Artículos de revistas sobre el tema "Commerce, Germany and United States, 1907"

This article examines the geo-economic consequences of the financial panic of October 1907. The vulnerability of the United States, but also of Germany, contrasted with the absence of a crisis in Great Britain. The experience showed the fast-growing industrial powers the desirability of mobilizing financial power, and the article examines the contributions of two influential brothers, Max and Paul Warburg, on different sides of the Atlantic. The discussion led to the establishment of a central bank in the United States and institutional improvements in German central banking: in both cases security as well as economic considerations played a substantial role.

The article deals with the latest trends in US trade in electronic services, in particular audiovisual services, computer services and data processing services, telecommunication services. Since 2007 trade of audiovisual services has been the most significant in theUSe-services export. The largest consumers of these services are the European Union, Asia and the Pacific region (the main consumers areChinaandIndia) and Central and South America (BrazilandArgentina). Among the countries, the main importers of American audiovisual services are theUK,CanadaandGermany. The main share of audiovisual services is occupied by film distribution and streaming media. In theUSAaudiovisual services are imported by theUK,Brazil,Mexico,CanadaandArgentina. For several years there is a deficit in the trade turnover of computer services in theUnited States. The main importers of these services from theUnited Statesare theUnited Kingdom.Canada,Switzerland,India,Germany. TheUSA, in turn, uses computer services fromIndia(47%),Canada,Ireland, theUKandGermany. The American telecommunications market is about a quarter of the world's, so theUSAis the largest national market for this type of service. The importing countries of theUStelecommunications services are theUnited Kingdom,Mexico,India,Canadaand theNetherlands, and the main export consumers areBrazil,Argentina, theUnited Kingdom,VenezuelaandCanada.

On August 17, 1993, the United States Department of Commerce (USDOC) imposed definitive countervailing duties (CVDs) on carbon steel originating in Germany. The imposition of these duties was based on an investigation by USDOC in which it was determined that certain German producers had benefited from five countervailable subsidy programs at a total ad valorem rate of 0.60 percent.

Florence Bascom (1862-1945) was a USGS field geologist who trained a subsequent generation of earth scientists at Bryn Mawr College. Recent literature on the history of women in science has identified several of them, including Ida Ogilvie, Eleanora Bliss Knopf, Anna Jonas Stose, and Julia Gardner. By contrast, Mary W. Porter (1886-1980), who went on to become a crystallographer at Oxford, is virtually unknown. Both Bascom and Porter studied crystallography in the laboratory of Victor Goldschmidt (1853-1933) at the University of Heidelberg. A fifteen-year segment of the decades-long correspondence among these mutual friends reveals the personal significance of Goldschmidt, his wife, and Porter to Bascom; the enabling roles that Bascom and Goldschmidt played in the education of Porter, who had had little formal schooling; and some effects of the First World War on the science of crystallography in Germany, England, and the United States.

The use of smart technologies, the internet of things (IoT), social media, and others produce a billion or more pieces of data in different formats. Big data has risen to become the most sought-after field in computer science. The e-commerce evolved significantly and continued to flow until now and even after the pandemic. So, big data technologies helped with the development and approach to collecting, storing, processing, and extracting the data in this field. This paper proposes an application programming interface (API) data extractor tool applied to a collection of e-commerce public websites named “Klarna dataset” to extract its data, and an analysis of the results. The study of e-commerce sales has given results matching universal e-commerce sales tendencies. The peak of the number of e-commerce transactions and sales was between 2018-2019. Thus, the highest e-commerce sales price was in the United States for “luxury” or “fancy” products, and the highest sales in Europe were in Frankfurt, Germany, for hardware and gaming material.

With the rapid evolution of e-commerce, existing Chinese laws have struggled to keep pace with complex issues arising from digital transactions involving intellectual property, especially when addressing indirect patent infringement on e-commerce platforms. By conducting a comparative analysis with international laws from Germany, Japan, and the United States, the paper identifies robust legal frameworks that explicitly address indirect infringements in the digital marketplace. The paper proposes several legislative improvements for China, including the clarification of what constitutes indirect infringement, the outlining of explicit duties for e-commerce platforms, and the creation of specialized mechanisms for dispute resolution. On the judicial front, recommendations include enhancing the specialization of courts and judges in intellectual property, developing detailed procedural guidelines, and promoting alternative dispute resolution methods to mitigate the burdens of litigation. By adopting and adapting these recommandations, China can enhance its protection of intellectual property rights and support the dynamic environment of innovation that e-commerce fosters. Strengthening the legal framework in this way is crucial for ensuring fair competition and encouraging technological advancements within China's digital economy.

During a brief period—1898 to 1907—the “American danger” proved a powerful slogan in Europe. Propaganda campaigns were launched that targeted the new ambitions of the emerging economic power. Historians have studied this episode but only as one among many examples of anti-Americanism embedded in European intellectual traditions. This paper insists on the distinctive character of this episode. It refutes the notion of anti-Americanism as the explanation most relevant to this episode and even questions the possibility of opposing Europe to the United States at a time of constant transnational circulation inside the “Atlantic world.” Disputing the idea that a common fear of American superiority united Europeans, the study reveals how people in England, France, and Germany used the “American danger” to put forward their own ideas of the national interest, which explains why the theme did not meet with the same success in each of these countries. Finally, the author offers the hypothesis that the “American danger” was less the expression of fear—as the Yellow Peril could be—and more a rallying cry for economic circles motivated by defense of their sectional interests and by a desire for national union in a time of deep political division.

This article counters a common misconception that business was universally opposed to air pollution control at the beginning of the twentieth century. In comparing the reaction of German and American businessmen to smoke abatement efforts before World War I, it shows that behavior was primarily shaped by national culture, rather than by a general desire to “externalize costs.” German smoke abatement did not meet significant resistance from industrialists, with regulation being based on a general consensus of all parties involved—a process which turned out to be as much a chance for abatement as it was an impediment for reforms. The American business community was split into two factions: those opposed to smoke abatement because they feared additional costs and the intrusion of factories by officials, and others, frequently organized in Chambers of Commerce or similar civic associations, who took a broader perspective and argued that the economic prospects of their city were at stake. The ultimate success of the latter group was largely due to changes in strategy, which allowed businessmen to develop a more positive attitude toward smoke abatement while simultaneously increasing the effectiveness of regulation. Business, therefore, should not be viewed as an inevitably “negative force” in environmental regulation.

The article delves into a comparative study of the legal regime of smart contracts in Russia, Germany and the United States. In-depth analysis of the concept, normative support, technological and legal nature of smart-contracts is carried out, the areas of application of this tool in civil law transactions and other legal relations are highlighted. Significant conclusions were obtained. Firstly, in the legal systems under consideration there is still no unambiguous definition of a smart contract. Secondly, a smart contract is understood to a greater extent as a program code embedded in websites or mobile applications, providing a number of elements of the procedural side of various transactions, rather than as an equivalent of a civil law contract. Thirdly, the areas of application of smart contracts are constantly expanding, they are used in the work of e-government, banking, e-commerce, electoral processes, and other legal relations. This requires the active activity of legislators in the countries in question.

One hundred years ago, on April 6, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson led the United States into the First World War. Four days earlier, in his war message to Congress, he gave his rationale for declaring war against Imperial Germany and for creating a new world order. He now viewed German submarine attacks against neutral as well as belligerent shipping as a threat to the whole world, not just the United States. “The present German submarine warfare against commerce is a warfare against mankind,” he claimed. “It is a war against all nations.” He now believed that Germany had violated the moral standards that “citizens of civilized states” should uphold. The president explained: “We are at the beginning of an age in which it will be insisted that the same standards of conduct and responsibility for wrong done shall be observed among nations and their governments that are observed among the individual citizens of civilized states.” He focused on protecting democracy against the German regime of Kaiser Wilhelm II. “A steadfast concert for peace,” he said, “can never be maintained except by a partnership of democratic nations. No autocratic government could be trusted to keep faith within it or observe its covenants.” Wilson called on Congress to vote for war not just because Imperial Germany had sunk three American ships, but for the larger purpose of a new world order. He affirmed: “We are glad, now that we see the facts with no veil of false pretense about them, to fight thus for the ultimate peace of the world and for the liberation of its peoples, the German peoples included: for the rights of nations great and small and the privilege of men everywhere to choose their way of life and of obedience. The world must be made safe for democracy. Its peace must be planted upon the tested foundation of political liberty.”

The article provides a detailed analysis of life and professional career of Rudolf Wierer (1907–1986), professor of canon law at the Faculty of Law of Masaryk University. Based on an analysis of archival materials from several Czech archives and a critical study of the memoirs of Wierer’s wife Bohumila, the article provides brand new biographical information about Rudolf Wierer that have never been published before. After the end of the Second World War, Wierer was investigated in Czechoslovakia as a part of the so-called retributive trials for his alleged activities during the period the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. He was never convicted, however, because he managed to escape to Germany, where he became involved in Czechoslovak exile organizations and resumed his academic career as a professor at the Ukrainian Free University. In the 1960s he emigrated to the United States, where he held lectures on history at first and later worked as a librarian.

Traditional media companies increasingly search for know-how and novel input outside their own networks to keep up with the rapidly changing environment. As an instrument to explore and exploit new business opportunities, corporate venture capital (CVC) has become particularly important. However, there is little research on the CVC investments by legacy media companies, despite these having been responsible for some of the largest investments in past years. To lay a foundation for research in this field, we investigate how traditional media companies organize their CVC activities. Using an extensive analysis of the 90 largest legacy media companies in Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, we explore the organizational structure, investment objectives, investment focus, and industry related- ness of investments. Our findings show the majority of investments are conducted through different forms of direct investments, predominantly focusing on strategic goals and using both exploration and exploitation. Moreover, we identify a trend toward investments in content- and commerce-related fields.

The article considers the importance of e-commerce in modern market conditions. E-commerce is a huge part of the whole economy and is vital for businesses that sell their products or services online. It gives businesses the ability to reach more customers than traditional retailers. Because so many people shop online, this is the fastest retail market. The main purpose of Internet marketing is revealed. Due to the high bandwidth of the information flow, the system (Internet) is the main link in the exchange of goods, services and information today. Almost all businesses in the world are focused on improving Internet connections to increase the efficiency of business. For many entrepreneurs, the Internet is the main way to spread information about their products and invitations to cooperate. The place and role of e-commerce as an effective marketing tool are substantiated. The leading countries that have achieved the greatest success in the field of e-commerce include: China, the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, Germany, France, South Korea, Canada, Brazil. According to various estimates, about 70% of the population of Ukraine uses the Internet. A year ago, this figure was 60%, ie during the pandemic, the level of Internet use increased significantly. Almost 33% of the adult population regularly shop online. This audience is growing gradually, but it is important to note that we are talking about regular online purchases. Virtually all Internet users have already had the experience of at least some online shopping. The COVID-19 pandemic has shaken economic markets and dramatically changed the daily lives of many people and companies around the world. It is difficult to find any aspect of human life that would not suffer, the corona crisis has changed the world of e-commerce. As millions of people stayed home in early 2020 to curb the spread of the virus, digital channels have become the most popular choice of replacement for crowded stores and personal shopping. Thus, e-commerce is a global phenomenon that is growing at a healthy pace in almost every country. And in a global economy and crisis, e-commerce has become one of the most important components, a strong catalyst for economic development and an effective marketing tool in today’s volatile market conditions.

This research explores the evolving role of consumer protection laws for enhancing market fairness, accountability, and transparency (FAT) to facilitate informed consumer decision-making within the digital economy. Exploring international standards by The United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection (UNGCP), the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the United Nations on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), as well as regional initiatives like the European Commission's, the study investigates circular economy principles for consumer resilience and marginalized groups such as low-income populations and rural communities. Utilizing a normative and exploratory research approach, data is gathered from global policy documents and scholarly sources. Comparative qualitative analysis is conducted to identify standard practices. The significance of adopting consumer protection frameworks to study the intricacies of digital transactions and environmental sustainability and its impact on consumer protection law, which will help citizens make informed decisions. This study highlights innovative strategies, such as the OECD’s guidelines for e-commerce and national policies promoting circular economy principles. By exploring case studies from countries like Germany, the Netherlands, China, Japan, India and Oman for circular economy practices and Sweden, the United States, Armenia, Australia and Oman for financial sector improvements, the research provides the framework for improving consumer protection policies globally.

The COVID-19 pandemic that occurred throughout 2020 has an impact on economic sector. Consumers tend to use online channels to reduce face-to-face contact with marketers or other consumers. On the other hand, the consumer's need to see, touch and feel a product directly is only available in physical stores. This study aims to analyze the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on retail consumer behavior. This study uses quantitative methods with secondary data sources obtained from several countries including the United States, England, Germany, France, Canada and Latin America. The results show that the shopping trends during the COVID-19 pandemic are webrooming and pure online shopping. Retail sales data in these countries shows that retail sales in physical stores exceed 70% of total retail sales and retail e-commerce sales are less than 30% of total retail sales. This research is expected to be useful for marketers in improving retail marketing strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic

International commerce can be determined by the political climate between the exporter and the importer. Arms transfers are a much complex process, where beyond economic factors, alliance ties, security perception and defence planning are also considered. Still, they might not be independent of political relations. This paper aims to capture the arms supplier–recipient relations between the Visegrád countries and Russia, the United States and Germany from 1999 to 2020. More specifically, how do the two factors affect each other: are good political relations necessary for arms deals? Or do arms deals facilitate a friendly political climate? Our conclusion is as follows. On the one hand, a cooperative political climate increases the probability of arms deals, but they are not a necessity, as mutual benefits and security perceptions can override the current political climate. On the other hand, however, arms transfers can deepen cooperation or alleviate the existing differences between the parties.

International commerce can be determined by the political climate between the exporter and the importer. Arms transfers are a much complex process, where beyond economic factors, alliance ties, security perception and defence planning are also considered. Still, they might not be independent of political relations. This paper aims to capture the arms supplier–recipient relations between the Visegrád countries and Russia, the United States and Germany from 1999 to 2020. More specifically, how do the two factors affect each other: are good political relations necessary for arms deals? Or do arms deals facilitate a friendly political climate? Our conclusion is as follows. On the one hand, a cooperative political climate increases the probability of arms deals, but they are not a necessity, as mutual benefits and security perceptions can override the current political climate. On the other hand, however, arms transfers can deepen cooperation or alleviate the existing differences between the parties.

Rabbi Simon Glazer’s 1909 daily journal provides a window onto his role as an orthodox rabbi of a largely Yiddish-speaking immigrant community, his interactions with Jewish newcomers, the range of tasks he performed to augment the inadequate stipends he received from a consortium of five city synagogues where he was chief rabbi, and the ways in which Jewish newcomers sought to become economically independent. Using a multidisciplinary methodology, including Historical Geographic Information Systems (HGIS), Glazer’s journal offers a new lens through which to view and map the social geography of this community. Our study contributes to a growing body of literature on immigrant settlement, which has shown that such clustering encouraged economic independence and social mobility. Characterized by a high degree of diversity in ethnicity and commerce, the St. Lawrence Boulevard corridor was an ideal location for Jewish newcomers to set down roots. We argue that the community served as a springboard for social mobility and that Simon Glazer played an important role at a critical moment in its early development. It was on its way to becoming one of Canada’s most significant Jewish communities. Over the eleven years that he worked in Montreal (1907–18), Glazer carved out a vital place for himself in the city’s Jewish immigrant community and honed skills that would serve him well when he returned to the United States.

This research intends to cover the process of establishment of the U.S.–Saudi relations, and the factors it was influenced by. It is based on the study of the U.S. foreign policy documents. The research has revealed that the United States recognized the government of the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd (February 1931) after an agreement was reached to elevate its diplomatic representation in Iraq to the ambassadorial level. That means that the U.S. prioritized relations with the Kingdom of Iraq to relations with the Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd. The United States recognized the government of the King Ibn Saud due to commercial interests. Hereafter the Department of State initiated the U.S.–Saudi Provisional Agreement in regard to Diplomatic and Consular Representation, Juridical Protection, Commerce and Navigation, signed in November 1933. It was aimed at protecting the rights of the U.S. citizens, who worked in the Kingdom since 1931, especially after obtaining the oil concession by the California Standard Oil company in May 1933. However, the diplomatic representative to Saudi Arabia was not appointed. This issue was mainstreamed when commercial volumes of oil were discovered in Saudi Arabia in 1938, the U.S. oil company signed its second concession agreement in 1939, and the U. S. commercial interests in Saudi Arabia had significantly increased. Besides, the representatives of Great Britain, Germany and Japan intensified their activities to obtain oil concessions in Saudi Arabia. The King Ibn Saud highly appreciated exclusively commercial U.S. interests, the absence of its intentions to expand political influence or to take over Saudi territories. For these reasons, he preferred cooperation with the United States to other nations. The U.S.–Saudi diplomatic relations were established on February 4, 1940, when B. Fish, who was the U. S. Minister–resident in Egypt, presented his credentials to the King Ibn Saud. The decision to establish diplomatic representation in Saudi Arabia was taken in June–July 1939. It was caused by the increasing competition for Saudi oil, not a beginning of the World War, as some scholars suggest.

Abstract Background Interstitial cystitis (IC) or bladder pain syndrome (BPS) is highly painful and disabling and probably the most misdiagnosed urologic condition. Its classic symptoms of perineal pain, urinary urgency, and frequency despite sterile urine cultures were already described more than a century ago in a report on soldiers during World War (WW) I due to chronic pudendal nerve compression. Objectives This article translates a report from 1915 on pudendal neuropathy and discusses its author Georg Zülzer (1870–1949). Methods An English translation of the German original is provided with the biography and work of Zülzer, his clinical observations are discussed regarding modern diagnosis and therapy of pudendal nerve compression. Results In his article entitled “Irritation of the Pudendal Nerve (Neuralgia). A Frequent Clinical Picture during War Feigning Bladder Catarrh,” Zülzer describes his observation of soldiers during WW I, presenting with a triad of perineal pain, urinary urgency, and frequency despite sterile urine cultures excluding urinary infections. He also documented a characteristic skin hypersensibility of the perineum in a rhomboid shape which corresponds to the innervation area of the pudendal nerve with its two branches deriving from the “pudendal plexus.” He regards this symptomology as rare during peace, but as disease of trench warfare which can be easily diagnosed regarding clear urine and a painful skin island overlying the area of the pudendal nerve as tested by simple needle examination. Zülzer, born in Germany, was forced to emigrate to the United States in 1934, was also an important pioneer of diabetes research using pancreas extracts from dogs as early as 1907. Conclusion In this historical description, dating from about a century ago, Georg Zülzer probably gave the first exact clinical description of symptoms due to pudendal nerve compression. Pudendal nerve compression should always be taken into account when examining and treating patients with symptoms of IC/BPS.

The article considers the phenomenon of European-Chinese cooperation in the context of the transformation of Eurasia as an international region. Particular attention is paid to the development of China’s relations with the countries of Eastern and Central Europe and the Western Balkans; the features of China’s interaction with the countries of Southern Europe are revealed. The paper provides an analysis of factors influencing the correlation and struggle between new trends in the process of the innovation space formation in Eurasia. The role of Europe and China in the development of new transit routes across and around Eurasia is being studied. Its features include a combination of land and sea routes. Europe and China are synergistic within financial, industrial, and e-commerce complementarities. The article investigates the role of Chinese trade and investment in Europe with a particular focus on intensity of the latter toward the industrial heart of Europe: Germany and the Visegrad 4 countries. It highlights the German–Central-Eastern European Manufacturing Core as one of the most competitive industrial bases of Sino-European cooperation. Deepening Sino-European ties across Eurasia, leveraged by new technologies, give the continent integrity in global geo-economic terms. The paper assesses the current evolution of EU – China relations, which expanded greatly in geographic terms and diversity. The article seeks to explain that the interaction between China and Europe has social, economic, and even political dimensions, with potentially long-term implications for the structure of world affairs. Europe and China are the largest entities in Eurasia and in the international system, apart from the United States. The authors conclude that Sino-European reunification is contributing to a new phase in the transformation of Eurasia and to its rising significance in global political and economic governance.

Nowadays, the online business is fast-growing since it is convenient, more profitable, and less energy-consuming. The changing consumers’ needs force companies and organizations to adjust and modernize their marketing strategies. The authors emphasized that Internet advertising channels would overcome the traditional ones. Therefore, it is relevant to consider the latest trends in e-commerce to provide effective advertising campaigns. This study aims to conduct the competitive analysis of Ukrainian veterinary enterprises’ websites as one of the key marketing management determinants. The study object are the most prominent Ukrainian veterinary enterprises. The methodological basis for this paper includes trend, bibliometric, and comparative content analysis. The trend analysis results showed a constant interest in web management worldwide. In turn, there are significant fluctuations over the previous five years in Ukraine. The findings indicated that search requests for «pharmaceutics» worldwide are gradually increasing, while there is not enough statistic data in Ukraine. The bibliometric analysis for Scopus publications addressed the marketing management in the pharmaceutical were visualized by 4 clusters. The first cluster covers marketing, management, and risk issues; the second – pharmaceutical industry, the third – economy; and the fourth – quality control. The findings showed that veterinary medicine was mostly associated with drug efficacy, management, investment, management, risk, organization and management, patents, and quality control. This issue has been most actively studied by scientists from the United States, Britain, Germany, India, and Italy. This study provided the comparative analysis of veterinary enterprises web sites based on the main indicators as follows: usability, site structure, site indexation, number of external pages, overall traffic, behavioral factors (bounce rate, pages per visit, time on site), traffic sources (direct, referrals, SEO, SMM, e-mail, and display advertising), and adaptability to the mobile versions. The obtained results showed that all Ukrainian biological vaccines manufacturers for animals were represented on the Internet. In turn, as of September 2020, Biotestlab most effectively used the Internet to promote products. In second place is the Sumy Biological Factory, and then – Kherson Biological Factory.

AbstractThis commentary reviews the origins and context in which the author's conception of ‘geoeconomics’ emerged. As such, it responds to Mallin and Sidaway's (2023) genealogical reconstruction of geoeconomics, rejecting their association of the concept with the ultra‐nationalistic iterations of Geoökonomie in Weimar Germany. The author reflects on the reception of his notion of geoeconomics, highlighting the contrasting fortunes of the associated ideas in France and the United States.

The rapid spread of information technologies, in combination with the new stage of development of economic relations, contribute to the spread of electronic commerce. Spreading everywhere and offering an increasingly wide range of goods and services, electronic commerce becomes a tool for integrating individuals, enterprises, industries, government institutions, and states into a single community, within which the interaction of partners is effectively and smoothly realized using information and telecommunication technologies. The advantages of using the Internet attract an increasing number of participants who seek to take advantage of new opportunities for doing business, making sales, and purchases. The article examines today’s largest e-commerce markets in the global economy. It was determined that in the current conditions on the world market of international electronic trade, several global centers of electronic commerce have formed, which are significantly ahead of the rest of the world regarding market size, development rates, and the spread of information and communication technologies. Three leaders in the global e-commerce market have been identified: China, which quickly improved the direction of e-commerce; the market of the United States of America, which was the first to develop the order of e-commerce and held the lead for a long time; and the member states of the European Union. The research investigated the main modern trends in the e-commerce markets of China, the United States of America, and the European Union. The largest e-commerce markets were formed in China and the USA, which account for more than half of all global online sales in international trade. Although these countries have a constantly growing volume of the electronic market, the Chinese market is considered more promising. This is because China has a large population and low Internet penetration, indicating its great potential. At a time when in the USA, about two-thirds of the entire population already has Internet access and conducts transactions on the network, in Europe the undisputed e-commerce market leaders are Germany and France, which account for 81.5% of online sales in Europe.

Germany's Basic Law assigns primary jurisdiction over constitutional issues to Germany's Constitutional Court and requires other courts to suspend their proceedings and refer constitutional issues that are critical to resolution of any pending case to the Constitutional Court. In the United States, the Supreme Court has broad appellate and, in some cases, original jurisdiction; and its authority to review legislative action for conflict [*262] with the Constitution became clear early in the Court's history. Unlike Germany, however, lower courts also have jurisdiction to decide constitutional issues, subject of course to eventual Supreme Court review.While the U.S. Supreme Court has resolved many tax controversies, with taxpayers raising constitutional questions in a number of cases addressing questions of federal tax law, only infrequently has the Court found a federal taxing statute to violate a constitutionally protected right or privilege. Rarely has the Supreme Court looked to the Constitution and decided that a federal tax law violated the Constitution. Never has the Supreme Court held a federal tax law to conflict with the Bill of Rights. Many more decisions involve challenges to state tax statutes as in conflict with the U.S. Constitution. Often those state law cases combine claims under several provisions of the Constitution, including the Commerce Clause, Due Process, and Equal Protection. In reviewing state tax [*263] statutes for compliance with constitutional standards, the Court consistently has applied its "rational basis test," its least intrusive standard of review. Under that test, a statute is valid so long as the legislature has a rational basis for its enactment. The decisions predominantly uphold the state taxing statute. Occasionally, the Court limits states' taxing power or their tax collection authority over non- residents.

Abstract After defeating the 20th-century challengers to the international order, the United States must today calibrate its response to the rise of the PRC, whose foreign policy poses problems both for policy-makers and IR scholars. Wilhelmine and Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan and USSR have left a heavy mark on the scholarship on revisionist threats and their management. Like the mythological Titans, these states launched their challenge all the way to ‘Olympus’: they longed to build a new international order by war or a large-scale and long-standing competition. However, the myth of Prometheus teaches us that this ‘revolutionary’ path is not the only road for secondary states to gain primacy. Revisionism can also take a more careful shape, both by means and objectives. The article preliminarily discusses the understudied type of careful revisionism and distinguishes the subtypes of ‘incrementals’, ‘moderates’ and ‘gamblers’. These more nuanced forms compel status quo power(s) to face a dilemma between two strategic options: engagement or confrontation. Then it posits that a wisely gauged assessment of the careful revisionist challenge by the dominant power must inevitably lay at the basis of any grand strategy for preserving the status quo and preventing systemic change. Finally, it tests this hypothesis by investigating the confrontation between a dominant power – the United Kingdom – and six careful revisionists – namely the United States (1814–1860), the Kingdom of Sardinia/Italy (1852–1882), France (1875–1904), Russian Empire (1864–1907), Imperial Japan (1919–1936) and Fascist Italy (1922–1935).

At the end of the 19th and at the beginning of the 20th century, Tatars of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania started migrating to new lands and countries including England, Argentina and America. They were looking for work and the USA became their preferred country. Many Tatars returned back to homeland, but most of them stayed in America and succeeded. Tatars from Ivje, Navahradak, Mir, Kleck, Tavsiuny, Milkuny, Śviańciany, Dokšycy, Uzda, Śmiłavičy, Minsk, Vilnia and other settlements of Russian Empire before the World War I founded their registered society in New York in 1907. It was the first Muslim organization in the USA. They also founded the Muslim mizars in the Maple Grove and Cedar Grove cemeteries in New York. They started teaching children and bought a building for mosque in 1930. Tatars provided the annual dances and picnics, organized the funding (dues, fees, fines, loans, donations) for payment of expenses, helped the Society members (death and illness benefits) and Muslims in other countries including the former homeland (Ivje in 1922, Niekrašuncy, Warszawa in 1945 and etc.). They published a newspaper, the prayer books. They took part in the main historical events in the USA: the World War I, the World War II, Korean and Vietnam wars, post-war occupation of Germany, etc. Unfortunately, the Society had been developed until 1960s (member quantity was more than 300) and now it is in decline due to assimilation and migration. This article is devoted to the Tatar society of the USA. It is based on the results of study of family collections, oral stories, archival documents (Ellis Island cases, certificates of birth, death, marriage, draft) and pictures. The organization structure, the names of the famous Tatars and the Society board members (presidents, vice-presidents, secretaries, treasurers, imams, teachers, bank account holders, funeral committee members, etc.), the information about two cemeteries are re- vealed and provided.

This paper reviews recent carsharing and car rental research bibliometrically. The study examines the evolution, structure, and boundaries of Web of Science-reviewed carsharing and car rental research. VOSviewer and SPSS 22 evaluated 204 vehicle rental and 574 carsharing articles in the WOS core collection. A gradual rise in car rental and carsharing studies is shown. China and the US produce the most carsharing and rental publications, respectively. China is the most productive country for carsharing publications and the United States for car rental publications. While China and the United States cooperate on carsharing, the United States cooperates with other countries (Canada, Germany, England, France, Australia, Portugal, Taiwan, Israel) on car rental. Co-occurrence network analysis shows that carsharing has five main themes: sharing economy, electric vehicles, transportation, shared mobility, and mobility as a service, while car rental research has four main themes: revenue management, transportation, quality service, and e-commerce. Carsharing and car rental studies share transportation themes. Carsharing subjects include transportation, engineering, business economics, environmental science ecology, science technology, and computer science, while car rental subjects include management, operations research, economics, transportation, business, transportation science technology, business finance, engineering, tourism, and environmental science. Car rental concerns vary by management, tourism, and finance. Tourism literature neglects car hire. This study thoroughly reviews 26 years of automobile rental and 22 years of carsharing literature. Thus, it can help academics comprehend automobile rental and carsharing studies and direct future research.

Nowadays, content marketing is a marketing strategy used by marketers to organize, produce, and share information in order to draw in certain audiences and persuade them to make purchases. As a result, marketers are devoting a significant amount of time in producing quality content that raises awareness of their brand and piques the interest of their target audience. Consequently, the purpose of the research is to examine various published articles in content marketing to identify key themes and the extent to which research has influenced content marketing utilizing bibliometric analysis of 414 papers published in Scopus database between 1999 and 2023. The result of the study depicts that content marketing is growing at fast pace with the growing use of digital and social media marketing. The top three nations contributing to the field of content marketing are the “United States,” the “United Kingdom,” and “Germany.” Five themes have been identified as follows: Integrated digital marketing ecosystem, strategic B2B digital branding, AI-driven consumer-centric marketing, crafting a data-infused digital narrative: unveiling the intricate dance between big data, consumer behavior, and digital content marketing, and exploring the dynamic landscape of modern commerce. In accordance to the results, the primary authors and contributions in the field have been recognized, facilitating the formulation of guidelines and directions for potential research.

We draw insights from Activity Theory within the field of human-computer interaction to quantitatively measure a mobile in-store experience (MIX), which includes the suite of shopping activities and retail services that a consumer can engage in when using their mobile device in brick-and-mortar stores. We developed and validated a nine-item, formative MIX index using survey data collected from fashion consumers in the United States (n = 1,267), United Kingdom (n = 370), Germany (n = 362), and France (n = 219). As survey measures of consumer engagement in omnichannel retailing using a mobile device, the index items with stronger factor loadings described in-store shopping activities whereas those with weaker factor loadings described activities related to behavioral targeting and social networking. These results suggest that retailers should give consumers the autonomy to independently find, evaluate and purchase merchandise in brick-and-mortar stores, thereby enabling them to co-create personalized shopping experiences as active participants within an omnichannel retail servicescape. Our findings also suggest that retailers should provide consumers with more authentic ways to build community and brand affiliations than mobile marketing and social media promotions. In-store activities should not simply be a migration of pre-existing e-commerce capabilities onto mobile devices. An engaging mobile in-store experience should be an amalgam of physical and digital activities that produce a seamless shopping journey and leverage the unique properties of mobile devices – ultra-portability, location sensitivity, untetheredness, and personalization. Retail executives can use the validated MIX index to prepare strategic investments in mobile technology applications and capabilities for retail stores within their omnichannel operations. The nine-item MIX index is also well-suited for consumer surveys, which also makes it an attractive measure of consumer engagement in omnichannel retailing for future academic research.

Globalization has greatly influenced the homogenization of consumer tastes, on the one hand, identifying the need to take into account global development goals in each area of economic activity, and on the other hand, has demanded an individual approach in many industries. These factors have significantly impacted the global market for perishable equipment. Not so many works in the economic sphere have been devoted to the development of packing equipment as a separate sector of mechanical engineering, which has made this research relevant. In the article the author conducted a study of the state and trends of the world market of packaging equipment. Both global trends and features of regional development of this product market are considered. It is determined that the main trends that have a significant impact on the global packaging equipment market in the current period and are likely to dominate in the near future are the reduction of material consumption of packaging, ensuring its compliance with modern logistics, growth of e-commerce. The role of such factors as the barrier properties of packaging, its safety and ease of use by end users is increasing. Increasingly used personalization of the packaging solution, increasing the share of production and use of active packaging, augmented reality products. It is determined that one of the main trends observed in the market of packaging machines is the world export of packaging equipment from five major countries: Germany, Italy, the United States, China and Japan dominate the global packaging and export market. All these countries receive a significant amount of income from the sale of packaging equipment around the world. Germany and Italy are known for supplying the modern market with high-tech packaging equipment. However, China has secured a strong market position due to its exports of low-cost packaging equipment with comparable production. Most countries in the world do not have a strong production base for the production of packaging machines. Based on the study, we can say that the need for packaging equipment will grow every year. In the course of the study, we decided to confirm one of the postulates given in the previous sections, that the growing population in the world has a positive impact on the packaging equipment market.

The term “coffee palace” was primarily used in Australia to describe the temperance hotels that were built in the last decades of the 19th century, although there are references to the term also being used to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom (Denby 174). Built in response to the worldwide temperance movement, which reached its pinnacle in the 1880s in Australia, coffee palaces were hotels that did not serve alcohol. This was a unique time in Australia’s architectural development as the economic boom fuelled by the gold rush in the 1850s, and the demand for ostentatious display that gathered momentum during the following years, afforded the use of richly ornamental High Victorian architecture and resulted in very majestic structures; hence the term “palace” (Freeland 121). The often multi-storied coffee palaces were found in every capital city as well as regional areas such as Geelong and Broken Hill, and locales as remote as Maria Island on the east coast of Tasmania. Presented as upholding family values and discouraging drunkenness, the coffee palaces were most popular in seaside resorts such as Barwon Heads in Victoria, where they catered to families. Coffee palaces were also constructed on a grand scale to provide accommodation for international and interstate visitors attending the international exhibitions held in Sydney (1879) and Melbourne (1880 and 1888). While the temperance movement lasted well over 100 years, the life of coffee palaces was relatively short-lived. Nevertheless, coffee palaces were very much part of Australia’s cultural landscape. In this article, I examine the rise and demise of coffee palaces associated with the temperance movement and argue that coffee palaces established in the name of abstinence were modelled on the coffee houses that spread throughout Europe and North America in the 17th and 18th centuries during the Enlightenment—a time when the human mind could be said to have been liberated from inebriation and the dogmatic state of ignorance. The Temperance Movement At a time when newspapers are full of lurid stories about binge-drinking and the alleged ill-effects of the liberalisation of licensing laws, as well as concerns over the growing trend of marketing easy-to-drink products (such as the so-called “alcopops”) to teenagers, it is difficult to think of a period when the total suppression of the alcohol trade was seriously debated in Australia. The cause of temperance has almost completely vanished from view, yet for well over a century—from 1830 to the outbreak of the Second World War—the control or even total abolition of the liquor trade was a major political issue—one that split the country, brought thousands onto the streets in demonstrations, and influenced the outcome of elections. Between 1911 and 1925 referenda to either limit or prohibit the sale of alcohol were held in most States. While moves to bring about abolition failed, Fitzgerald notes that almost one in three Australian voters expressed their support for prohibition of alcohol in their State (145). Today, the temperance movement’s platform has largely been forgotten, killed off by the practical example of the United States, where prohibition of the legal sale of alcohol served only to hand control of the liquor traffic to organised crime. Coffee Houses and the Enlightenment Although tea has long been considered the beverage of sobriety, it was coffee that came to be regarded as the very antithesis of alcohol. When the first coffee house opened in London in the early 1650s, customers were bewildered by this strange new drink from the Middle East—hot, bitter, and black as soot. But those who tried coffee were, reports Ellis, soon won over, and coffee houses were opened across London, Oxford, and Cambridge and, in the following decades, Europe and North America. Tea, equally exotic, entered the English market slightly later than coffee (in 1664), but was more expensive and remained a rarity long after coffee had become ubiquitous in London (Ellis 123-24). The impact of the introduction of coffee into Europe during the seventeenth century was particularly noticeable since the most common beverages of the time, even at breakfast, were weak “small beer” and wine. Both were safer to drink than water, which was liable to be contaminated. Coffee, like beer, was made using boiled water and, therefore, provided a new and safe alternative to alcoholic drinks. There was also the added benefit that those who drank coffee instead of alcohol began the day alert rather than mildly inebriated (Standage 135). It was also thought that coffee had a stimulating effect upon the “nervous system,” so much so that the French called coffee une boisson intellectuelle (an intellectual beverage), because of its stimulating effect on the brain (Muskett 71). In Oxford, the British called their coffee houses “penny universities,” a penny then being the price of a cup of coffee (Standage 158). Coffee houses were, moreover, more than places that sold coffee. Unlike other institutions of the period, rank and birth had no place (Ellis 59). The coffee house became the centre of urban life, creating a distinctive social culture by treating all customers as equals. Egalitarianism, however, did not extend to women—at least not in London. Around its egalitarian (but male) tables, merchants discussed and conducted business, writers and poets held discussions, scientists demonstrated experiments, and philosophers deliberated ideas and reforms. For the price of a cup (or “dish” as it was then known) of coffee, a man could read the latest pamphlets and newsletters, chat with other patrons, strike business deals, keep up with the latest political gossip, find out what other people thought of a new book, or take part in literary or philosophical discussions. Like today’s Internet, Twitter, and Facebook, Europe’s coffee houses functioned as an information network where ideas circulated and spread from coffee house to coffee house. In this way, drinking coffee in the coffee house became a metaphor for people getting together to share ideas in a sober environment, a concept that remains today. According to Standage, this information network fuelled the Enlightenment (133), prompting an explosion of creativity. Coffee houses provided an entirely new environment for political, financial, scientific, and literary change, as people gathered, discussed, and debated issues within their walls. Entrepreneurs and scientists teamed up to form companies to exploit new inventions and discoveries in manufacturing and mining, paving the way for the Industrial Revolution (Standage 163). The stock market and insurance companies also had their birth in the coffee house. As a result, coffee was seen to be the epitome of modernity and progress and, as such, was the ideal beverage for the Age of Reason. By the 19th century, however, the era of coffee houses had passed. Most of them had evolved into exclusive men’s clubs, each geared towards a certain segment of society. Tea was now more affordable and fashionable, and teahouses, which drew clientele from both sexes, began to grow in popularity. Tea, however, had always been Australia’s most popular non-alcoholic drink. Tea (and coffee) along with other alien plants had been part of the cargo unloaded onto Australian shores with the First Fleet in 1788. Coffee, mainly from Brazil and Jamaica, remained a constant import but was taxed more heavily than tea and was, therefore, more expensive. Furthermore, tea was much easier to make than coffee. To brew tea, all that is needed is to add boiling water, coffee, in contrast, required roasting, grinding and brewing. According to Symons, until the 1930s, Australians were the largest consumers of tea in the world (19). In spite of this, and as coffee, since its introduction into Europe, was regarded as the antidote to alcohol, the temperance movement established coffee palaces. In the early 1870s in Britain, the temperance movement had revived the coffee house to provide an alternative to the gin taverns that were so attractive to the working classes of the Industrial Age (Clarke 5). Unlike the earlier coffee house, this revived incarnation provided accommodation and was open to men, women and children. “Cheap and wholesome food,” was available as well as reading rooms supplied with newspapers and periodicals, and games and smoking rooms (Clarke 20). In Australia, coffee palaces did not seek the working classes, as clientele: at least in the cities they were largely for the nouveau riche. Coffee Palaces The discovery of gold in 1851 changed the direction of the Australian economy. An investment boom followed, with an influx of foreign funds and English banks lending freely to colonial speculators. By the 1880s, the manufacturing and construction sectors of the economy boomed and land prices were highly inflated. Governments shared in the wealth and ploughed money into urban infrastructure, particularly railways. Spurred on by these positive economic conditions and the newly extended inter-colonial rail network, international exhibitions were held in both Sydney and Melbourne. To celebrate modern technology and design in an industrial age, international exhibitions were phenomena that had spread throughout Europe and much of the world from the mid-19th century. According to Davison, exhibitions were “integral to the culture of nineteenth century industrialising societies” (158). In particular, these exhibitions provided the colonies with an opportunity to demonstrate to the world their economic power and achievements in the sciences, the arts and education, as well as to promote their commerce and industry. Massive purpose-built buildings were constructed to house the exhibition halls. In Sydney, the Garden Palace was erected in the Botanic Gardens for the 1879 Exhibition (it burnt down in 1882). In Melbourne, the Royal Exhibition Building, now a World Heritage site, was built in the Carlton Gardens for the 1880 Exhibition and extended for the 1888 Centennial Exhibition. Accommodation was required for the some one million interstate and international visitors who were to pass through the gates of the Garden Palace in Sydney. To meet this need, the temperance movement, keen to provide alternative accommodation to licensed hotels, backed the establishment of Sydney’s coffee palaces. The Sydney Coffee Palace Hotel Company was formed in 1878 to operate and manage a number of coffee palaces constructed during the 1870s. These were designed to compete with hotels by “offering all the ordinary advantages of those establishments without the allurements of the drink” (Murdoch). Coffee palaces were much more than ordinary hotels—they were often multi-purpose or mixed-use buildings that included a large number of rooms for accommodation as well as ballrooms and other leisure facilities to attract people away from pubs. As the Australian Town and Country Journal reveals, their services included the supply of affordable, wholesome food, either in the form of regular meals or occasional refreshments, cooked in kitchens fitted with the latest in culinary accoutrements. These “culinary temples” also provided smoking rooms, chess and billiard rooms, and rooms where people could read books, periodicals and all the local and national papers for free (121). Similar to the coffee houses of the Enlightenment, the coffee palaces brought businessmen, artists, writers, engineers, and scientists attending the exhibitions together to eat and drink (non-alcoholic), socialise and conduct business. The Johnson’s Temperance Coffee Palace located in York Street in Sydney produced a practical guide for potential investors and businessmen titled International Exhibition Visitors Pocket Guide to Sydney. It included information on the location of government departments, educational institutions, hospitals, charitable organisations, and embassies, as well as a list of the tariffs on goods from food to opium (1–17). Women, particularly the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) were a formidable force in the temperance movement (intemperance was generally regarded as a male problem and, more specifically, a husband problem). Murdoch argues, however, that much of the success of the push to establish coffee palaces was due to male politicians with business interests, such as the one-time Victorian premiere James Munro. Considered a stern, moral church-going leader, Munro expanded the temperance movement into a fanatical force with extraordinary power, which is perhaps why the temperance movement had its greatest following in Victoria (Murdoch). Several prestigious hotels were constructed to provide accommodation for visitors to the international exhibitions in Melbourne. Munro was responsible for building many of the city’s coffee palaces, including the Victoria (1880) and the Federal Coffee Palace (1888) in Collins Street. After establishing the Grand Coffee Palace Company, Munro took over the Grand Hotel (now the Windsor) in 1886. Munro expanded the hotel to accommodate some of the two million visitors who were to attend the Centenary Exhibition, renamed it the Grand Coffee Palace, and ceremoniously burnt its liquor licence at the official opening (Murdoch). By 1888 there were more than 50 coffee palaces in the city of Melbourne alone and Munro held thousands of shares in coffee palaces, including those in Geelong and Broken Hill. With its opening planned to commemorate the centenary of the founding of Australia and the 1888 International Exhibition, the construction of the Federal Coffee Palace, one of the largest hotels in Australia, was perhaps the greatest monument to the temperance movement. Designed in the French Renaissance style, the façade was embellished with statues, griffins and Venus in a chariot drawn by four seahorses. The building was crowned with an iron-framed domed tower. New passenger elevators—first demonstrated at the Sydney Exhibition—allowed the building to soar to seven storeys. According to the Federal Coffee Palace Visitor’s Guide, which was presented to every visitor, there were three lifts for passengers and others for luggage. Bedrooms were located on the top five floors, while the stately ground and first floors contained majestic dining, lounge, sitting, smoking, writing, and billiard rooms. There were electric service bells, gaslights, and kitchens “fitted with the most approved inventions for aiding proficients [sic] in the culinary arts,” while the luxury brand Pears soap was used in the lavatories and bathrooms (16–17). In 1891, a spectacular financial crash brought the economic boom to an abrupt end. The British economy was in crisis and to meet the predicament, English banks withdrew their funds in Australia. There was a wholesale collapse of building companies, mortgage banks and other financial institutions during 1891 and 1892 and much of the banking system was halted during 1893 (Attard). Meanwhile, however, while the eastern States were in the economic doldrums, gold was discovered in 1892 at Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie in Western Australia and, within two years, the west of the continent was transformed. As gold poured back to the capital city of Perth, the long dormant settlement hurriedly caught up and began to emulate the rest of Australia, including the construction of ornately detailed coffee palaces (Freeman 130). By 1904, Perth had 20 coffee palaces. When the No. 2 Coffee Palace opened in Pitt Street, Sydney, in 1880, the Australian Town and Country Journal reported that coffee palaces were “not only fashionable, but appear to have acquired a permanent footing in Sydney” (121). The coffee palace era, however, was relatively short-lived. Driven more by reformist and economic zeal than by good business sense, many were in financial trouble when the 1890’s Depression hit. Leading figures in the temperance movement were also involved in land speculation and building societies and when these schemes collapsed, many, including Munro, were financially ruined. Many of the palaces closed or were forced to apply for liquor licences in order to stay afloat. Others developed another life after the temperance movement’s influence waned and the coffee palace fad faded, and many were later demolished to make way for more modern buildings. The Federal was licensed in 1923 and traded as the Federal Hotel until its demolition in 1973. The Victoria, however, did not succumb to a liquor licence until 1967. The Sydney Coffee Palace in Woolloomooloo became the Sydney Eye Hospital and, more recently, smart apartments. Some fine examples still survive as reminders of Australia’s social and cultural heritage. The Windsor in Melbourne’s Spring Street and the Broken Hill Hotel, a massive three-story iconic pub in the outback now called simply “The Palace,” are some examples. Tea remained the beverage of choice in Australia until the 1950s when the lifting of government controls on the importation of coffee and the influence of American foodways coincided with the arrival of espresso-loving immigrants. As Australians were introduced to the espresso machine, the short black, the cappuccino, and the café latte and (reminiscent of the Enlightenment), the post-war malaise was shed in favour of the energy and vigour of modernist thought and creativity, fuelled in at least a small part by caffeine and the emergent café culture (Teffer). Although the temperance movement’s attempt to provide an alternative to the ubiquitous pubs failed, coffee has now outstripped the consumption of tea and today’s café culture ensures that wherever coffee is consumed, there is the possibility of a continuation of the Enlightenment’s lively discussions, exchange of news, and dissemination of ideas and information in a sober environment. 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