Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "Concil of Trent (1545-1563)"

Debate on the Creating of the Polish National Church in the Times of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) In the time of the Council of Trent, the Polish nobility often and loudly demanded the forming of the Polish National Church, which would enable them to execute state control over the clergy, its activity, and church property. Popular Protestant ideas coherent with such an idea fulfilled the role of useful weapon in their struggle against the clergy. Even though the idea of the church reform converged with many changes postulated by the contemporary noble reform movement, the state finances, homogeneity of Crown lands and the Polish-Lithuanian union took predominance over church matters. Appropriate conduct of debate, disabling discussion about a reform, was promoted by the clergy itself, which was not interested in loosening their dominant position in the society and becoming subject to civic laws. Protestant deputies to the parliament, who constituted the majority in the lower chamber, could have acquired more benefits, were it not for their reluctance to impose certain solutions on the Catholics, who still dominated in the society. The clergy, in particular bishops, sought some compromise with Protestants, until the Catholic Church itself undertook mild reforms in the third phase of the Council of Trent. The stand of the Polish monarch, Sigismundus Augustus, who – having been raised as a Catholic – opposed the forming of new church and his attitude was also important.

Since the use of built heritage is a requisite for its conservation, this article discusses the adaptation of Catholic churches, conceived for the liturgy supported by the Council of Trent (1545-1563), to that of the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965), which presuppose a symbolically and functionally different spatial layout. Issues concerning this process are presented which sometimes led to the loss of cultural assets, frequently in favor of less pertinent interventions. It presents the architectural program for celebrating the reformed liturgy in Tridentine churches, as expressed by official documents in articulation with the principles of intervention in cultural assets and illustrative examples.

La que era una norma plausible, com la que va establir el concili de Trento (1545-1563), la de predicar i fer la catequesi del poble en la llengua vernacla, volia evitar que es fes en la llengua sàvia, el llatí, que ja el poble no l’entenia. Els sínodes diocesans mallorquins aplicaren aquella pauta, conservada en el de 1691, vigent fins al sínode de 1932. El catecisme del P. Ledesma es va publicar sempre en català, des del segle XVI al XIX, i esdevingué el llibre per aprendre a llegir i escriure. Va ser la Reial Cèdula de Carles IV (III), de 1768, que manava que s’implantàs la llengua castellana en les escoles, el que va trencar la pau en les esglésies i en les escoles, punint fins i tot els eclesiàstics que predicaven la catequesi en mallorquí. Tanmateix, l’any 1801, el bisbe Bernat Nadal va publicar el primer catecisme diocesà en català, contra el manament de l’esmentada Reial Cèdula. El seu catecisme i el del P. Ledesma, editats al llarg del segle, foren la base per a l’alfabetització de la majoria dels infants.

In 1563, the Catholic Church responded to the Protestant challenge to the religious life as the most holy feminine state with the maxim aut maritus aut murus (wife or wall). The navigation of that dictum by early modern women across Catholic Europe has arguably been one of the dominant themes in the scholarship over the last thirty years. Certainly, there had always been the opportunity for women to lead a religious life outside of marriage and the cloister as beatas, tertiaries and beguines. Yet it was after the Council of Trent (1545–1563) that women had to renegotiate a space in the world in which they could lead spiritually-fulfilling devotional lives. If this was one unintended legacy of 1517, then the quincentenary of the Reformation seems a timely moment to reflect on new directions in the now burgeoning historiography on lay women in Counter-Reformation Europe.

RÉSUMÉLe principal objectif de cet article est d’encourager une approche plus large, supraconfessionnelle, du mariage et de la famille à l’époque moderne. La conjugalité a été “désacralisée” par les réformateurs protestants du 16e siècle. Martin Luther, parmi d’autres, a refusé le statut de sacrement au mariage, tout en valorisant celui-ci comme une arme contre le péché. En réaction, le concile de Trente a réaffirmé avec force que le mariage est bien un des sept sacrements chrétiens. Mais, promouvant la supériorité du célibat, l’Église catholique n’a jamais beaucoup insisté sur les vertus de la vie et de la piété familiales avant le 19e siècle. En parallèle, les historiens décèlent des signes de “sacralisation” de la famille protestante à partir du 16e siècle. Leurs conclusions doivent être relativisées à la lumière de recherches plus récentes et plus critiques, centrées sur les rapports et les représentations de genre. Elles peuvent néanmoins inspirer une étude élargie et comparative, inexistante dans l’historiographie traditionnelle, des réalités et des perceptions de la famille chrétienne au-delà des frontières confessionnelles.MOTS-CLÉ: Époque Moderne, mariage, famille, protestantisme, Concile de TrenteABSTRACTThe main purpose of this paper is to encourage a broader supra-confessional approach to the history of marriage and the family in the Early Modern era. Wedlock was “desacralized” by the Protestant reformers of the 16th century. Martin Luther, among others, denied the sacramental status of marriage but valued it as a weapon against sin. In reaction, the Council of Trent reinforced marriage as one of the seven sacraments. But the Catholic Church, which promoted the superiority of celibacy, did little to defend the virtues of family life and piety before the 19th century. In parallel, historians have identified signs of a “sacralization” of the Protestant family since the 16th century. 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The Council of Trent of 1545-1563, which, incidentally, was not only long lasting but also difficult to convene, reflected a completely unstable general Christian situation during a period of rapid reformation. It is known that its foundations amounted to 95 Luther abstracts, and the subsequent course of events necessitated the immediate convening of the Ecumenical Council. Pope Clement VII (1523-1534) made real attempts to do so, but did not reach the goal as a result of the war. Bulla of June 12, 1536, his successor Pope Paul III also ordered the convening of the Ecumenical Forum of Christians in May 1537, but, as in the first case, there was a war again in the event of its holding. For the same reason, the cathedral did not gather in November 1542. Only in March 1545 the cathedral was convened, and in December of the same year - officially opened in Trident.

During the sixteenth century many Catholics yearned for an active role in lay religiosity. One avenue to achieve this was through membership in a penitential confraternity. In the first half of the sixteenth century, the pioneering penitential confraternities concentrated on the development of membership requirements and how to translate the imitatio Christi on a secular level. The organization of the second generation of Sevillian penitential confraternities coincided with the Council of Trent (1545–1563). As Church leaders met to define their faith based on an existing foundation and to justify their vocations, the same anxiety and struggles were present on the local lay level as the subsequent generation of penitential confraternities sought to uniquely define themselves through faith and attempted to control their public persona.

The attitude of the Apostolic Capital and the Roman Curia to the Orthodox Church during the Florentine Union (1438-1439) changed after the Council of Trent (1545-1563), which adopted the ecclesial and soteriological excluzion "Extra Ecclesia Romanum nulla solus" ("Outside of the Roman Church" no salvation ") This denied and rejected the union of the Catholic Church with the "schismatic" Orthodox Church as an equal church union of two separate ecclesiastical jurisdictions and allowed only incorporation (that is, joining, the inclusion in its membership) of schismatics after their repentance and the remission of their sins. Under such a post-governed verdict, the Metropolitan of Kiev came to the Church in the Brest Union in 1596.

II concilio provinciate fu stato l’oggetto della discussione a Trento nelle congregazioni generali del 9 e 10 giugno 1546. Si iniziava allora il dibattito sulla residenza. II concilio venne chiamato im causa a proposito del problema a chi dovesse essere domandata 1’esecuzione delle pene contro non residenti. II primo periodo del concilio (1545—1547) si era concluso senza aver nulla deciso all’istituto del concilio provinciale. II 18 gennaio 1562 fu iniziato il terzo periodo del concilio di Trento durante il quale si doveva finalmente trattare dei concili provilnciali. Molti partecipanti del concilio incominciarono ad avanzare una serie di proposte a favore dei concili provilnciali, tra 1’altro a proposito dello schema sui seminari. Non mancarano peró anche voci contrarie al rinnovo dei concili provinciali, nati da una particolare concezione teologica e giuridica per la quale ogni innovazione doveva considerarsi un male. Alcuni padri del concilio temevano che i concili provinciali dessero la via per i concili nazionali. I decreti del concillio di Trento considerarono i concili provinciali come degli organi necessari per la riforma, ma non in tale misura da far soddisfare tanti padri conciliari.

Статья посвящена рассмотрению деятельности Тридентского собора (1545–1563) в отношении богословия иконы, ставшего ответом Римско-католической Церкви на вызовы движения реформации. В области этого противостояния остается вопрос, насколько решения и постановления Тридентского собора оказались применимы и услышаны в европейском обществе, а также повлияли на расцвет религиозного искусства в XVII веке. Обзор исторического контекста и самих постановлений «О призывании, почитании и мощах святых, и о священных образах» позволяет сделать выводы об их контрреформационной направленности, оказавшей влияние на дальнейшее понимание западного богословия образа. Однако, это не смогло кардинально изменить вектор движения Запада «от иконы – к изображению». The article is devoted to the activities of the Council of Trent (1545–1563) in relation to the theology of the icon, which became the answer of the Roman catholic Church to the challenges of the Reformation movement. In the realm of this confrontation, the question remains to what extent the decisions and decrees of the Council of Trident were applicable and heard in European society, and influenced the flourishing of religious art in the seventeenth century. A review of the historical context and the resolutions themselves «On the invocation, veneration and relics of saints, and on sacred images» allows us to draw conclusions about their counter-reformation orientation, which influenced the further understanding of Western theology of the image. Which, however, could not radically change the vector of the West's movement «from the icon to the image».

AbstractThis article begins by examining what is meant by the Catholic Reformation and how it relates to the other frequently used term, Counter–Reformation. It then discusses the different ways Catholics and Protestants in the early 16th century understood ecclesial reform. Next there is a consideration of the call for a general or ecumenical council to resolve the differences between the Catholics and Protestant reformers; the reasons for the delay of the council; and the reasons why the Protestants did not participate. The article then provides a summary of the three main periods of the Council of Trent: 1545–1547; 1551–1552; and 1562–1563 along with the 1547–1549 Bologna period. This is followed by a detailed overview of the reforms of the council, which were both doctrinal and disciplinary. The article shows that, while abuses related to various Catholic practices and the sacraments were addressed, the main concerns in the various disciplinary decrees related to clerical corruption and immorality. The article addresses the need for bishops to reside in their dioceses; stop clerical corruption, greed, and nepotism; and establish seminaries for the proper formation of priests. After the review of the disciplinary reform decrees, attention is given to the Catechism of the Council of Trent that served as a resource for parish priests in their instruction of the faithful. The final section considers viewpoints of different historians regarding the effect of the Council of Trent on reform within the Catholic Church.

Em 04/12/63, 400 anos depois que se encerrara o Concílio Tridentino (1545-1563), o Vaticano II promulgou a Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC). Com esta Constituição – que “inaugurava uma nova era para a vida e a piedade da Igreja” – iniciou-se o “ajornamento” da Liturgia Romana, e promoveu-se uma participação mais ativa e frutuosa dos fiéis cristãos nos mistérios divinos. Frei Boaventura, ex-Redator da REB e Bispo emérito de Novo Hamburgo, RS, no ensejo também da passagem do 40o aniversário da SC, oferece oportunas considerações sobre os seguintes pontos: a natureza da Liturgia, a participação dos fiéis, o princípio da inteligibilidade e a descentralização. O estudo se encerra com um comentário sobre as cinco instruções pós-conciliares para a reta aplicação da SC.Abstract: In the 4th of December 1963, 400 years after the Council of Trent (1545-1563) came to an end, the Vatican II promulgated the Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC). With this Constitution – that “inaugurated a new era for the life and piety of the Church” – there began the “aggiornamento” (updating) of the Roman Liturgy. The SC also promoted a more active and fruitful participation of the Christian faithful in the divine mysteries. On the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the SC, Fray Boaventura, previously Editor of the REB and Bishop emeritus of Novo Hamburgo – RS, puts forward opportune considerations on the following points: the nature of the Liturgy, the faithful’s participation and the principle of intelligibility and of decentralization. The study ends with comments on the five post-conciliar instructions for the correct application of the SC.

The article defines the role played by the architecture of a Gothic temple in the aspect of the synthesis of the cultural and liturgical image when it concerns the form of the cathedral’s facade, its floor plan culminated with the eastern choir and metaphysics where the light processed by stained glass in contact with the frame (stone skeleton) structure brings a symbiotic, symbolic image. The above-mentioned synthesis was interpreted specifically after the Council of Trent (1545-1563) by the demolition of the rood screens closing the Gothic choir in front of the nave of the lay faithful. The liturgical renewal with a visually open choir introduced the main altar at its culmination, obligatorily connected to the tabernacle, and additionally elevated by a retable. The article describes the interior of the Gothic choir after the Council of Trent, liturgically up to date with the Second Vatican Council (1962-1965). Then, it describes the renewed image of the Gothic choir after another, modern, liturgical renewal. By specifying a new presence of the altar and tabernacle after the Second Vatican Council in the church (currently defined as the domus ecclesiae), the article elucidates the validity of the architecture of the Gothic interior when it exists in accordance with the post-conciliar regulations and serves the purpose of building the community of faith.

The resolutions and edicts of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) made some requirements to acquire and implement into force the regional Churches. A reception of reforms of Trent was now carried out by legislative and pastoral activity of bishops - administrators of the dioceses. In the Diocese of Włocławek (these days called Kujawsko-Pomorska Diocese) the reception of Tridentinum at this very beginning time hoppened on ardour, wise and hearty advocate of Church’s revival, it’s structures and hierarchy - bishop Stanislaw Karnkowski. He realised so well, that revival priesthood and reforming the religion’s life must come from the point of clergy’s reforming, keeping the ecclesiastical and revival of sacramental life with instructing the truth of faith. He striven for this by legislative during diocese’s synods held in 1568 and 1579. He supported legislative and pro-reforming activy by issuing his legislative set and also „Reprimands” and „Admonitiones” - liturgical agenda, useful for iniform the liturgy, so helpful for priests. In 1569 he fouded theological seminary in Włocławek. Deep analysis of his legislative activity must lead into conclusion, that he laid the fundations of the new structures for religion’s, priesthood’s and church’s life established by the Council of Trent. Bishop Karnkowski - being the bishop of Włocławek and then the Metropoliotan of Gniezno - was characterised by great legislative activity. The acceptance of Trent’s resolutions in Kujowsko-Pomorska Diecese and also during province’s synod in Piotrkow held in 1589 presided by bishop Karnkowski, was a base for further reforming of religion’s life in the Polish Nation and conducted to the intensification and development of the synod’s activity in the dioeceses, also in the Diocese of Włocławek.

Findings of the previous research suggest that, although the first records of surnames on the territory of the contemporary Republic of Croatia date back to the 12th century, it is with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) that they became increasingly and extensively used (Frančić, 2015, 229). As far as contemporary surnames are concerned, their structure is regarded to be well established and easily detectable. Their frequency and distribution have also been the topics of much of previous research. Namely, the 2011 census showed that over thirty-three thousand surnames were registered in the Republic of Croatia. For the purposes of this paper, a group of surnames with a bird-related component – ornithonyms – has been singled out from the abovementioned list. The analysed corpus, consisting of approximately three hundred surnames with a component related to bird species, subspecies of groups, is of particular importance since, due to a number of linguistic and non-linguistic obstacles to the creation of a unique “bird” corpus, this interesting group of Croatian surnames has not been sufficiently described by Croatian linguists so far.

Reforming efforts at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), the challenges of Protestantism, the rise of national states, and the reassessment of just war doctrine, had initiated a moment of crisis for crusading by the mid-sixteenth century. Indeed, historians have described these trends as signaling the end of the movement. This article explores the theoretical underpinnings deployed by an elite group of Spanish theologians and churchmen in May of 1567 to shore up their monarch's claim to a lucrative version of the crusade indulgence granted by popes since the fifteenth century. By rehearsing traditional arguments, eschewing those they saw as obsolete, and deploying new ones, these theorists expose the remarkable adaptability of crusading. The integrity of papally sanctioned holy war against the enemies of the faith collapsed in later centuries with the rise of international law and recognition of permanent divisions within therespublica Christiana. Yet, the ability of sixteenth-century Spanish theorists to recast ideology in the face of shifting intellectual, cultural, and social tides indicates the continuing viability of crusading during a period of inchoateness.

After being canonically erected in 1388, the Cathedral Chapter of Vilnius did not have any recognized privileges or land grants. It subsisted exclusively off of the bishop of Vilnius’ bona mensae, and it followed the Cathedral Chapter of Cracow’s example with regard to its organization, internal structure, activities, and relationship with the diocesan bishop. Having certain privileges and revenue at its disposal in the 15th century, the canonical corporation of Vilnius began to seek greater legitimacy. It was not until 1515, however, that Bishop Wojciech Radziwiłł ordered that the Chapter write up its rights and duties in the form of statutes and that the Holy See approve them. Pope Leo X subsequently approved the Cathedral Chapter of Vilnius’ statutes through his legate Bishop Zacharias Ferreri on November 29, 1520. The papal confirmation gave the Cathedral Chapter of Vilnius strong legal standing that no one, with the exception of the Holy See, could violate or change. The statutes strengthened the Chapter’s position in relation to the diocesan bishop, which turned out to be both in accordance with the spirit of the times and, with time, affirmed by the Council of Trent (1545-1563).

On behalf of the Catholic Church, the Council of Trent (1545–1563) confirmed the usefulness of religious images and multisensory worship practices for engaging the bodies and the minds of congregants, and for moving pious devotees to empathize with Christ. In the center panel of the Rockox Epitaph (c. 1613–1615), a funerary triptych commissioned by the Antwerp mayor Nicolaas Rockox (1560–1640) and his wife Adriana Perez (1568–1619) to hang over their tomb, Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) paints an awe-inspiring, hopeful image of the Risen Lord that alludes to the promise of humankind’s corporeal resurrection at the Last Judgment. In the wings, Rockox and Perez demonstrate affective worship with prayer aids and welcome onlookers to gaze upon Christ’s renewed body. Rubens’s juxtaposition of the eternal, incorruptible body of Jesus alongside five mortal figures—the two patrons and the three apostles, Peter, Paul, and John—prompted living viewers to meditate on their relationship with God, to compare their bodies with those depicted, and to contemplate their own embodiment and mortality. Ultimately, the idealized body of Christ reminds faithful audiences of both the corporeal renewal and the spiritual salvation made possible through Jesus’s death and resurrection.

At the beginning of the first half of the twentieth century the bond between ars-venustas and cultus-pietas has produced many churches of Roman Catholic cult.It’s between the 20s and 60s of the twentieth century that the experiments of the Liturgical Movement in Germany lead to the evolution of the liturgical space, which, even today, we see engraving in modern churches in Rome (Italy).The Council of Trent (1545-1563) constitutes the precedent historical moment, in which the Church recognised the need for major liturgical renovation of its churches. In comparison with this, the Second Vatican Council (1959-65) introduced some radical changes within the church architectural spaces.The observations come from the direct reading of the present architectural space and the interventions already realised in modern churches in Rome. The most significant churches from an historical-artistic point of view were selected (1924-1965). Significantly, although every single architecture is unique for dimensions, architectural language and used materials, a comparison, in order to gather the discovered characteristics and to compare the restrictions regarding the different operations, would extremely effective, as demonstrated below.Since the matter is considerably vast, in this work, only some brief notes regarding the liturgical renovation of the Presbytery area will be outlined.

Female monasticism and the conversion of the Jews were both major concerns for the ecclesiastical establishment, as well as for Italian ruling elites, after the Council of Trent (1545–1563). Hence, the monachization of baptized Jewish girls acquired a unique symbolic significance. Moreover, during this period cases of demonic possession were on the rise, and so were witchcraft accusations. This article explores a case from late sixteenth-century Mantua in which Jewish conversion, female monachization, demonic possession and witch-hunting all came into play in a violent drama. Drawing on unpublished documents as well as on chronicles and hagiographies, the article elucidates the mental toll that conversion and monachization took on the Jewess Luina, who later became known as Sister Margherita. It delineates her life, which culminated with her diagnosis as a demoniac, and analyzes the significance that this etiology held for the energumen—whose affliction was attributed to her ongoing contacts with Jews—and for Mantua's Jews. The article argues that the anxiety provoked by suspicions that a formerly Jewish nun reverted to Judaism was so profound, that it led to the burning at the stake of Judith Franchetta, the only Jew ever to be executed as a witch in the Italian peninsula.

There is no doubt that the Catholic Church is in a deep crisis. On the one hand, it is internally divided between supporters of the changes initiated during the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) and conservatives opposing these changes in the name of the (Counter-Reformation) decisions made during the Council of Trent (1545–1563). On the other hand, the Church is involved in a number of political, financial, paedophile, etc. scandals. They prove the progressive loss of contact of this institution with the world as a place to preach the Gospel. For both of these reasons, the number of believers in countries considered Catholic is steadily decreasing. The purpose of this article is to correct or supplement this diagnosis. Historically, the Catholic Church – like many other religious organizations – has never been „spotless”. However, this did not prevent Catholics from identifying themselves with this institution as the depository of the Revealed Truth. Today is different. Many of them are experiencing an identity crisis. They cannot reconcile the Gospel (which takes the form of religious dogma) with the existential and moral challenges they face every day. The subject of the research undertaken in this article is to find answers to the questions (1) about the skills that allow them to reconcile one with the other and (2) about the role of the Church in the education of the community of the faithful.

O presente artigo apresenta as medidas tomadas pelos três primeiros bispos da diocese de São Paulo, no século XVIII, na tentativa de implantar a reforma do clero e dos costumes da população pretendida pelo Concílio de Trento (ocorrido na Europa entre 1545-1563). Tais medidas inserem-se num conjunto de mudanças ocorridas na Colônia no período setecentista e versam sobre dois aspectos da vida religiosa paulista: os sacramentos e a distribuição de indulgências. Abstract This article presents the measures taken by the first bishops of the Diocese of São Paulo, in the 18th century, at an attempt to establish the reformation in the clergy and in the customs of the population set forth by the Council of Trent (held in Europe between 1545 and 1563). Such measures are part of a set of changes which occurred in the Colony in the 1700s and discuss two important features of the religious life in São Paulo: the sacraments and the distribution of indulgences.

AbstractThe Council of Trent (1545–1563) regarded the reform of the episcopate as the cornerstone of the Catholic Reformation. Hence the Conciliar Fathers put emphasis on the much neglected duty of residence of bishops. To ensure compliance, the Roman Catholic Church relied heavily on Christian monarchs, patrons of the Churches in the territories under their jurisdiction. The present study analyses to what extent the Tridentine decree on the residence of bishops was enforced in the diocese of Cape Verde (under Portuguese control) between 1553 and 1705. The hypothesis of this study can be stated simply: despite the efforts to enforce the residence of bishops in Cape Verde, the socio-economic limitations of the diocese as well as political and administrative constraints in Portugal significantly hampered the authorities in their effort to enforce long-term residence in that overseas diocese.

In this article the effects of the Protestant Reformation on the Roman Catholic Church are investigated. The event of 1517, when Luther posted 95 theses on the castle church door in Wittenberg, had a profound effect on society in Europe and the Roman Catholic Church in particular. The Council of Trent (1545–1563) was the official response of the Roman Catholic Church to the Protestant Reformation and issued in the Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation). Christian thought went from a uniform approach to one of diversity. The Catholics of the day responded by focusing on strategies such as printing, the liturgy, the inquisition and finally excommunication. The wound to the unity of the Christian community was finally healed at the Second Vatican Council when the Roman Catholic Church joined the ecumenical movement of all Christian Churches. The Roman Catholic Church learnt tremendous lessons from the Protestant Reformation. In certain parts of Europe there was friction and in other parts cooperation between Protestants and Catholics. Through the course of time cooperation and dialogue won the battle eventually, as Protestants and Catholics grappled with both their common beliefs and their many differences.

Bu çalışma Katolik Kilisesi perspektifinden kutsal Evharistiya ayininin sıhhat şartlarıyla ilgili yasa metinlerini incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Evharistiya ayini bir Sakrament olarak kabul edilir. Sakramentler şekil ve biçim açısından Kilise tarafından nasıl icra edileceği bütün hatlarıyla belirlenmiş kutsallaştırıcı eylemlerdir. Evharistiya Sakramentinde ekmek ve şarap takdis edilerek İsa Mesih’in eti ve kanına dönüşür ve bütün inanlılarla paylaştırılır. Tam bir saygınlık, alçak gönüllülük, dindarlık ve kutsallık ifade etmesi ve dünyadaki bütün Katolik kiliselerce aynı şekilde icra edilmesi için bu Sakramentin icra ediliş şekli kanunlarda belirtilmiş ve bütün rahiplerin bu kurallara uyması emredilmiştir. Bu kurallar resmi ibadet kitaplarının giriş sayfalarında yer alan yönergelerde “De Defectibus in Celebratione Missae Occurrentibus” isimli bir başlıkta ele alınmıştır. Bundan başka Katolik Kilisesi’nin hukuk metni olan Codex İuris Canonici içinde de Evharistiya Sakramentiyle ilgili bazı kurallar vardır. Çalışmamızda bu iki hukuk metni incelenerek bu ayinin sahih bir biçimde icra edilmesi için konulan kurallar Latinceden tercüme edilerek üzerlerine yorumlar yapılmıştır. Ayin kitaplarının tarihsel serencamında iki önemli tarihsel olay milat kabul edilir. Bunlar Trent Konsili (1545-1563) ve II. Vatikan Konsilidir (1962-1965). Trent Konsilinin amacı Reform hareketlerine karşı Katolik Kilisesini dogmalarını savunmak ve var olan litürjiyi korumaktı. Bu sebeple Trent Konsilinde alınan kararlarla ibadet kitapları düzenlenerek ibadet metinleri ve ibadete dair kurallar bir araya getirildi. Böylece ortaya Missale Romanum ismiyle bir ayin kitabı ilan edildi. İlk nüshası 1570 yılında ilan edilen bu ayin kitabının 1604, 1634, 1884 ve 1920 yıllarında yeniden basımları ve düzeltmeleri yapıldı ve böylece üç yüz yılı aşkın bir süre Latince olarak yegâne ve tek nüsha olarak kaldı. 1955 yılında Katolik litürjide çok büyük değişiklikler meydana geldi ve Evharistiya Sakramentinin icra ediliş biçimi de bundan nasibini aldı. Ancak ayinin sıhhat şartlarıyla ilgili ciddi bir değişiklik olmadı. II. Vatikan Konsilinden sonra Yeni Ayin Düzenine geçildi ve artık ibadetin dili de yerel dillere çevrilmeye başladı. Böylece ibadet kitapları da değişmeye başladı. Bunun sonucunda 1969, 1975, 2002, 2008 yıllarında Latince, 2011 yılında da İngilizce olmak üzere Yeni Ayin Düzeniyle yazılmış ibadet kitapları ilan edildi. Bu yeni kitapların içinde De Defectibus metni yoktur. Ancak bu metinde kurallar Evharistiya Sakramentinin icrasında halen gözetilmektedir. Çalışmamızda bu yüzden bu metne ibadet kitaplarında yer veren son nüsha olan 1962 tarihli Missale Romanum kaynak olarak kullanılmıştır. De Defectibus 46 maddeden oluşan bir yasa metnidir. 10 ana başlık altında ele alınan bu yasalar temelde ekmek ve şarabın mahiyetiyle, hazırlanışlarıyla ve kutsanmalarıyla ilgilidir. Bu yasalara göre Evharistiya Sakramentini yalnızca bir rahip yapabilir ve kutsadığı ekmeğin ve şarabın kusurlu olup olmadığını kontrol etme görevi de onundur. Zira örneğin, mayasız ekmek veya sirkeleşmiş şarap kusurlu sayılmaktadır. Evharistiya Sakramentinin en önemli anı ekmek ve şarap üzerine kutsama kelimelerinin okunduğu andır. Latince “hoc est enim corpus meum” ve “hic est enim Calix Sanguinis mei…” şeklinde başlayıp devam eden kelimeleri telaffuz ettiği an artık oradaki ekmek normal bir ekmek değil İsa’nın bedeni, şarap da normal bir şarap değil O’nun kanına dönüşmüş olur. Yasa metinleri rahibin bu metinleri doğru bir şekilde telaffuz etmesini ve karşılaşabileceği çeşitli aksilikleri nasıl çözebileceğini detaylı şekilde ele alır. Fakat bütün bunlardan önce rahibin oruç tutarak manen bu kelimeleri söylemeye kendini hazırlaması, kutsama kelimelerini söylerken niyetini halis kılması ve tüm bunları yaparken ayinle ilgili bütün çevresel unsurların da hazır edilmesini sağlaması gerekmektedir. Bu yasalar ve ibadet kitaplarındaki yönergeler rahibin davranışlarını, sözlerini, hareketlerini, hatta gözlerini nereye çevireceğini bile o denli kesin hatlarla belirler ki; Evharistiya Ayininde rahip sadece bir vekil hükmündedir. Kendinden ayine bir şey katamaz. Çünkü Hıristiyanlara göre rahip bile Tanrı İsa Mesih’in kurtarışına muhtaçtır. Bu yasalara uyulduğu sürece bütün Katolik Kilisesinde aynı şekilde icra olunan bu Sakrament vasıtasıyla ortak bir davranış birliği sağlanır.