Tesis sobre el tema "Clausole abusive"

Nel primo capitolo del lavoro si mette in luce l'evoluzione storica (dal diritto romano al Codice civile italiano del 1865) del fenomeno della patologia negoziale, nelle molteplici forme di manifestazione, nei diversi modi di accertamento e nelle varie conseguenze, ricostruendo il progresso della scienza giuridica nella elaborazione concettuale della materia. Nel secondo capitolo si svolge un'analisi storica e positiva del sistema di controllo delle condizioni generali di contratto adottato nei Paesi europei di lingua tedesca (Germania e Austria). Nel terzo capitolo viene descritto lo stato del diritto francese in materia di clausole abusive, con speciale riferimento ai rimedi individuali. Nel quarto capitolo viene tracciato un quadro normativo del diritto dei consumi nell'ordinamento spagnolo, con speciale riferimento ai rimedi individuali. Nel quinto capitolo viene illustrato il modello inglese in materia di clausole abusive, alla luce dell'Unfair Contracts Terms Act del 1977 e delle Unfaìr Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations del 1994 e del 1999. Nel sesto capitolo, viene analizzata la disciplina italiana delle clausole abusive nei contratti dei consumatori, con speciale riferimento al rimedio individuale previsto dall'art. 1469-quinquìes cod. civ. In the first chapter of the piece of work it is highlighted the historical evolution (starting from the Roman Law up to the Italian Civil Code dated 1865) of the phenomenon of the contractual pathology, in its displaying multiple forms, in its different ways of ascertainment and in its various consequences, by reconstructing the progress of the juridical science in the conceptual drawing up of the topic. In the second chapter it is developed an historical and positive analysis of the controlling system of the general conditions of the contract adopted in the European German speaking countries (Germany and Austria). In the third chapter it is described the status of the French Law related to the unlawful clauses, with special reference to the individual remedies. In the fourth chapter it is traced a normative picture of the consumer Spanish legal system, with special reference to the individual remedies. In the fifth chapter is illustrated the English model, as regards the unfair clauses, from the Unfair Contracts Terms Act dated 1977 to the Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts Regulations dated 1994 and 1999. In the sixth chapter, it is analysed the Italian discipline of the abusive clauses in the consumers contracts, with particular reference to the individual remedy provided by art. 1469-quinquies Italian Civil Code.

La législation sur les clauses abusives, issue de l’article L. 132-1 du Code de la consommation, est d’application quotidienne. La notion de clause abusive n’en demeure pas moins confuse. Il est vrai que trente-cinq années d’applications erratiques ont contribué à la rendre peu accessible et peu prévisible, ce qui nuit à la sécurité juridique. Pour restaurer cette notion, une double démarche s’impose. Il faut, d’abord, la délimiter afin de réserver son application uniquement aux personnes qui méritent d’être protégées contre les clauses abusives et aux seules stipulations qui créent véritablement un déséquilibre significatif entre les droits et obligations des parties au contrat. La notion de clause abusive apparaît alors comme un mécanisme destiné à sanctionner les abus de la liberté contractuelle dans les contrats de consommation. Il faut, ensuite, procéder à l’identification de la notion de clause abusive en cherchant à définir et à caractériser le standard du déséquilibre significatif, notamment à l’aune des critères dégagés de la pratique. Chemin faisant, la notion de clause abusive s’impose comme une notion incontournable du droit de la consommation et, plus largement du droit des contrats, notamment en ce qu’elle participe au renouveau de la théorie générale du contrat
The legislation on unfair terms set out by Article L. 132-1 of the French Consumer Code is applied on a daily basis. The notion of unfair terms nevertheless remains unclear. Thirty-five years of inconsistent and erratic application have indeed contributed to making this legislation inaccessible and difficult to predict, thereby damaging legal security. The reinforcement of this notion necessitates a two-pronged approach. First of all, the concept must be delimited in order to restrict application solely to those individuals requiring protection against unfair terms and only to those terms that genuinely do generate a material imbalance between the rights and obligations of the parties to the contract. The notion of unfair terms then becomes a mechanism aimed at sanctioning abuses of contractual freedom in consumer agreements. The concept must then be identified, by seeking to define and characterize the standard of material imbalance, in particular against the yardstick of criteria generated by practical application. In doing so, the notion of unfair terms becomes a central notion of consumer law and, more widely, of contract law, in particular with regard to its participation in the renewal of general contract theory

Les droits français, moldave et communautaire de la consommation partagent, sinon une source, du moins, une certaine idée de la protection du consommateur contre les clauses abusives. La comparaison avec les systèmes français et de l’Union Européenne mettent, par exemple, en évidence l'opportunité de l'adoption d’un mécanisme de lutte contre les clauses abusives dans les contrats de consommation. Les critères de l’absence de négociation directe, de la contrariété à l’exigence de bonne foi et d u déséquilibre significatif, piliers du système de protection, permettent au juge d'apprécier les clauses abusives avec souplesse, dans les trois systèmes, à l’effet de garantir l'efficacité de la protection du consommateur comme partie faible au contrat.La comparaison avec le système en vigueur en France, plus particulièrement, met toutefois en lumière les limites du système moldave. En Moldova, les difficultés viennent de l’intérieur ; on voit se reproduire des erreurs du passé, lorsque, par exemple, les pouvoirs publics incitent les consommateurs -surtout les plus démunis -à la surconsommation. La notion de consommation durable doit s'appliquer aussi dans ce domaine. À défaut, des dysfonctions sociales surgissent inévitablement. En France, en revanche, les ennuis viennent de l'extérieur. Les besoins du marché européen unique ont parfois pour effet de réduire la protection organisée au sein de l'ordre juridique national. Le mécanisme d'harmonisation maximale de la législation de l’Union Européenne placele législateur national dans une position délicate par rapport aux attentes du mouvement consumériste. Il pourrait en être ainsi en matière des clauses abusives dans un futur proche
French law, Moldavian law and Community law concerning the right consumer share, if not a source, at least, a certain idea of consumer protection against unfair terms. The comparison with the French and with the system of the European Union, put, for example, in evidence the desirability of adopting a mechanism to combat unfair terms in contracts concluded with consumers. Lack of direct negotiation, contradiction with the requirement of good faith and the significant imbalance, pillars of the protective system, allow the judge to appreciate unfair terms flexibly in all three systems, with the effect of guaranteeing the effectiveness of consumer protection as a socially vulnerable part of the contract. The comparison with the system in force in France, in particular, highlights in the same time the limits of the Moldovan system. In Moldova, the difficulties arise from inside, we see the same mistakes of the past when, for example, public powers encouraged consumers, especially the poor to overconsumption. The concept of sustainable consumption should also be applied in this area. Otherwise, social dysfunctions appear inevitable. In France, however, the problems are coming from the outside. The needs of the single European market sometimes have the effect of reducing the protection offered by the national legal order. The maximum harmonization of the legislation of the European Union places the national legislator in a difficult position in relation to the expectations of the consumerist movement. This might actually be, incidentally, in the field of unfair terms and, in the near future
Dreptul francez, moldav şi comunitar cu privire la dreptul de consum împărtăşesc, dacă nu o sursă, cel puţin, o anumită idee de protecţie a consumatorului împotriva clauzelor abuzive. Comparaţia cu sistemul francez şi cu cel al Uniunii Europene, pune, spre exemplu, în evidenţă oportunitatea adoptării unui mecanism de luptă împotriva clauzelor abuzive în contractele încheiate cu consumatorii. Criterille de lipsa negocierii directe, contradicţia cu cerinţade bună credinţă şi de dezechilibru semnificativ, piloni ai sistemului de protecţie, permit judecătorului de a aprecia clauzele abuzive cu flexibilitate, în toate cele trei sisteme, cu efectul de a garanta eficienţa de protecţie a consumatorului ca parte defavorizată a contractului.Comparaţia cu sistemul în vigoare din Franţa, în mod special, evidenţiază în aceleaşi timp limitele sistemului moldovenesc. În Moldova, dificultăţile provin din interior, vom vedea aceleaşi greşeli din trecut cînd, de exemplu, puterile publice încurajau consumatorii, în special cei săraci -la supraconsum. Conceptul de consum durabil trebuie de asemenea să se aplice în acest domeniu. În caz contrar, disfuncţii sociale apar inevitabil. În Franţa, cu toate acestea, problemele vin din exterior. Nevoile unei pieţi europene unice au uneori ca efect de a reduce protecţia oferită de ordinea juridică naţională. Mecanismul de maximă armonizare a legislaţiei Uniunii Europene plasează legiuitorul naţional într-o poziţie dificilă în raport cu aşteptările mişcării consumeriste. Acest fapt ar putea fi, de altfel, şi în materia clauzelor abuzive, într-un viitor apropriat

La loi du 10 janvier 1978 est le texte le plus important permettant de lutter contre les abus du professionnel mais le législateur a également prévu un certain nombre et textes permettant de les prévenir : mieux vaut prévenir que guérir
The Unfair Terms Act 1978 is the most important act to make a stand against professionnal's abuse, but the lawyer have taken many texts to prevent it * Prevention is better than cure

La presente tesi ha come obiettivo analisare il concetto e le specie di squilibrio eccessivo della relazione giuridica di consumo, nonché la possibilitá di correzione di una delle specie di squilibrio eccessivo – l’esercizio abusivo della posizione giuridica dei fornitori – per mezzo della clausola generale di divieto di vantaggio eccessivo, previsto nel Codice di Difesa del Consumatore (Art. 39, V c/c art. 51, IV e §1°). Si tratta, in essenza, di uno studio sulla stessa relazione giuridica di consumo, ragione per la quale si impone, inizialmente, un’analisi con riferimento ai suoi pressuposti fatico-normativi, elementi costitutivi e caratteristica fondamentale (Parte I, Capitolo1) per, soltanto dopo, affrontare il tema degli “squilibri” (strutturale e eccessivo) esistenti in questo tipo di relazione giuridica (Parte I, Capitolo 2), quando si cerca di dimostrare che lo squilibrio eccessivo non si confonda con lo squilibrio strutturale (intrinseco), nella misura in cui questo è realtà costitutiva della stessa relazione giuridica di consumo, essendo, per questo, riconosciuta e tollerabile dal dirito; invece, lo squilibrio eccessivo è realtà che supera i limiti del “giuridicamente tollerabile” – cioè, dello stato di squilibrio strutturale – e, per questo motivo, necessita di essere correta da un mezzo dell’ordine giuridica ( nel caso brasiliano, dal sistema giuridico di protezione e difesa dei consumatori, centralizzato nei valori e norme costituzionali e sistematizzato nel Codice di Difesa del Consumatore – Legge n. 8.078, dell’11 settembre 1990). E per la correzione delle situazioni di squilibrio eccessivo della relazione di consumo generate dall’esercizio abusivo della posizione giuridica dei fornitori il legislatore brasiliano, attento alla necessità di comprensione del diritto privato come un sistema giuridico aperto (Parte II, Capitolo 3) ha costruito il Codice di Difesa del Consumatore come uno microsistema dotato di norme casistiche e di norme aperte (le cosidette “clausole generali”), distacandosi, tra loro, la clausola generale di divieto di vantaggio eccessivo, che si intende essere la “clausola fondamentale di correzione dell’abuso nelle relazioni giuridiche di consumo” (Parte II, Capitolo 4), allo stesso tempo in cui suo ambito di applicazione, fissato dallo stesso leggislatore (CDC, art. 51,§1º), contiene, dovuto alla sua grande generalità, l’ambito delle altre clausole generali di correzione e abuso, così come quelle di funzione sociale ed economica del diritto, buona-fede obiettiva, buone abitudine e lesione enorme, tutelando, infine, la globalità dei legittimi interessi dei consumatori – cioè, i loro interessi di natura patrimoniale e esistenziale – danneggiati dalla attuazione abusiva dei fornitori nel mercato di consumo.
A presente tese tem por objetivo analisar o conceito e as espécies de desequilíbrio excessivo da relação jurídica de consumo, bem como a possibilidade de correção de uma das espécies de desequilíbrio excessivo – o exercício abusivo de posição jurídica dos fornecedores – por meio da cláusula geral de proibição de vantagem excessiva, prevista no Código de Defesa do Consumidor (Art. 39, V c/c art. 51, IV e §1º). Trata-se, em essência, de um estudo sobre a própria relação jurídica de consumo, razão pela qual se impõe, inicialmente, uma análise acerca de seus pressupostos fático-normativos, elementos constitutivos e característica fundamental (Parte I, Capítulo 1) para, só então, enfrentar o tema dos “desequilíbrios” (estrutural e excessivo) existentes nesse tipo de relação jurídica (Parte I, Capítulo 2), quando se busca demonstrar que o desequilíbrio excessivo não se confunde com o desequilíbrio estrutural (intrínseco), na medida em que este é realidade constitutiva da própria relação jurídica de consumo, sendo, por isso mesmo, reconhecida e tolerável pelo direito; ao contrário, o desequilíbrio excessivo é realidade que ultrapassa os limites do “juridicamente tolerável” – isto é, do estado de desequilíbrio estrutural - e, por este motivo, precisa ser corrigida por meio da ordem jurídica (no caso brasileiro, pelo sistema jurídico de proteção e defesa dos consumidores, centralizado nos valores e normas constitucionais e sistematizado no Código de Defesa do Consumidor – Lei n. 8.078, de 11 de setembro de 1990). E para a correção das situações de desequilíbrio excessivo da relação de consumo geradas pelo exercício abusivo da posição jurídica dos fornecedores o legislador brasileiro, atento à necessidade de compreensão do direito privado como um sistema jurídico aberto (Parte II, Capítulo 3) construiu o Código de Defesa do Consumidor como um microsssistema dotado de normas casuísticas e de normas abertas (as chamadas “cláusulas gerais”), destacando-se, quanto a estas, a cláusula geral de probição de vantagem excessiva, que se entende ser a “cláusula fundamental de correção do abuso nas relações jurídicas de consumo” (Parte II, Capítulo 4), na medida em que seu âmbito de aplicação, fixado pelo próprio legislador (CDC, art. 51, §1º), abarca, por sua grande generalidade, o âmbito das demais cláusulas gerais de correção do abuso, como as de função social e econômica do direito, boa-fé objetiva, bons costumes e lesão enorme, tutelando, enfim, a globalidade dos legítimos interesses dos consumidores – isto é, seus interesses de natureza patrimonial e existencial – lesados pela atuação abusiva dos fornecedores no mercado de consumo.
The present thesis aims to analyze the concept and the species of excessive unbalance of the legal consumption relationship, as well as the possibility of correction of one of the species of excessive unbalance – the abusive use of the legal position of the suppliers – by the inclusion of the general clause of prohibition of unfair advantage, set out in the Consumer Defense Code (Art. 39, V c/c art. 51, IV and §1º). It is, essentially, a study on the legal consumption relationship itself, a reason for which it is imposed, initially, an analysis concerning its phaticnormative presumptions, constitutive elements and key characteristic (Part I, Chapter 1) for, only then, face the topic of “imbalances” (structural and excessive) existing in this type of legal relationship (Part I, Chapter 2), when willing to demonstrate that the excessive imbalance is not confounded with the structural imbalance (intrinsic), inasmuch as this is a constitutive reality of the legal consumption relationship itself, being, therefore, acknowledged and bearable by the law; on the contrary, the excessive imbalance is a reality which overcomes the limits of the “legally bearable” – that is, the structural imbalance status - and, for this reason, it has to be corrected by the law (in the Brazilian case, by the legal system of protection and defense of consumers, centered in the values and constitutional norms e ordered in the Consumer Defense Code – Law n. 8.078, from September 11th, 1990). And for the correction of excessive imbalance situations in the consumption relationship caused by the abusive practice of the legal position of the suppliers, the Brazilian legislator, attentive to the need of understanding of the private law as an open legal system (Part II, Chapter 3) created the Consumer Defense Code as a microsystem with cauistic norms and open norms (the so-called “general clauses”), highlighting, concerning these, the general clause of prohibition of unfair advantage, which is understood as the “key clause of abuse correction in the consumption legal relationships” (Part II, Chapter 4), inasmuch as in its scope of application, set by the legislator (CDC, art. 51, §1º), embraces, due to all things considered, the scope of the other general clauses of abuse correction, such as the law social and economic function, bona fide intentions, good manners and serious harm, tutoring, then, the whole of legitimate interests of the consumers – that is, their interests of property and existential nature – harmed by the abusive practice of suppliers in the consumer market.

Une vision et une cohérence d’ensemble : telles sont les qualités qui manquaient à la notion de déséquilibre significatif inscrite dans trois règles du Code de la consommation, du Code de commerce, et nouvellement du Code civil. Tels sont également les objectifs que se propose d’atteindre cette étude, au travers d’une double démarche. Par la conception, en premier lieu, d’une méthode unitaire et séquencée de qualification du déséquilibre significatif, construite à partir des deux règles spéciales, et applicable à chacune d’elles, mais aussi généralisable, au-delà de celles-ci, à la règle de droit commun des contrats. Par l’élaboration, d’autre part, d’un principe de solution destiné à régir l’articulation entre ces trois règles, prenant la forme d’un principe de non-cumul et de non-option, lequel suppose, pour être pleinement réalisé, de procéder à une redéfinition du domaine d’application personnel de chacune d’elles
A vision and an overall coherence: these are the qualities that were missing from the notion of Ŗsignificant imbalanceŗ inscribed in three rules of the Consumer code, the Commercial code, and, most recently, the Civil code. These are also the objectives that this study proposes to achieve through a double approach. First, it proposes a unitary and sequenced method of qualifying the significant imbalance constructed from the two special rules, and, while being applicable to each of special rules, it can also be generalized beyond them in the general rule of common law. Secondly, it elaborates to form a solution principle intended to govern the articulation between the new rule of common law and one of the pre-existing consumer or competition law, consisting of a principle of non-cumulation and non-option which requires, more broadly, a redefinition of the scope of both

Présentes dans de nombreux domaines, les clauses limitatives de réparation et les clauses exonératoires de responsabilité constituent une pratique très courante. Si elles se rencontrent le plus souvent en matière contractuelle, ces conventions peuvent également aménager la responsabilité extracontractuelle d’un potentiel responsable qui connaîtrait déjà la victime éventuelle, tel un voisin ou un cotraitant dans la réalisation d’un ouvrage. Malgré leur utilité et leur fréquence pratique, ces clauses pâtissent aujourd’hui d’un régime incertain, qui suscite nombre d’interrogations, tant en matière contractuelle qu’extracontractuelle. Pour savoir si une clause limitative ou exonératoire de responsabilité peut jouer en faveur du responsable, il faut dans un premier temps vérifier sa validité. Or, tant les droits spéciaux (droit des transports, droit de la consommation…) que la jurisprudence (notamment l’arrêt Chronopost) ont porté de multiples atteintes aux règles classiques de validité de ces stipulations. Il est dès lors nécessaire d’instaurer des directives renouvelées afin de clarifier cette question primordiale. Dans un second temps, il n’est pas certain que la clause relative à la responsabilité, pourtant valable, puisse déployer tous ses effets. L’efficacité de ces stipulations revêt ainsi une grande importance. Cependant, là encore, les règles de paralysie en cas de faute qualifiée du responsable, ainsi que celles qui gouvernent l’opposabilité des clauses aux tiers victimes d’un dommage causé par un manquement contractuel, méritent d’être rénovées pour balayer les incertitudes qui jalonnent aujourd’hui la matière. À l’heure où le droit de la responsabilité civile est en passe d’être réformé, cette étude propose un nouveau régime applicable aux clauses relatives à la responsabilité pour que la notion recouvre sa fonction de véritable outil de prévisibilité pour les parties
Limitation and exclusion clauses constitute a very common practice in many areas. Although they are more often used in the contractual field, these agreements can also change tort liability of a potential tortfeasor who would already know the potential victim, as a neighbour or a consortium member. Nowadays, despite their utility and practical frequency, these stipulations suffer from an uncertain regime, that gives rise to questions, as much in contractual field as in tort field. Firstly, to know whether an exclusion clause can be invoked by the responsible, we need to verify its validity. Yet, both laws in different fields (transport law, consumer law …) and case law (especially the famous Chronopost case) have affected the classic rules of validity of these stipulations. There is therefore a need to establish new guidelines to clarify this important question. Secondly, it is not certain that the exclusion clause, however valid, will apply. The effectiveness of these provisions is also of great importance. Nevertheless, the rules governing the paralysis in case of gross fault from the responsible and those who regulate the enforceability of clauses to third parties, victims of a damage caused by a breach of contract, should be renovated to sweep away the uncertainties that confuse the subject. At a time when French civil liability law is about to be reformed, this study proposes a new regime for exclusion and limitation clauses in order to restore their true function of foreseeability for parties

Le lien existant entre un sujet de droit (le consommateur) et un domaine du droit aussi technique que l’assurance n’est pas facile à appréhender. Son étude est pourtant nécessaire en égard à l’importance pratique de la question – les contrats d’assurance se comptent pas millions et les procès par milliers – et à son actualité fortement marquée par la « loi Hamon » du 17 mars 2014. Par-delà ces considérations, il est courant de souligner que, confronté à l’assurance, le consommateur est dans une situation de faiblesse et qu’il doit être protégé. Mais quelle branche du droit, du droit de la consommation ou du droit des assurances est la mieux à même de le faire ? Et des conflits de normes peuvent-ils survenir ? A cet égard, la protection offerte par le droit de la consommation est indéniable, notamment en matière d’information du consommateur ou de lutte contre les clauses abusives. Mais le droit des assurances n’a pas attendu l’avènement du courant consumériste pour protéger tout assuré et pas seulement les consommateurs. De ce point de vue, les deux droits n’ont pas la même conception ni du consommateur d’assurance, ni de ma manière dont l’assurance du consommateur doit être réglementée. Ce sont deux axes autour desquels la thèse s’articule. Celle-ci traite aussi bien des personnes à protéger que de l’étendue de la protection, en insistant pour chaque thème sur les conflits de normes réels ou potentiels
Analysing the link between a subject of law (the consumer) and a technical law area as technical as insurance law is not an easy task. Yet, such a study is necessary in view of the pratical importance of the issue – there are millions of insurance contracts underwritten and thousands of lawsuits – and given the highly topical « loi Hamon » adopted on March 17, 2014. Moreover it is a well-known fact that consumer is in a weak position xhen facing insurance and therefore requires protection. But wich area of law is best placed to protect him : consumer law or insurance law ? And may conflicts of laws arise ? Indeed consumer law offers an undoubted protection, in particular with regards to consumer information and fight against unfair contracts termes. However, insurance law dit not wait for the advent of consumerism to protect every policy holder and not only consumers. Both laws do not share the same view of insurance consumer nor of the way consumer insurance must be regulated. This thesis hangs on those two majors hinges. It defines not only who are the individuals to be protected but also what is the scope of that protection. In each case, actual and potential conflict of laws are specifically highlighted

L’office du juge est organisé par le Code de procédure civile au sein des principes directeurs : le juge est tenu de trancher le litige en droit et qu’il dispose, pour ce faire, de la faculté du relevé d’office de moyens de droit. Cette mission soulève une difficulté particulière en droit de la consommation, et notamment au regard du droit des clauses abusives et du crédit à la consommation : ces domaines impliquent la prise en compte du déséquilibre contractuel dû à la faiblesse du consommateur. L’office du juge est confronté à la nécessité de protéger cette « partie faible », ce qui pose la question de savoir si le juge dispose ou non de la faculté du relevé d’office. La difficulté de la réponse à y apporter ouvre une riche controverse (Partie 1) ; le législateur, au gré des réformes, et le juge, au gré des revirements, vont enrichir cette dernière pour finalement aboutir à une consécration du relevé d’office du juge (Partie 2).Le juge national avait d’abord clairement désapprouvé l’exercice du relevé d’office au nom de la notion d’ordre public de protection. La controverse était finalement soumise à l’appréciation du juge communautaire qui avait permis une consécration de la faculté du relevé d’office. Poussé par la jurisprudence communautaire, le législateur français avait fini par s’aligner sur cette exigence. Puis c’est une nouvelle impulsion de la jurisprudence communautaire qui va à nouveau remettre en cause le droit interne par la consécration d’une obligation du relevé d’office pour le juge. La nouvelle loi « Hamon » du 17 mars 2014 et la jurisprudence interne récente ne témoignent pas d’une réelle satisfaction des exigences posées par le droit communautaire.Il faut saisir, de l’ensemble de cette construction laborieuse de la jurisprudence et de la législation interne, la difficulté que pose la question du relevé d’office du juge en droit de la consommation, qui appelle de prochaines évolutions
The office of the judge is organized by the rules of the Code of civil procedure: the judge must solve the litigations in law, and that, in order to do that, he benefits from the right to raise his own motion. This mission raises a particular difficulty in consumer law, especially regarding the law of the unfair clauses and consumer credit: these fields imply taking into consideration the contractual imbalance due to the weakness of the consumer. The office of the judge is confronted to the necessity to protect this « weak party », which raises the question of knowing if the judge has the right to raise his own motion. The difficulty of the answer opens a rich controversy (Part 1): the legislator, at the whim of the reforms, and the judge, at the whim of the reversals, will enrich this latter to finally come to a recognition of the right to raise the motion of the judge (Part 2).First the national judge clearly disapproved the exercising of the right to raise one's own motion in the name of the concept of public order of protection. The controversy was finally submitted to the assessment of the Community judge who enabling a recognition of the right to raise the motion of the judge. Driven by the Community jurisprudence, the French legislator finally lined up with this requirement. Then, a new impulse of the Community jurisprudence will question again the national law by the recognition of the duty of the judge to raise his own motion. The new law « Hamon » of march 17th 2014 and the recent internal jurisprudence are not evidence of a real satisfaction of the requirement set down by the Community law.We must embrace, from this laborious construction of the jurisprudence and internal legislation, the difficulty raised by the question of the right for the judge to raise his own motion concerning law consumption, which calls for future evolutions

Le droit fiscal international contemporain vit une époque de bouleversement profond dont les développements relatifs à l’utilisation des conventions fiscales portent l’empreinte. La recherche conduira à s’intéresser à différents agissements qui se trouvent, grâce aux travaux consacrés au BEPS, sous le feu des projecteurs. Un éclairage nouveau s’avérait nécessaire, il a permis d’apporter un peu plus de lumière sur la notion d’abus de convention fiscale internationale trop longtemps restée dans l’ombre. Face à l’absence de définition unanimement consacrée, certains traits caractéristiques seront mis en évidence en insistant sur la dimension fonctionnelle de la notion qui épouse la forme d’un standard. Dans le cadre d’une analyse comparée menée à l’aune des droits français et américain, l’étude a pour objet de l’appréhender sous un regard nouveau en délimitant précisément les modalités de contrôle des opérations abusives. Les techniques de répression des abus mises en œuvre par les juges seront analysées. Les différents dispositifs internes et conventionnels anti-abus seront discutés en insistant sur les points de divergence et de convergence des politiques fiscales conventionnelles américaine et française. Une attention particulière sera portée aux conflits de norme inhérents à la juxtaposition de différents ordres fiscaux. L’idée selon laquelle, sous l’effet de l’instrument multilatéral notamment, la notion d’abus de convention fiscale internationale a acquis une individualité propre sera défendue. Il importera d’en préciser les conséquences au regard de la répression des abus par le juge français
Contemporary international fiscal law is undergoing a period of upheavals regarding the use of tax treaties. The research will lead to an interest in the different type of abuse that, thanks to the work devoted by the BEPS, are under the spotlight. It was necessary to shed some new light on the notion of tax treaty abuse that had long remained in the background. Faced with the absence of an unanimously adopted approach, many characteristics will be highlighted by insisting on the functional dimension of the notion which follows the form of a standard. In the context of a comparative analysis conducted in the light of French and American law, the object of the research is to analyse its several aspects from a new perspective by defining precisely the modalities of controlling abusive schemes. How judges deal with tax treaty avoidance strategies will be analysed. The various internal and international anti-abuses mechanisms will be discussed, highlighting the points of divergence and convergence of U.S. and French tax treaty policies. Attention will be paid to the conflicts of law regarding the juxtaposition of different tax order. The idea that under the effect of the multilateral instrument the notion of tax treaty abuse has acquired a distinct individuality will be defended. It will be important to specify what are the consequences for the application of the notion by the French judge

L'émergence du droit de la consommation en tant que discipline autonome, peut être analysée dans les effets qu'elle a produits dans le discours juridique dans sa globalité, de diverses manières. Lors des célébrations de l’anniversaire de la signature du Traité de Rome qui a jeté les bases de l'Union Européenne actuelle, on doit souligner que « L'UE a largement amélioré la vie quotidienne de ses citoyens». Qu'en est-il plus précisément de la protection des consommateurs? Sans l’Europe, le droit de la consommation ne se serait pas développé aussi solidement qu'il ne l’a fait aux cours des quarante dernières années. Le droit européen de la consommation trouve sa source essentielle dans le programme préliminaire d'avril 1975 pour une politique de protection et d’information des consommateurs qui a énoncé cinq droits fondamentaux : droit à la protection de la santé et de la sécurité, droit à la protection des intérêts économiques des consommateurs, droit à la réparation des dommages, droit à l’information et à l'éducation, droit à la représentation. Le E-commerce (achat et vente de services et produits via Internet) a transformé notre manière de consommer, offrant aux consommateurs plus de choix qu'auparavant. Mais il soulève également de nouveaux problèmes, qui doivent être réglés. Les conditions de protection des consommateurs différent encore beaucoup d’un pays à l'autre. Si dans certains pays, 76% des consommateurs déclarent se sentir suffisamment protégés par les mesures existantes, dans d'autres ce chiffre tombe à 28%. Or, depuis qu’ils ont rejoint l’Union européenne, les pays de l'Est de l'Europe, généralement situés assez bas sur l’échelle de satisfaction, ont vu ces pourcentages s'améliorer de façon importante
In regulatory jurisdictions that provide for this consumer protection is a group of laws and organizations designed to ensure the rights of consumers, as well as fair trade, competition, and accurate information in the marketplace. The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. Furthermore the importance of the consumer protection is to safeguard the consumer from exploitation. In the absence of consumer protection, consumers were exploited in many ways for example sale of unsafe products, adulteration and hoarding of goods, using wrong weights and measures, charging excessive prices and sale of inferior quality goods. Through various Consumer Protection Acts, business organizations are under pressure to keep away from exploiting consumers. Consumer protection law is considered an area of law that regulates private law relationships between individual consumers and the businesses that sell those goods and services. In 2018, the European Commission is proposing a New Deal for Consumers to ensure that all European consumers fully benefit from their rights under Union law. A study on transparency in online platforms, also published, supports the New Deal’s proposals on online market places. Finally, the different theories show the sophisticated aspects of the French consumer law which has been developing since the Code Napoleon

Le secteur des assurances est protéiforme : il comprend plusieurs opérateurs dont l’intégration dans le paysage économique et juridique s’est accentuée ces dernières années et ne cesse de s’imposer. Les compagnies d'assurance déploient elles-mêmes des activités d’assurance multiples. Depuis les années cinquante les différents régimes d’assurances maladie, vieillesse, chômage – obligatoires, complémentaires – sont exploités par certains organismes assureurs (mutuelles et institutions de prévoyance). Ces organismes développent leurs activités sur des marchés dont le caractère économique n’est pas toujours évident. Si les assurances vie par exemple, ne soulèvent guère de difficulté d’insertion sur un marché concurrentiel, peut-on en revanche considérer que les régimes complémentaires et légaux d’assurance maladie opèrent sur un marché économique ? Cette question conduit à s’interroger sur la soumission du secteur des assurances au droit de la concurrence et son éventuelle unicité de régime. Deux points sont étudiés, en premier lieu, il s’agit de confronter le secteur des assurances à la vision extensive des autorités européenne et nationale sur les critères d’applicabilité du droit de la concurrence. Cette approche est vérifiée auprès de tous les opérateurs proposant des produits et services qualifiés d'assurance. En second lieu, sont examinées l'application du droit de la concurrence au secteur des assurances et leurs exemptions spécifiques. Cette étude prend en compte l’ensemble du droit de la concurrence : pratiques anticoncurrentielles, droit des concentrations économiques et aides d’État. Elle s’appuie essentiellement sur le droit européen et français de la concurrence
The insurance industry is protean : it includes several operators whose integration into the economic and legal landscape has intensified in recent years and continues to impose itself. Insurance companies themselves deploy multiple insurance activities. Since the 1950s, some insurers have exploited differents insurance schemes such as, health, old age, unemployment (whether compulsory or complementary). These organizations develop their activities in markets whose economic character is not always the most obvious. If life insurance, for example, does not present any difficulty in entering a competitive market, can we also consider that the supplementary and statutory health insurance schemes operate similarly in an economic market ? This question leads up to wonder about the submission of the insurance sector to competition law and its possible uniqueness of regime. Two points are studied, firstly, the question of confronting the insurance sector with the extensive vision of the European and national authorities. Secondly, an examination of the application of competition law to the insurance sector and the justification for different treatment. This study takes into account the whole of competition law : antitrust practices, economic concentrations and state aids. It is essentially based on European and French competition law

Le professionnel que l'on croyait capable de défendre ses intérêts, par opposition au salarié ou au consommateur, s'est révélé tout autant victime de contrats déséquilibrés depuis quelques décennies. L'apparition de puissantes entreprises privées dans différents secteurs entraîne, de toute évidence, une inégalité entre les professionnels. Notre étude souligne la complexité de trouver un juste critère pour identifier de manière juste ce qu'est un professionnel partie faible. Il n'est pas possible de dire si, de manière générale, telle entreprise est plus puissante qu'une autre, car la personne morale partie au contrat peut cacher des intérêts difficiles à cerner au premier abord. Le juge ne peut pas non plus être l'arbitre autoritaire des prix sans risquer un détournement de sa fonction. Nous développerons le parti suivant : un contrat entre professionnels est dit d'adhésion lorsque celui-ci n'a pas donné lieu à une négociation idoine ; le juge doit alors s'efforcer de regarder le processus de pourparlers ainsi que les circonstances qui ont précédé la convention. De multiples critères peuvent aider le juge, tels que la taille de chaque entreprise, les parts de marché, les propos échangés par les parties, leur bonne ou mauvaise foi ou encore les efforts engagés par elles. Si le choix de l'analyse des négociations nous apparaît ultimement le plus juste, nous tiendrons cependant compte de ses limites. Il serait illusoire de penser que le juge peut toujours parvenir de manière certaine à connaître l'intégralité des circonstances antérieures au contrat. C'est pourquoi nous ajouterons à l'analyse des négociations un système de présomptions - quoique réfragables - lorsque la disproportion des prestations ou la différence de taille des entreprises ne laisse pas de place au doute. Nous mettrons enfin en lumière les stratégies employées par les parties fortes pour contourner cette analyse des négociations, comme des stipulations néfastes ou une tactique d'internationalisation. Il sera donc préféré une impérativité renforcée en droit national ainsi qu'en droit international. Une fois l'analyse des négociations effectuée, nous essayerons de proposer des sanctions à la hauteur du phénomène. Le juge, selon nous, doit être en mesure de modifier le contrat de façon souple, aussi bien de manière rétroactive que par un changement en cours d'exécution du contrat. Le caractère extrême de certains comportements contractuels nous incite à réfléchir à la possibilité d'un droit pénal plus dissuasif ou bien un droit « quasi pénal » sanctionnant ces comportements de manière plus appropriée. Néanmoins, c'est surtout au niveau de la procédure que se joue la protection contractuelle des professionnels. Un référé ajusté à cet objectif a tout lieu de répondre aux exigences de célérité qui gênent les parties faibles dans leurs démarches. Nous soulignerons aussi l'importance d'un système d'actions collectives qui surmontent efficacement l'écueil du coût du procès. À l'inverse, la sécurité juridique des entreprises nous conduira à proposer une procédure de protection par un système de droit doux. Première partie : L'identification du contrat d'adhésion entre professionnels. Deuxième partie : Le traitement judiciaire des contrats d'adhésion entre professionnels
The professional, supposed to be able to defend his interests, by opposition to the employee or the consumer, has proven to also be victim of imbalanced contracts for a few decades. The emergence of powerful private companies in various sectors clearly leads to inequalities between professionals. Our study underlines the difficulty to find the best criterion to identify what a professional weaker party is. It is impossible to say that globally such company is stronger than another because the legal person party to the agreement can hide many interests, which are hard to seize at first sight. Nor can the judge arbitrate prices in an authoritarian way without risking a misappropriation of his part. We shall side for this idea: a business-to-business agreement is to be qualified of adhesion contract as long as it does not give place to adequate bargaining; so the judge has to look the bargaining process and the circumstances preceding the contract. Many criteria can help the judge such as the size of the company, market parts, exchanged words, the good or bad faith of the parties or the efforts they have made. If we consider the bargain analysis as the ultimately rightest choice, we have to contemplate its limitations. It would not be realistic to consider that the judge could always discover every circumstance prior to the agreement. This is why we shall join a system of presumptions - albeit rebuttable - to the bargain analysis, when the difference of size of companies or the disproportion of provisions is obvious. We shall put into light the strategies used by strongest parts to bypass the bargain analysis, such as harmful clauses or internationalization tactics. Thus, we shall opt for high obligatory standards, as well as in national law than in international law. Once the bargain analysis is done, we shall try to suggest sanctions adapted to the concern. The judge, in our opinion, must be able to modify the agreement in a very flexible way, either retroactively or during the implementation of the said agreement. The gravity of various contractual behaviors must lead us to think about a form of criminal law or a "quasi criminal" law in order to combat those behaviors in a more suitable mean. Nevertheless, the protection of the professional weaker part is also to be dealt on a procedural ground. A proceeding for interim measures is likely to face the needs for celerity, which bother the weakest parts for their action. We shall also underline the advantages of a class action, which could overcome the financial issue of the lawsuit. Conversely, the legal security of business will bring us to foster a protection by a soft law system. First Part: The identification of the business-to-business adhesion contract. Second Part: The judicial treatment of business-to-business adhesion contracts

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Universidade de São Paulo
This master dissertation aims to systematize and provide discussions on the chances of acquiring ineligibility that follow bad representatives, especially after the introduction or modification of conducts arranged in Complementary Law No. 135/2010, popularly titled lei da ficha limpa amending the Supplementary Law No. 64/1990. It aims to systematize, in a single text, all the situations covered by the new legislation restricting the eligibility of those who are already in the exercise of political elective office, discussing what are the main legal nuances that, while restricting eligibility, concern, in general, the whole Brazilian society. Besides the specific subject of great legal significance which concerns the hypotheses about the acquisition of ineligibility during the period of elective office, this work will hold a debate about the principle of good governance and how it has been dealed by the international doctrine. This principle postulated in the Federal Constitution in Article 37, but also found throughout the constitutional text, argues that public managers, especially those agents with electoral and political mandate, with special emphasis on those dealing with public funds, have, as a functional duty, the obligation of providing proper accountability and transparency in their political- administrative acts featuring what can be named positive provisions of the State.
A presente dissertação de mestrado tem por objetivo sistematizar e estabelecer discussões sobre as hipóteses de aquisição de inelegibilidade a que estão sujeitos os maus mandatários de cargos eletivos, sobretudo após a introdução ou alteração de condutas dispostas na Lei Complementar n° 135/2010, popularmente intitulada Lei da Ficha Limpa, que alterou a Lei Complementar nº 64/1990. Objetiva-se sistematizar, em um único texto, todas as situações previstas pela nova legislação que restrinjam a elegibilidade daqueles que já se encontram no exercício de mandato político-eletivo, discutindo quais são as principais nuances jurídicas que, ao restringir a elegibilidade, atingem, de forma geral, toda a sociedade brasileira. Além da temática específica e de grande relevância jurídica sobre hipóteses de aquisição de inelegibilidade no exercício de mandato eletivo, este trabalho terá como pano de fundo o debate acerca do princípio da boa governança ou good governance, como é tratado pela doutrina internacional. Tal princípio, postulado na Constituição Federal principalmente no artigo 37, mas encontrado também ao longo de todo texto constitucional, dispõe que os gestores públicos, sobretudo os agentes com mandato político-eleitoral, com especial ênfase naqueles que lidam com recursos públicos, possuem, como dever funcional, a devida prestação de contas e a transparência em seus atos político-administrativos, caracterizando, desta forma, o que se pode chamar de uma prestação positiva do Estado.

C’est à la faveur de l’émergence d’une économie de marché, puis récemment de la révolution technologique que le droit de la consommation a connu un développement considérable. Dès lors, la protection du consommateur s’est imposée comme le moyen de rééquilibrer les rapports inégalitaires entre le consommateur, considéré comme partie faible dans une relation contractuelle devenue complexe et le professionnel à qui le rapport de force est favorable. Dans un tel contexte, l’intérêt d’une étude de la protection du consommateur en droit libyen à la lumière du droit français se précise et peut se décliner sous deux axes : d’une part, il est stimulant scientifiquement de comprendre comment un Etat comme la Libye, dont l’ouverture au monde et le développement du secteur privé sont très récents, intègre la protection du consommateur dans son système juridique. D’autre part, le rapprochement avec le droit français présente une plus-value dans la mesure où il s’agit, à travers le droit de la consommation français plus développé, de mesurer le niveau de protection du consommateur en droit libyen. La pertinence de l’usage de l’approche comparative dans le cadre de cette recherche réside dans l’une des fonctions même du droit comparé, à savoir qu’il est un moyen de perfectionnement du droit positif national. Ici, l’hypothèse de départ était que le droit de la consommation en Libye est sous-développé par rapport au droit de la consommation en France. La méthode comparative a donc pour objectif d’aider à une amélioration de la protection du consommateur en droit libyen si éventuellement l’hypothèse de départ était confirmée. Dès lors, nous avons étudié, dans les deux ordres juridiques, la protection du consommateur de la période pré-contractuelle à la période d’après contrat en passant par le moment d’échange des volontés (conclusion proprement dite). Il ressort de cette recherche que le consommateur libyen est moins protégé que le consommateur français. Cela est dû, entre autres, à des facteurs sociopolitiques et économiques, en l’occurrence le faible développement du secteur privé et une faible culture de la justice qui ne permet pas de développer la jurisprudence à l’égard du droit de la consommation. Cette étude a aussi révélé que le législateur libyen est confronté à un nouveau défi, à savoir l’émergence des contrats à distance ; ce qui complexifie davantage la protection du consommateur
Thanks to the emergence of a market economy and more recently of the technological revolution, consumer law has been significantly developed. Therefore, consumer protection was required as the means to rebalance the unequal relations between the consumer, regarded as the weaker party to the complex contractual relation, and the professional for whom the power balance is in favour.In this context, the interest of a study about consumer protection in Libyan law in the light of French law is clearer and can be approached from two angles : on the one hand, it is scientifically challenging to understand how a State like Libya, whose opening up to the world and the private sector development are very recent, integrates consumer protection into its legal system. On the second hand, comparing it with French law provides an added value, because the level of consumer protection in Libyan law has to be measured through French consumer law which is more developed. The comparative approach is relevant in this research as one of the functions of comparative law is to improve the national substantive law.Here, according to the starting hypothesis, consumer law in Libya is underdeveloped compared to French consumer law. So, the comparative approach aims to help improving consumer law in Libya if the starting hypothesis is confirmed. Therefore, we studied consumer protection from the precontractual period to the after contract period including the actual contract conclusion in both legal orders.This research shows that the Libyan consumer is less protected than the French consumer. This is due, amongst others, to socio-political and economic factors, in this case, the low development of the private sector and the low level of the culture of justice which does not enable to develop case-law regarding consumer law. This study has also proved that the Libyan legislator is facing a new challenge, that is, the emergence of distance contracts, which makes consumer protection even more complex

Die vorliegende Arbeit analysiert den Umgang mit dem Tatbestand der Holocaust-Leugnung durch die Europäische Union (EU) und den Europäischen Gerichtshof für Menschenrechte (EGMR). Derzeit befinden sich diese in einer heiklen Situation: Sie müssen das Gedenken an ein für die europäische Identität zentrales historisches Ereignis – den Holocaust – pflegen und schützen und zugleich die Achtung der Grundrechte, insbesondere der Meinungsfreiheit, gewährleisten. Diese besondere Situation erfordert eine gründliche Untersuchung des europäischen Umgangs mit dem Tatbestand der Holocaust-Leugnung. Der erste Teil der Dissertation steckt den Anwendungsbereich der europarechtlichen Verpflichtungen zur Kriminalisierung der Holocaust-Leugnung ab. Bewertet wird insbesondere die Bedeutung des Rahmenbeschlusses 2008/913/JHA über Rassismus und Fremdenfeindlichkeit für die EU-Mitgliedstaaten. Dabei werden einige Beispiele der Umsetzung in staatliches Recht dargestellt. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit befasst sich mit der Rechtsprechung des EGMR und untersucht das Verhältnis zwischen dem Tatbestand der Holocaust-Leugnung und der Meinungsfreiheit mit dem Ziel, die Grundsätze, nach denen Staaten verpflichtet sind, entsprechende Äußerungen zu kriminalisieren, herzuleiten. Die übergreifenden Ziele der Untersuchung sind: a) den Charakter des Zusammenspiels zwischen EU und EGMR herauszuarbeiten; b) zu ermitteln, ob die jeweiligen Positionen gegensätzlich oder komplementär sind; c) die Rechtsnatur und den Inhalt der für die Mitgliedstaaten begründeten Verpflichtungen zu bestimmen; d) herauszuarbeiten, ob eine europaweite Kriminalisierung verpflichtend ist oder lediglich gefördert werden soll; und e) ob beziehungsweise unter welchen Bedingungen ein mit Kriminalstrafe sanktioniertes Verbot der Holocaust-Leugnung erstrebenswert wäre.
The present study aims to analyse the legal treatment of the crime of denialism by the two main actors in European justice, namely, the European Union (‘EU’) and the European Court of Human Rights (‘ECtHR’). Presently, these two systems find themselves in a delicate position: they must cherish and protect the memory of an historical event – the Holocaust – which is central to Europe’s own identity, while simultaneously promoting respect for fundamental rights such as the freedom of speech. This unique balance raises a need for a thorough investigation into Europe’s approach to the crime of denialism. The dissertation’s first section seeks to measure the scope of EU-imposed obligations to make denialism a crime. Notably, the impact on EU Member States of the Framework Decision 2008/913/JHA on racism and xenophobia is assessed, with illustrations of a few archetypal examples of domestic implementing legislation. The second part of the dissertation turns to the jurisprudence of the ECtHR to examine the relationship between Holocaust denial as a crime and the right to freedom of expression, with a view to deducing the principles under which States must comply in the criminalization of this kind of utterance. The work’s overall goals are to assess: a) the nature of interactions between the EU and ECtHR; b) whether their positions on denialism are better portrayed in terms of contrast or mutual support; c) the legal nature and content of the obligations originating for the Member States; d) whether a Europe-wide criminal prohibition on denialism is dictated or simply encouraged; and e) whether such a prohibition would be desirable, and if so, under what conditions.

Il candidato intende offrire un contributo allo studio dei due impianti normativi che possono dirsi costituire tra i più significativi e rivoluzionari interventi del legislatore europeo spesi nel tentativo di sistemazione della disciplina dell’atto di consumo: la direttiva 1993/13/CEE del Consiglio del 5 aprile «concernente le clausole abusive nei contratti stipulati con i consumatori» e la direttiva 2005/29/CE del Parlamento Europeo e del Consiglio dell’11 maggio 2005 «relativa alle pratiche commerciali sleali tra imprese e consumatori nel mercato interno». L’analisi è condotta avendo a riferimento tanto le disposizioni contenute nelle direttive quanto le disposizioni nazionali frutto dell’opera di recepimento del legislatore italiano, quest’ultime rispettivamente contenute, quanto alle clausole vessatorie, negli artt. 33-37 bis del D.lgs. 206/2005 (Codice del consumo) e, quanto alle pratiche commerciali scorrette, negli artt. 18-27 quater del medesimo decreto. La prima parte del lavoro è dedicata a una ricognizione dei profili generali delle due discipline, delle quali, in particolare, verranno illustrati i rispettivi ambiti di applicazione (soggettivo e oggettivo), la portata delle clausole generali di abusività/vessatorietà (artt. 3 dir. n. 13/1993 e 33 cod. cons.) e di slealtà/scorettezza (artt. 5, para 2°, dir. n. 29/2005 e 20, comma 2°, cod. cons.), e i sistemi rimediali (cd. enforcement) predisposti per arginare il fenomeno dell’utilizzo di clausole vessatorie nei contratti tra professionisti e consumatori (artt. 6-7 dir. n. 13/1993 e 36-37-37 bis cod. cons.) e quello delle pratiche commerciali scorrette cd. “business to consumers” (“B2C”) (artt. 11-13 dir. n. 29/2005 e 27 cod. cons.). La seconda parte del contributo è dedicata a un primo raffronto tra le due discipline. Muovendo dall’analisi delle diverse disposizioni di legge, si tenterà, più precisamente, di illustrare come il rapporto tra i due sistemi normativi debba anzitutto ricondursi al più ampio e generale rapporto che intercorre tra il diritto generale delle pratiche commerciali sleali (o, ove si preferisca, della concorrenza sleale in senso lato) e il diritto dei contratti, come sintetizzato dal disposto di cui all’art. 3, para 2, della direttiva 2005/29/CE (art. 19, comma 2°, lett. a), cod. cons.). Si osserverà, dunque, che le due direttive muovono da diverse prospettive d’intervento (prevalentemente individuale la dir. n. 13/1993 e esclusivamente meta-individuale la dir. n. 29/2005), hanno distinti ambiti di applicazione e offrono (parzialmente) differenti livelli di tutela del consumatore (individuale e successiva l’una, collettiva e preventiva l’altra). Tanto offrirà altresì gli strumenti per affrontare la peculiare questione - oggetto anche di un recente arresto della Corte di Giustizia (Sez. I^, del 15/03/2012, C-453/10, Jana Pereničová e Vladislav Perenič contro SOS financ spol. s r. o.) - relativa alla possibile influenza che la qualificazione di una pratica commerciale come scorretta possa avere sulla valutazione della natura vessatoria di una clausola. La terza parte della ricerca, invece, muoverà dalla constatazione che la pratica di «utilizzo» di clausole abusive ben può essere sussunta sotto la più ampia fattispecie generale di pratica commerciale di cui agli artt. 2, lett. d) e 3, para 1°, della direttiva 2005/29/CE (18, lett. d) e 19, comma 1°, cod. cons.). L’analisi, in particolare, verterà sull’eventualità che l’uso di clausole abusive ai sensi della direttiva 1993/13/CEE possa qualificarsi come pratica commerciale sleale ai sensi della direttiva 2005/29/CE. Verranno premesse preliminari considerazioni sulla dimensione super-individuale riconoscibile anche all’impianto normativo recato dalla direttiva 1993/13/CEE (come ricavabile dagli artt. 7 dir. e 37-37 bis, cod. cons.), e verranno quindi analizzati i requisiti alla ricorrenza dei quali una pratica possa dirsi sleale/scorretta (eventualmente anche nelle forme tipiche della ingannevolezza o aggressività), al fine di verificare se essi risultano per l’appunto integrati nell’ipotesi di un generalizzato utilizzo di clausole abusive da parte del professionista. Verificata la possibilità di qualificare come sleale/scorretta la pratica d’uso di clausole abusive/vessatorie, da ultimo, verrà affrontata la questione circa l’esistenza di un eventuale conflitto tra le due normative, come inteso ai sensi dell’art. 3, para 4, della direttiva 2005/29/CE (art. 19, comma 3°, cod. cons.) A tale fine, in chiave critica, verrà preliminarmente dato conto delle diverse posizioni della dottrina e dell’evoluzione normativa (d.lgs. 21/2014) e giurisprudenziale (in particolare della giurisprudenza amministrativa del Cons. di Stato, antecedente e successiva all’apertura della procedura di infrazione n. 2013/2169) registratesi quanto al più ampio problema del coordinamento tra il divieto generale di porre in essere pratiche commerciale sleali/scorrette e i più specifici divieti e obblighi comportamentali posti da altre normative preesistenti alla direttiva 2005/29/CE ed applicabili in determinati settori o con riferimento a determinate pratiche commerciali. Delle conclusioni così raggiunte verrà quindi fatta applicazione al più circoscritto rapporto intercorrente tra il divieto di cui all’art. 5, para 1°, della direttiva 2005/19/CE (art. 20, comma 1°, cod. cons.) e il divieto di utilizzare clausole vessatorie (artt. 7 dir. e 37-37 bis, cod. cons).

Lo studio della nullità di protezione prevista dall'art. 36 cod. cons. offre lo spunto per riflettere sul grado di effettività del rimedio, quando l'invalidità colpisce una clausola essenziale per il rapporto. A ben vedere, infatti, un sistema di soppressione delle clausole abusive basato sulla semplice nullità parziale necessaria non appare sempre in grado di realizzare efficacemente l'obiettivo di protezione del contraente debole. Ove a essere eliminata sia una clausola essenziale o un gran numero di clausole, il rischio, per il consumatore, è che la nullità si estenda a contagiare l'intero contratto, lasciandolo privo di protezione e obbligandolo, anzi, alle conseguenti restituzioni. Per questi motivi, il presente lavoro intende indagare quali siano le conseguenze del vuoto contrattuale determinato dall'operare della nullità parziale necessaria, stabilendo di quali poteri disponga il giudice per gestire la lacuna sopravvenuta. A tal fine, lo studio si concentra sull'analisi dei principali meccanismi di modificazione integrativa o correttiva del contratto, funzionali ad assicurarne la conservazione. Attraverso l'indagine prospettata, è così possibile cogliere l'attuale stadio di evoluzione del rimedio della nullità di protezione nel nostro ordinamento, nella consapevolezza che, nel delicato rapporto tra sindacato del giudice e autonomia privata, quest'ultima deve concorrere ad assicurare un equo assetto di tutti gli interessi. The study of protective nullity, provided for art. 36 of the Consumer Code, gives the opportunity to reflect upon the grade of effectiveness of this remedy, when invalidity refers to a core clause of the contract. Ultimately, a system that voids abusive clauses, as a result of a nullity which is necessary partial, does not seem to achieve the purpose of protecting the weak contractual partner. When it is voided a core clause or a large number of clauses, the consumer risks to see that the nullity extends to all the agreement, remaining without protection and having to face to the consequent contractual drawbacks. For these reasons, the present research aims to examine the consequences of the contractual lack produced by the protective nullity, providing which are the judicial powers to manage that void. In connection with this purpose, the study analyzes the main instrument of contractual adjustment, in order to incorporate or correct it, so that it can be preserved. By means this research, it is possible to highlight the current stage of development of protective nullity in our legal system, in the awareness that, with reference to the complex relationship between judicial powers and contractual freedom, the latter must cooperate to ensure a fair balance among all the interests.

O combate à elisão fiscal é um dos desafios enfrentados pelos Estados, que veem a arrecadação de receita por vezes influenciada pela construção de planeamentos fiscais altamente abusivos e prejudiciais. Neste contexto, a missão primordial é o desenvolvimento de mecanismos de reação que assegurem a neutralização desses esquemas. Um dos mecanismos mais utilizados pelos Estados é a introdução no ordenamento jurídico de uma cláusula geral antiabuso, que em Portugal está prevista no artigo 38.º, n.º 2 da LGT. Todavia, a aplicação do referido preceito legal carece de um procedimento especial que garanta a sua coercibilidade. O presente estudo dedica-se à análise do procedimento de aplicação da cláusula geral antiabuso, abordando questões fundamentais emergentes das alterações implementadas, nomeadamente, a sua tramitação, o prazo de caducidade e o momento do início da sua contagem, os destinatários do mesmo e os seus meios de reação. Finalmente, confrontados com a possibilidade de, em sede de um só esquema abusivo, serem praticados sucessivos atos de liquidação, revelou-se pertinente suscitar a possibilidade de invocar o instituto do caso julgado. As questões suscitadas ao longo desta dissertação possibilitam a identificação de diversas fragilidades inerentes ao procedimento em análise, mas, acima de tudo, impelem à obtenção de soluções exequíveis e fortalecedoras da norma procedimental.
The fight against tax avoidance is one of the challenges faced by States, which see revenue collection sometimes influenced by the construction of highly abusive and harmful tax planning. In this context, the primary mission is the development of reaction mechanisms that ensure the neutralization of these schemes. One of the mechanisms most used by States is the introduction of a general anti-abuse clause into the legal system, which in Portugal is provided for in Article 38 nr 2 of the LGT. However, the application of such legal provision requires a special procedure that guarantees its coercibility. The present study is dedicated to the analysis of the application procedure of the general anti-abuse clause, addressing fundamental issues arising from the changes implemented, namely, its processing, its commencement and expiration, their recipients and their means of reaction. Finally, faced with the possibility that, in the context of a single abusive scheme, successive acts of liquidation would be practiced, it proved pertinent to raise the possibility of invoking the res judicata. The questions raised during this dissertation make it possible to identify several weaknesses inherent to the procedure under analysis, but, above all, impel the achievement of feasible and strengthening solutions of the procedural norm.

En juillet 2007, la Cour suprême du Canada s’est prononcée pour la première fois sur un litige lié au commerce électronique et dont les faits sont nés au Québec. L’affaire est d’une grande banalité : un contrat de consommation conclu par la voie de l’internet donna lieu à un litige car le prix proposé par le commerçant était erroné. Dans ce jugement historique, la Cour suprême a renversé les décisions des cours inférieures et est allée dans la direction contraire d’une modification législative adoptée le lendemain des auditions à la Cour, qui ne s’appliquait pas au cas en l’espèce. Ce jugement a causé des débats non seulement sur ce que la Cour a dit, mais aussi quant à l’opportunité qui lui était offerte de clarifier plusieurs questions d’importance. Ce mémoire utilise l’affaire Dell comme fil conducteur de l’étude du contrat de cyberconsommation et traite aussi de certaines questions incidentes sur ce droit en constant changement. En premier lieu, nous étudions le contrat de cyberconsommation et ensuite nous examinons le fond de l’affaire, une question qui n’a d’ailleurs pas encore reçu une analyse judiciaire. Dans la dernière partie, nous faisons une analyse critique des questions juridiques traitées par la Cour suprême. Nous concluons en remarquant que la Cour a perdu une occasion unique de clarifier certaines incongruïtés du droit de la cyberconsommation.
In July 2007, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled for the first time in an electronic commerce dispute in Quebec. The case is very ordinary: a consumer contract concluded by means of the Internet gave rise to a dispute because of a pricing error. In this landmark decision, the Supreme Court overturned the decisions of lower courts and went in the opposite direction of a legislative amendment adopted in the wake of the Court hearings, which did not apply in this case. This ruling has caused debate not only on what the Court said, but also the opportunities it had to clarify several important issues. This thesis uses the Dell case as a backdrop for the study of cyberconsumer contract and also covers certain incidental questions on this constantly changing law. First, we study the law applicable to consumer contracts. Secondly, we look to the merits of the case, a question which has indeed not yet received legal analysis. In the third part, we address a critical analysis of legal issues dealt with by the Supreme Court. We conclude by noting that the Court has lost a unique opportunity to clarify some inconsistencies in the law of cybercommerce.

En juillet 2007, la Cour suprême du Canada s’est prononcée pour la première fois sur un litige lié au commerce électronique et dont les faits sont nés au Québec. L’affaire est d’une grande banalité : un contrat de consommation conclu par la voie de l’internet donna lieu à un litige car le prix proposé par le commerçant était erroné. Dans ce jugement historique, la Cour suprême a renversé les décisions des cours inférieures et est allée dans la direction contraire d’une modification législative adoptée le lendemain des auditions à la Cour, qui ne s’appliquait pas au cas en l’espèce. Ce jugement a causé des débats non seulement sur ce que la Cour a dit, mais aussi quant à l’opportunité qui lui était offerte de clarifier plusieurs questions d’importance. Ce mémoire utilise l’affaire Dell comme fil conducteur de l’étude du contrat de cyberconsommation et traite aussi de certaines questions incidentes sur ce droit en constant changement. En premier lieu, nous étudions le contrat de cyberconsommation et ensuite nous examinons le fond de l’affaire, une question qui n’a d’ailleurs pas encore reçu une analyse judiciaire. Dans la dernière partie, nous faisons une analyse critique des questions juridiques traitées par la Cour suprême. Nous concluons en remarquant que la Cour a perdu une occasion unique de clarifier certaines incongruïtés du droit de la cyberconsommation.
In July 2007, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled for the first time in an electronic commerce dispute in Quebec. The case is very ordinary: a consumer contract concluded by means of the Internet gave rise to a dispute because of a pricing error. In this landmark decision, the Supreme Court overturned the decisions of lower courts and went in the opposite direction of a legislative amendment adopted in the wake of the Court hearings, which did not apply in this case. This ruling has caused debate not only on what the Court said, but also the opportunities it had to clarify several important issues. This thesis uses the Dell case as a backdrop for the study of cyberconsumer contract and also covers certain incidental questions on this constantly changing law. First, we study the law applicable to consumer contracts. Secondly, we look to the merits of the case, a question which has indeed not yet received legal analysis. In the third part, we address a critical analysis of legal issues dealt with by the Supreme Court. We conclude by noting that the Court has lost a unique opportunity to clarify some inconsistencies in the law of cybercommerce.

L'émergence du droit de la consommation en tant que discipline autonome, peut être analysée dans les effets qu'elle a produits dans le discours juridique dans sa globalité, de diverses manières. Lors des célébrations de l’anniversaire de la signature du Traité de Rome qui a jeté les bases de l'Union Européenne actuelle, on doit souligner que « L'UE a largement amélioré la vie quotidienne de ses citoyens». Qu'en est-il plus précisément de la protection des consommateurs? Sans l’Europe, le droit de la consommation ne se serait pas développé aussi solidement qu'il ne l’a fait aux cours des quarante dernières années. Le droit européen de la consommation trouve sa source essentielle dans le programme préliminaire d'avril 1975 pour une politique de protection et d’information des consommateurs qui a énoncé cinq droits fondamentaux : droit à la protection de la santé et de la sécurité, droit à la protection des intérêts économiques des consommateurs, droit à la réparation des dommages, droit à l’information et à l'éducation, droit à la représentation. Le E-commerce (achat et vente de services et produits via Internet) a transformé notre manière de consommer, offrant aux consommateurs plus de choix qu'auparavant. Mais il soulève également de nouveaux problèmes, qui doivent être réglés. Les conditions de protection des consommateurs différent encore beaucoup d’un pays à l'autre. Si dans certains pays, 76% des consommateurs déclarent se sentir suffisamment protégés par les mesures existantes, dans d'autres ce chiffre tombe à 28%. Or, depuis qu’ils ont rejoint l’Union européenne, les pays de l'Est de l'Europe, généralement situés assez bas sur l’échelle de satisfaction, ont vu ces pourcentages s'améliorer de façon importante
In regulatory jurisdictions that provide for this consumer protection is a group of laws and organizations designed to ensure the rights of consumers, as well as fair trade, competition, and accurate information in the marketplace. The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. Furthermore the importance of the consumer protection is to safeguard the consumer from exploitation. In the absence of consumer protection, consumers were exploited in many ways for example sale of unsafe products, adulteration and hoarding of goods, using wrong weights and measures, charging excessive prices and sale of inferior quality goods. Through various Consumer Protection Acts, business organizations are under pressure to keep away from exploiting consumers. Consumer protection law is considered an area of law that regulates private law relationships between individual consumers and the businesses that sell those goods and services. In 2018, the European Commission is proposing a New Deal for Consumers to ensure that all European consumers fully benefit from their rights under Union law. A study on transparency in online platforms, also published, supports the New Deal’s proposals on online market places. Finally, the different theories show the sophisticated aspects of the French consumer law which has been developing since the Code Napoleon

Entrou em vigor no dia 4 de maio, a Lei nº 32/2019 que transpõe parcialmente para a ordem jurídica nacional a Diretiva (UE) 2016/1164, que estipula regras contra as práticas de elisão fiscal, introduzindo alterações materiais e procedimentais à anterior cláusula geral antiabuso. Deste modo, considerando que em regra, a aplicação da cláusula geral antiabuso se reveste de particular singularidade, e que a mesma tem habitualmente implícito a existência de esquemas complexos de planeamento fiscal, passou a ser imposto que a impugnação judicial da liquidação seja precedida da apresentação de reclamação graciosa. Não obstante, este novo aditamento deixou algumas questões sem resposta, nomeadamente a de saber qual a razão de ser desta nova imposição procedimental. O presente trabalho visa, assim, através do confronto com o princípio da impugnação unitária, bem como com os casos em que a reclamação graciosa é previamente necessária, procurar um motivo legitimador desta mudança.
Law 32/2019, partially implements EU Directive 2016/1164 into domestic law, entered into force on 4th May 2020. It sets out rules aiming to combat tax avoidance practices, introducing, in that connection, material and procedural changes to the previously established general anti-abuse clause. Considering that, as a rule, the application of the general anti-abuse clause is rare, usually implying the existence of complex tax planning schemes, the challenge of liquidation before the judiciary is to be preceded by the filing of a complaint. It should be noted, though, that this new legal requirement leaves some questions unanswered, such as, the reason behind the new procedural imposition. It is thus the aim of this paper to attempt to identify a justifiable reasoning to said legal change by examining and comparing the principle of unitary impugnation and cases in which the complaint is deemed a requirement.

A presente dissertação incidirá sobre o regime da neutralidade fiscal, em concreto sobre o seu abuso, e as formas legalmente previstas para o seu combate. A análise recairá sobre a aplicação do art.73nº,10º do CIRC, que vem limitar o campo de aplicação do presente regime, excluindo para esse efeito, as operações que tenham como principal objetivo ou como um dos principais objetivos a evasão fiscal. Considerando-se, para efeitos de evasão fiscal as situações em que as sociedades intervenientes não tenham a totalidade dos seus rendimentos sujeitos ao mesmo regime de tributação em IRC, ou ainda as situações em que as operações não tenham sido realizadas por razões economicamente válidas. É sobre este último requisito, que iremos dedicar mais atenção.
This dissertation will focus on the regime of tax neutrality, specifically on its abuse, and the forms legally envisaged for its combat. The analysis will be based on the application of art. 73.º nr. 10.º of the CIRC, which limits the scope of the present regime, excluding for that purpose operations that have as main objective or as one of the main objectives tax evasion. Considering, for the purpose of tax evasion, situations in which the companies involved do not have all of their income subject to the same IRC tax regime, or situations in which the transactions have not been carried out for economically valid reasons. It is on this last requirement, that we will devote more attention.

Dissertação de Mestrado em Direito apresentada à Faculdade de Direito
A sociedade contemporânea é dinâmica e digital, permitindo grande flexibilização e agilidade em todos os campos existentes. Tais elementos proporcionam às pessoas singulares e coletivas a capacidade técnica e econômica para realizar a migração para outros Estados-Membros.Esse cenário contribuiu para a utilização indevida por parte dos contribuintes, que visavam realizar a mudança de seu endereço de um Estado para outro, visando materializar a venda de bens e ativos no Estado de destino, onde havia menor ou nenhuma carga tributária. Visando coibir e desestimular tais práticas, os Estados criaram um tributo que incidiria sobre as mais-valias latentes existentes no momento da transferência para outro Estado.Sendo a tributação direta um campo não harmonizado no âmbito da União Europeia, a aplicação dessa tributação à saída acabou por originar conflitos entre os interesses dos Estados-Membros e as liberdades fundamentais, aptos de causarem incerteza aos contribuintes e à administração pública.Assim, o objetivo do presente estudo é analisar as características e princípios que orbitam a tributação em comento, em paralelo com as orientações doutrinarias existentes e as decisões proferidas pelo Tribunal de Justiça da União Europeia, sem, contudo, limitar-se a previsão do exit tax e um Estado-Membro específico, mas sim num contexto geral da União Europeia, no intuito de compreender a possibilidade e limites da instituição e cobrança do tributo em discussão, bem como as expectativas que afloram do cenário atual.
The contemporary society is dynamic and digital, offering greater flexibility and agility in all possible extensions. Such elements provide individuals and corporate entities the technical and economical capability to migrate to other Member States.This scenario contributed to improper applications from taxpayers that planned to change their addresses from one Member State to another, aspiring the sale of properties and assets in the State of destination, where there is lower or no tax burden. The States then created a tax on unrealized capital gains at the moment of the transfer to another State, aiming to restrain and discourage such acts.As direct taxation is a non-harmonized field in the European Union, the implementation of the exit taxation has created a conflict of interests between the State Members and the fundamental rights, leading to a feeling of uncertainty in both taxpayers and public administration.Therefore, the goal of this study is to analyze characteristics and principles of the taxation above mentioned, alongside the current doctrinal orientations and the decisions issued by the Court of Justice of the European Union, not limiting it to the exit tax projection or a specific Member State, but in a broad European Union context, focusing not only on understanding the possibilities and limits of the institution and the taxation under discussion, but also the expectations emerging from the present scenario. .

A presente dissertação versa sobre situações em que, por via da aplicação da cláusula geral anti-abuso, surgem obrigações tributárias, nomeadamente retenções na fonte a título liberatório, aplicadas ao substituto tributário. Tratando-se de um tema relativamente recente, a matéria de estudo utilizada é essencialmente jurisprudência e pretendemos analisar se a cláusula geral anti-abuso é oponível (ou não) ao substituto tributário, despoletando obrigações para este.
This essay deals with the situations that, due to the application of the general anti-abuse clause, tax liabilities arise, namely withholding taxes as a release call, that are applied to the tax substitute. Once it’s a recent issue, the study material is mainly jurisprudence, and we want to analyse if whether the general anti-abuse clause is applicable (or not) to the tax substitute, bringing obligations to him

The topic of shareholder's duty of loyalty is an important aspect for the definition of most of the duties and obligations of the capital company members. Therefore, it is also very popular topic for the authors of professional literature, who tend to be interested in systematized distinction of the duties and obligations of the capital company members. Most authors, along with the jurisprudence, already admit considerable importance of principle of loyalty and consider it to be the rule of interpretation appropriate for its application to the other duties and obligations of company members. The principle of loyalty, having a regulatory function, may fill in particular gaps in the statutory regulation. As a derogatory rule it may avoid the application of other rules that would lead to unfair decisions. This work aims to demonstrate the possibility of application of the principle of loyalty in practice. The thesis is divided into two main parts, the first is meant to clarify the place of the duty of loyalty in Czech law. It describes how was the existence of the duty of loyalty inferred before its regulation in new Civil Code. Next chapters of the first part are devoted to current applicable regulation. The second part of the theses focuses on particular examples in order to demonstrate the...