods was found to increase in proportion to plasticity index. This seemed consistent with the rheological model, which predicts faster plastic coalescence around small voids and sharp cracks (with resulting soil strengthening) in soils with low resistance to plastic yield and flow. A new theory of crack growth in "idealized" elastoplastic materials was formulated, with potential application to soil fracture phenomena. The theory was preliminarily (and successfully) tested using carbon steel, a ductile material which closely approximates ideal elastoplastic behavior, and for which the necessary fracture data existed in the literature.

Objectives. To examine the evidence on whether and how healthcare algorithms (including algorithm-informed decision tools) exacerbate, perpetuate, or reduce racial and ethnic disparities in access to healthcare, quality of care, and health outcomes, and examine strategies that mitigate racial and ethnic bias in the development and use of algorithms. Data sources. We searched published and grey literature for relevant studies published between January 2011 and February 2023. Based on expert guidance, we determined that earlier articles are unlikely to reflect current algorithms. We also hand-searched reference lists of relevant studies and reviewed suggestions from experts and stakeholders. Review methods. Searches identified 11,500 unique records. Using predefined criteria and dual review, we screened and selected studies to assess one or both Key Questions (KQs): (1) the effect of algorithms on racial and ethnic disparities in health and healthcare outcomes and (2) the effect of strategies or approaches to mitigate racial and ethnic bias in the development, validation, dissemination, and implementation of algorithms. Outcomes of interest included access to healthcare, quality of care, and health outcomes. We assessed studies’ methodologic risk of bias (ROB) using the ROBINS-I tool and piloted an appraisal supplement to assess racial and ethnic equity-related ROB. We completed a narrative synthesis and cataloged study characteristics and outcome data. We also examined four Contextual Questions (CQs) designed to explore the context and capture insights on practical aspects of potential algorithmic bias. CQ 1 examines the problem’s scope within healthcare. CQ 2 describes recently emerging standards and guidance on how racial and ethnic bias can be prevented or mitigated during algorithm development and deployment. CQ 3 explores stakeholder awareness and perspectives about the interaction of algorithms and racial and ethnic disparities in health and healthcare. We addressed these CQs through supplemental literature reviews and conversations with experts and key stakeholders. For CQ 4, we conducted an in-depth analysis of a sample of six algorithms that have not been widely evaluated before in the published literature to better understand how their design and implementation might contribute to disparities. Results. Fifty-eight studies met inclusion criteria, of which three were included for both KQs. One study was a randomized controlled trial, and all others used cohort, pre-post, or modeling approaches. The studies included numerous types of clinical assessments: need for intensive care or high-risk care management; measurement of kidney or lung function; suitability for kidney or lung transplant; risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, lung cancer, prostate cancer, postpartum depression, or opioid misuse; and warfarin dosing. We found evidence suggesting that algorithms may: (a) reduce disparities (i.e., revised Kidney Allocation System, prostate cancer screening tools); (b) perpetuate or exacerbate disparities (e.g., estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] for kidney function measurement, cardiovascular disease risk assessments); and/or (c) have no effect on racial or ethnic disparities. Algorithms for which mitigation strategies were identified are included in KQ 2. We identified six types of strategies often used to mitigate the potential of algorithms to contribute to disparities: removing an input variable; replacing a variable; adding one or more variables; changing or diversifying the racial and ethnic composition of the patient population used to train or validate a model; creating separate algorithms or thresholds for different populations; and modifying the statistical or analytic techniques used by an algorithm. Most mitigation efforts improved proximal outcomes (e.g., algorithmic calibration) for targeted populations, but it is more challenging to infer or extrapolate effects on longer term outcomes, such as racial and ethnic disparities. The scope of racial and ethnic bias related to algorithms and their application is difficult to quantify, but it clearly extends across the spectrum of medicine. Regulatory, professional, and corporate stakeholders are undertaking numerous efforts to develop standards for algorithms, often emphasizing the need for transparency, accountability, and representativeness. Conclusions. Algorithms have been shown to potentially perpetuate, exacerbate, and sometimes reduce racial and ethnic disparities. Disparities were reduced when race and ethnicity were incorporated into an algorithm to intentionally tackle known racial and ethnic disparities in resource allocation (e.g., kidney transplant allocation) or disparities in care (e.g., prostate cancer screening that historically led to Black men receiving more low-yield biopsies). It is important to note that in such cases the rationale for using race and ethnicity was clearly delineated and did not conflate race and ethnicity with ancestry and/or genetic predisposition. However, when algorithms include race and ethnicity without clear rationale, they may perpetuate the incorrect notion that race is a biologic construct and contribute to disparities. Finally, some algorithms may reduce or perpetuate disparities without containing race and ethnicity as an input. Several modeling studies showed that applying algorithms out of context of original development (e.g., illness severity scores used for crisis standards of care) could perpetuate or exacerbate disparities. On the other hand, algorithms may also reduce disparities by standardizing care and reducing opportunities for implicit bias (e.g., Lung Allocation Score for lung transplantation). Several mitigation strategies have been shown to potentially reduce the contribution of algorithms to racial and ethnic disparities. Results of mitigation efforts are highly context specific, relating to unique combinations of algorithm, clinical condition, population, setting, and outcomes. Important future steps include increasing transparency in algorithm development and implementation, increasing diversity of research and leadership teams, engaging diverse patient and community groups in the development to implementation lifecycle, promoting stakeholder awareness (including patients) of potential algorithmic risk, and investing in further research to assess the real-world effect of algorithms on racial and ethnic disparities before widespread implementation.

The spatial and temporal characteristics of the internal temperature field of the box-type composite wall have great significance to high temperature mechanical response and fire resistance performance of composite wall subjected to fire. A series of assumptions for the simplified model were made after determining the influence of various thermal parameters, the boundary conditions of surface and the contact conditions. And the finite element software(ABAQUS) was used to establish the temperature field analysis model to conduct nonlinear transient temperature response analysis, then the validity of the model was verified by relevant test results. On this basis, the distribution of temperature field during the whole process and its key measuring points under fire are analyzed, and the parameters of each component are researched. The results show that the thickness of rock wool, the type, the thickness and number of layers of cladding plates have obvious influence on the temperature field distribution inside the composite wall, and other factors have little effect. According to the analysis results, the fire-resistant design idea of the composite wall and the temperature prediction formulas of the key temperature-control point are proposed, which provide the basis for the application of the boxtype steel structure system.