Literatura académica sobre el tema "Cinéma – 2000-"

Pierre-Jean Benghozi and Christian Delage, eds., Une histoire économique du cinéma français (1895–1995): Regards croisés franco-américains (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1997), 364pp., €28.97, ISBN 2-7384-5852-1. Laurent Creton, Economie du cinéma: perspectives stratégiques (Paris: Nathan, collection ‘Nathan Université’, 1994), 288 pp., €21.19, ISBN 209-190-219-5. Laurent Creton, Cinéma et marché (Paris: Armand Colin, collection ‘U’, 1997), 254 pp., €20.58, ISBN 2-200-01769-3. Eric Dubet, Economie du cinéma européen: de l'interventionnisme à l'action entrepreneuriale Paris: L'Harmattan, 2000), 286 pp., €22.87, ISBN 2-7384-9043-3. Martin Dale, The Movie Game: The Film Business in Britain, Europe and America (London: Cassell, 1997), 340 pp., $19.95 (pb), ISBN 0-304-33387-5. Jean-Michel Frodon, La projection nationale: cinéma et nation, collection ‘Le champ méthodologique’ (Paris: Odile Jacob, 1998), 248 pp., €20.58, ISBN 2-7381-0586-6. Andrew Higson and Richard Maltby, eds., Film Europe and Film America: Cinema, Commerce and Cultural Exchange (1920–1939) (Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 1999), 406 pp., £40.00, ISBN 0-85989-546-7. Albert Moran, ed., Film Policy: International, National and Regional Perspectives (London: Routledge, 1996), 286 pp., $24.99, ISBN 0-415-09791-6. David Puttnam, The Undeclared War: The Struggle for Control of the World's Film Industry (London: HarperCollins, 1997), 414 pp., £7.99 (pb), ISBN 0-00-255675-8. Jonathan Rosenbaum, Movie Wars: How Hollywood and the Media Conspire to Limit What Films We Can See (Chicago: A Cappella, 2000), 228 pp., $24.00, ISBN 1-55652-406-4.

Résumé : Au début des années 1990, malgré un contexte sociopolitique difficile, une relève du cinéma turc était signalée par la naissance d’un cinéma d’auteur qui se décrivait comme un « nouveau cinéma indépendant ». Ces jeunes réalisateurs n’étaient pas tout à fait liés les uns aux autres et créaient plutôt une « alluvion », selon les mots de Dervis Zaim. Suivant le succès de Nuri Bilge Ceylan aux festivals de Cannes à compter de 2003, le nombre de ces cinéastes « indépendants » a considérablement augmenté, et le style minimaliste de Ceylan est devenu un modèle à imiter pour les jeunes artistes. La présente étude vise essentiellement à analyser le contexte du « nouveau cinéma turc » des années 2000 (jusqu’en 2010) afin de déterminer si les préférences esthétiques de cette nouvelle génération ont marqué la naissance d’un nouveau « mouvement cinématographique ». À cet égard, la présente étude propose de redéfinir les théories contemporaines du cinéma national, surtout dans la sphère anglo-américaine, qui remettent en question l’homogénéité de la nation tout en conservant l’importance de l’indépendance financière. Le présent article, donc, fusionne certains concepts théoriques comme le cinéma national, le cinéma indépendant et le « festivalisme » pour mettre en évidence l’influence du système néolibéral globalisé sur les milieux intellectuels auxquels les jeunes cinéastes appartiennent.

Où l’on analyse l’ancienne fracture entre essence et reflet, icone et indice, réalité et image à l’aune de la simulation stéréoscopique du cinéma 3D des années 2000, dans laquelle on distingue une veine immersive (Avatar de James Cameron) et une veine théâtrale (Alice in Wonderland de Tim Burton), dont les frontières sont plus poreuses qu’il n’y paraît.

Nous nous proposons d’effectuer un balayage diachronique de la représentation de l’homosexualité, tant féminine que masculine, dans le cinéma portugais. Étant donné la situation périphérique du Portugal et de son 7e art, son cinéma sera, durant tout le XXe siècle, pauvre en nombre de productions. Alors que le cinéma des années 1920 ouvrait une brèche en ce qui concerne la figuration de personnages homosexuels, la dictature de l’État Nouveau sera radicale en la matière, censurant toute représentation des sexualités non normatives à l’écran. Il faudra donc attendre la Révolution des OEillets et l’effervescence culturelle de la Noite lisboète pour que pointe une cinématographie queer, rapidement prise de cours par les tensions politiques et l’apparition du SIDA. Dès lors, la représentativité des queers sera tributaire des changements d’ordre politique et sociaux, avec des avancées notables à partir des années 2000.

Présente depuis longtemps dans le cinéma québécois, la relation père-enfant, et surtout père-fils, revient en force dans les années 2000. Grâce à l’analyse de six films, le présent article brosse un portrait de la représentation des pères et de la paternité, entre persistance des vieux schémas et images renouvelées. Il s’attarde tant aux promesses d’évolution — naissance d’une parole père-fils, images de réconciliation — qu’aux apories troublantes qui traversent le corpus (pères morts ou malades, mères marginalisées ou effacées, fils hésitant à devenir pères).

Depuis les années 2000, le cinéma d’horreur européen assume un retour au genre et à ses figures, se distinguant ainsi de la réflexivité du métacinéma d’épouvante pratiqué depuis les années 1980. Les contours d’une néohorreur se dessinent, notamment dans le cinéma français, à partir d’une forme de frontalité présente dans des films comme Haute tension (Aja), Sheitan (Chapiron), À l’intérieur (Maury et Bustillo), Martyrs (Laugier), Frontière(s) (Gens) ou Calvaire (du Welz). L’analyse de ces scénarios ouvertement sadiques, déclinant les formes de la claustration et de la mauvaise rencontre, révèle un discours sur la violence propre à ce cinéma, à ses spécificités figuratives et aux options formelles caractéristiques de son montage. L’auteur du présent article interroge la fascination que peuvent exercer ces récits d’ensauvagement, où l’archaïque et l’atavique constituent autant d’épreuves pour les personnages. Il examine également la récurrence de certains motifs obsédants, comme les collections de poupées et d’automates, les capharnaüms d’objets au rebut qu’un étrange naturalisme associe aux mondes ruraux, à la solitude des zones frontalières, aux régions industrielles désertées ou aux arrière-pays attardés.

La première décennie du XXIe siècle est une période charnière dans l’histoire des représentations du vieillir et de l’être vieux. Durant les années 2000, le cinéma hollywoodien offre de nouvelles images du vieillir, moins alarmistes, moins stéréotypées, en somme plus positives. Non plus systématiquement relégué au second plan, le personnage âgé se fait une place parmi les héros hollywoodiens. Le vieillir n’est alors plus dissimulé, mais mis à l’honneur, dans ces films portés par un héros âgé. Par leur présence et leur visibilité dans ce cinéma hautement commercial, ces nouveaux personnages vieillissants signalent un phénomène majeur : durant les années 2000, le vieillir devient commercialement profitable, notamment car se reconnaît dans ces films une génération exceptionnelle par de nombreux aspects, celle des baby-boomers. Par ailleurs, au travers de ces nouvelles représentations du vieillir se fait jour une transformation sociétale plus large avec l’avènement d’un nouveau rapport à la vieillesse, le « vieillir nouveau », qui substitue aux clichés âgistes et à l’idée du vieillir comme déclin un discours positif sur la vieillesse. Cette étude, circonscrite aux films hollywoodiens à succès de la période 2000-2010, propose de mettre en lumière ces nouvelles représentations hollywoodiennes du vieillir et la façon dont le cinéma s’est fait ainsi l’écho de discours innovants sur la question tout en tentant d’offrir sa propre version d’un vieillir nouveau
The first decade of the 21st century marks a transition in the history of the representations ofaging and old age. In the 2000s, Hollywood started offering new images of aging : less alarmist, less stereotypical, they are, all in all, more positive. As he is no longer pushed in the background,the aging character finds his way amid Hollywood heroes. In those films, which are carried by an old hero, aging is no longer concealed, but it is put in the spotlight. By their mere presence and visibility in such commercial cinema, these new aging characters signal a major shift : in the2000s, aging has become bankable, especially since its new portrayals speak to a generation which stands out on many different levels, the baby boomers. Besides, a wider social transformation shows through these innovative representations of aging, that of a new relationship to aging. “New aging” thus discards ageist clichés and the idea that aging isdeclining, and supplants these conceptions with a positive discourse on aging. This study revolves around popular Hollywood movies released between 2000 and 2010. It offers to shed a light on these new Hollywood representations of aging and on the way cinema has thus echoed innovative discourses on the matter, while attempting to offer its own version of a new outlook on aging

Cette thèse est née d’une interrogation sur la représentation de l’Autre dans les imaginaires cinématographiques français et marocains qui se constituent actuellement ; c’est à dire au début des années 2000 (2000-2015). Plus précisément, elle s’interroge sur ce qui permet, à ce niveau de construction d’un regard croisé, de le différencier et de l’identifier distinctement sur le plan imaginaire et dramaturgique. Dans cette double perspective, l’Autre serait tour à tour Français et Marocain, le Nord et le Sud, le Maghrébin et l’Occidental ; ce qui permettra de comparer des représentations tantôt convergentes, tantôt divergentes, voire antagonistes. Car ceux qui traversent la Méditerranée ne sont pas seulement amenés à remettre en cause la prétendue supériorité de l’ancien colonisateur et à dénoncer la condition faite aux immigrés, mais sont aussi à l’origine d’une nouvelle vision du monde : ouverture à l’Autre et à son espace fondée sur le respect mutuel et la fécondité du métissage culturel. Il s’agit donc de mettre en place des rencontres cinématographiques françaises et marocaines pour comprendre comment le corps, son mouvement et son interprétation à l’écran, est le centre de gravité qui anime les regards croisés. Ainsi ressort-il une « correspondance » cinématographique franco-marocaine, carrefour des diversités linguistiques et culturelles, soulevant sans doute des interrogations complexes liées à ces rencontres enrichissantes et dignes d’intérêt scientifique. Comment l’Ailleurs marocain peut-il contribuer au récit filmique français, correspondre à une quête intérieure, ou au contraire conforter un désenchantement radical ? Comment la France entre-elle dans l’histoire contemporaine du cinéma marocain ? Comment le personnage français fait-il partie de son imaginaire ? Ce travail s’interroge parallèlement sur les dangers consécutifs à ce type de représentation qui se manifeste dans la réduction au pittoresque du récit filmique, l'inventaire complaisant de clichés révélant une vision stéréotypée de l'Autre et de son espace. Car les années 2000 conduisent certains films et penseurs à réagir encore et toujours à cette attitude qu’ils tournent souvent en dérision. Toutefois, le cinéma français et les films marocains, loin d’être réductible à cette contestation, proposent aujourd’hui une vision distanciée et originale d’elle-même, de sa culture, et aussi forcément de l’Autre
This thesis arose from a question about the representation of The Other in today's French and Moroccan filmic images; that is to say in the early 2000s (2000-2015). More precisely, it elaborates on what can allow the construction of a cross observation, which could clearly differentiate and identify the fictional and dramaturgical aspects of the subject. In this double perspective, the Other would be both French and Moroccan, the North and the South, the Maghreb and the West. This will lead to a comparison between representations which are sometimes convergent, sometimes divergent, and even antagonistic. For those crossing the Mediterranean are not only brought to call into question the supposed superiority of the colonizers and denounce the condition of the immigrants, but are also faced with a new vision of the world: the openness to the Other and its foundations implying mutual respect and the fruitfulness of a cultural mix. It is therefore necessary to contextualize the French and Moroccan cinematographic meeting points in order to understand how bodies, their movements and the way they are interpreted on the screen, are at the core of our cross observations. Thus a Franco-Moroccan cinematographic “correspondence" appears. A crossroad of linguistic and cultural diversity, raising undoubtedly complex questions related to these rich encounters and worthy of scientific interest. How can the Moroccan contribute to the French film narrative, corresponding to an inner quest, or on the contrary confirming a radical disenchantment? How does France enter Moroccan contemporary cinema? How do French characters fit in? This work also examines the consecutive dangers of that kind of representation which amount to mere picturesque film narratives, inventories full of cliches revealing a stereotypical view of the Other and their space. Because in the 2000s, some movies and thinkers still have this attitude, so they often feel derided. However, French cinema and Moroccan films, far from being reduced to this challenge, offer today an original and distanced vision of themselves, their culture, and most certainly the Other

Ce travail vise à réunir deux différents domaines : la linguistique française et les études cinématographiques. Il porte notamment sur l’analyse des conversation, l’analyse du discours en interaction et l’analyse du dialogue cinématographique afin de réfléchir sur un thème qui n’a été abordé jusque là que du point de vue psychologique : le conflit familial. L’originalité de ces pages repose ainsi sur la volonté d’utiliser le cinéma et ses dialogues pour entamer une recherche linguistique de neuf films français réalisés entre 2000 et 2010 : Ressources humaines (2000) de Laurent Cantet, Tout va bien, on s’en va (2000) de Claude Mouriéras, Aime ton père (2002) de Jacob Berger, Père et fils (2003) de Michel Boujenah, Je vais bien, ne t'en fais pas (2006) de Philippe Lioret, Nue propriété (2007) de Joachim Lafosse, Un conte de Noël (2008) de Arnaud Desplechin, Non ma fille, tu n’iras pas danser (2009) de Christophe Honoré, Mères et filles (2009) de Julie Lopes-Curval. Ces films, dont le corpus se compose, ont été examinés dans le but de distinguer les scènes de dispute familiale pertinentes pour mes analyses. Ainsi, après avoir transcrit les répliques des quarante-deux scènes choisies, j’ai mis en relief les actes linguistiques récurrents dans une situation conflictuelle. Pour ce faire, j’ai repris les travaux de Austin et Searle et, plus récemment, de C. Kerbrat-Orecchioni. J’ai ensuite focalisé mon attention sur la mise en scène du conflit, développant une analyse assez fine de ce qui a été défini dispute. Il faut préciser à ce propos que le corpus a montré l’existence de deux grandes typologies de dispute au cinéma (retenue et manifeste), qui se subdivisent en dispute dilogale, trilogale et polylogale, suivant le nombre des participants. L’application des outils interactionnistes à un corpus cinématographique a également révélé que l’on peut considérer la conversation des films comme une représentation simplifiée des échanges verbaux authentiques, les deux types de conversation présentant la même structure : une ouverture, un corps, une clôture de l’interaction. La dernière partie de la thèse porte sur la dispute prototypique du corpus (2009_MF_DisputeBAGARRE), ainsi définie car elle réunit les éléments verbaux et non verbaux principaux surgissant dans une situation conflictuelle. C’est justement sur ces mêmes éléments que j’ai focalisé mon attention dans la première partie de la thèse lors de la définition de l’objet d’étude et de son insertion dans le cadre théorique
This work aims to bring together two different areas: French linguistics and film studies. Topics covered include the analysis of conversation discourse analysis in interaction and analysis of film dialogue to reflect on a theme that has been discussed previously as psychologically : family conflict.The originality of these pages are based on the intention of using film and its dialogues to analyse nine French movies made between 2000 and 2010 :Ressources humaines (2000, Laurent Cantet)Tout va bien, on s’en va (2000, Claude Mouriéras)Aime ton père (2002, Jacob Berger)Père et fils (2003, Michel Boujenah)Je vais bien, ne t'en fais pas (2006, Philippe Lioret) Nue propriété (2007, Joachim Lafosse)Un conte de Noël (2008, Arnaud Desplechin) Non ma fille, tu n’iras pas danser (2009, Christophe Honoré)Mères et filles (2009, Julie Lopes-Curval)These films were examined in order to distinguish the relevant domestic dispute scenes for the analysis. Thus, having transcribed replicas of the forty- two selected scenes , I highlighted the recurring linguistic acts in a conflict situation . To do this , I resumed the work of Austin and Searle and , more recently, C. Kerbrat - Orecchioni . I then focused my attention on the stage of the conflict , developing a fairly detailed analysis of what has been defined dispute. It should be noted here that the body showed the existence of two large cinema dispute typologies ( restraint and manifest) , which are subdivided into dilogale dispute, and trilogale polylogal depending on the number of participants.The application of the interactionist tools to cinematic corpus also revealed that the conversation of the films can be considered as a simplified representation of authentic verbal exchanges, two types of conversations with the same structure : an opening, a body, a fence interaction.The last part of the thesis deals with the prototypical scene of the corpus ( 2009_MF_DisputeBAGARRE ), so defined since it brings together key verbal and non- verbal elements arising in a conflict situation. I properly focused my attention on these elements in the first part of the thesis in order to define the object of the study and its inclusion in the theoretical framework

Ce travail tente de comprendre les raisons pour lesquelles la représentation de l'histoire a dominé le cinéma irlandais entre 1916 et 2000. Après une exposition des problèmes théoriques rencontrés (concept de cinéma national; relation histoire et cinéma; historiographie irlandaise), nous analysons l'évolution de la représentation de l'histoire nationale à l'écran. Pendant toute la première moitié du siècle, le cinéma irlandais, bien qu'indépendant des institutions étatiques, a mythifié le passé afin de légitimer l'identité nationale institutionnalisée. A partir des années 1970, dans un double mouvement d'ouverture et de repli, les films historiques ont, sous l'impulsion révisionniste et postcolonialiste, remis en cause les représentations traditionalistes, tout en affirmant leur importance dans la re-construction d'une nouvelle identité
This dissertation attempts to trace the reasons why history was such a crucial preoccupation in Irish cinema between 1916 and 2000. As it examines the relation between cinema and history alongside the historiographical debates in Ireland, it seeks to show how cinematic representations of Irish history evolved throughout this period. During the first half of the twentieth century Irish films mainly conveyed a mythic vision of Ireland's past, the aim being to legitimise the institutionalised national identity. From the 1970s onwards, in a double movement of openness and closure, historical films have under the influence of revisionist and postcolonialist theories challenged traditional representations while asserting the latter's relevance when it comes to rebuilding a new identity

Je voulais engager un travail concernant la Tunisie contemporaine. J'ai alors cherché à savoir si l'image proposée par le cinéma tunisien reflète vraiment la réalité de la société tunisienne, ou si cette image, au ·contraire, est une image déformée, enjolivée ou noircie. Les cinéastes tunisiens ont-ils acquis suffisamment de maturité et de compétences artistiques pour pouvoir prétendre à une certaine autorité qui leur permettrait de jouer un rôle de porte-parole du peuple? Dans la première partie, afin de bien situer la place et le rôle du cinéma tunisien contemporain, j'ai tout d'abord examiné l'histoire du cinéma tunisien dans son ensemble. Dans la deuxième partie de ma recherche, je me suis interrogé sur la nature du lien entre la production cinématographique tunisienne contemporaine et la société tunisienne d'aujourd'hui. J'ai pour cela choisi d'analyser une vingtaine de films à travers un éclairage sociologique, en sélectionnant ces films sur des critères liés à des problèmes de société. J'ai consacré la troisième partie de mon travail à l'un des thèmes selon lesquels j'ai classé les analyses de films: il s'agit du thème de la femme. Enfin dans la quatrième partie, j'ai considéré les lieux de tournage et les décors des films. Je pense en effet que les lieux et les décors jouent un rôle important dans le lien qui s'établit entre un film et son public. Il y a donc un vrai débat sur la crédibilité du cinéma tunisien actuel, et sur sa capacité à toucher son public en profondeur et à réveiller les consciences sur l'état actuel de la société tunisienne. Ce problème ne pourra trouver sa solution que lorsque les entraves à la liberté d'expression seront levées
I wanted to start work on contemporary Tunisia. I then examined whether the image proposed by the Tunisian cinema truly reflects the reality of Tunisian society, or if the image, by contrast, is a distorted, embellished or blackened. Tunisian filmmakers have they gained enough maturity and artistic skills in order to claim some authority that allows them to act as a spokesperson of the people ? In the first part, in order to situate the place and role of contemporary Tunisian cinema, I first examined the history of Tunisian cinema as a whole. In the second part of my research, i wondered about the nature of the relationship between film and contemporary Tunisian society today. Why chose to analyse twenty films through a sociological light, by selecting the films on criteria related the social problems. I devoted the third part of my work at a theme by which i have classified the film analysis : this is the theme of women. Finally, in part IV, I considered the locations ant the sets of films. I think in fact that the locations and sets play an important role in the relationship that developped between a film and its audience. Therefore, there is a real debate on the credibility of the Tunisian cinema today, and its abiility to touch audiences deeply and awaken the consciences of the current state of Tunisian society. This problem cannot be solved only when the restrictions on freedom of expression are lifted

Cette thèse doctorale s'intéresse à la façon dont la dictature de Francoa été portée sur grand écran pendnat les vingt-cinq années qui ont suivi la mort de celui-ci, en analysant le traitement de cette époque, les périodes et les sujets les plus récurrents, les réalisateurs de ces oeuvres et la façon dont ces dernières ont alors été accueillies par le public et la critique. Nous cherchons donc à explorer les interférences entre le cinéma et l'histoire, entre la culture et les périodes politiques pendant lesquelles celle-ci est produite et consommée, afin de découvrir la relation que la société espagnole a entretenue avec ce passé récent. Pour cela, nous avons divisé ce travail en trois parties qui correspondent aux trois moments politiques de l'histoire espagnole récente : la première comprend la transition à la démocratie (1975-1982) ; la seconde, les quatre législatures pendant lesquelles le PSOE a gardé le pouvoir (1982-1996) ; et la troisième correspond à lapremière législature du Parti Populaire à la tête du gouvernement (1996-2000). A travers l'analyse individualisée de près de cent soixante films en suivant les catégories de Marc Ferro de "lecture cinématographique de l'histoire" et de "lecture historique du film", mais aussi grâce à l'insertion de ces films dans des séries filmiques d'analyse et à la recherche de constantes filmiques et de points d'ancrage (selon le concept de Pierre Sorlin), cette thèse retrace un panorama de la mémoire cinématographique du franquisme depuis la fin des années soixante-dix jusqu'au début du XXI siècle et, parallèlement, de la société espagnole elle-même tout au long de ces trois décennies
This doctoral dissertation analyses how the Franco regime was portrayed on the big scree in the twenty-five years that followed the death of the dictator. It investigates the depictions of the dictatorship, the most recurrent topics and periods represenetd and the movies' reception by critics and the general public. The thesis aims at exploring the interferences between cinema and history, between culture and the historicel contexts in which the latter is produced and consumed. , as a way of understanding how spanish ociety dealt with its recent past. The doctoral dissertation is divided into three parts, according to three different political eras in recent spanish history. The first covers the tarnsition to democraty (1975-1982). The second deals with the four consecutive terms that the spanish socialist workers party (PSOE) was in power (1982-1996). The third section explores the first term of the people 's party (PP) (1996-2000). The PhD thesis analyses more than 150 films. It zpplies Marc Ferro's concepts of "cinematic reading of history" and "historical reading of the film", Pierre Sorlin's ideas about filmic attachment points, together with filmic analytical series and filmic constants. This study aanlyses the cinematogarphic memory of francoism from the late 1970s to the beginning of the twenty-first century and thus spanish cociety throughout these years

De 2000 à 2009, l'industrie du blockbuster hollywoodien a produit en moyenne trois films de super-héros par an. Adaptant pour le cinéma ces personnages issus de la bande dessinée, elle va modifier et accentuer certaines de leurs particularités, en faisant des créatures hybrides, tenant à la fois du héros d' action et du monstre. Autour de cette double origine, nous réfléchissons à la constitution duelle de ce nouveau héros de cinéma en interrogeant les récurrentes thématiques et visuelles de ce personnage, son rapport à son original et au cinéma d' action qui lui est contemporain afin de faire émerger la poétique intranquille qui les anime.

La thèse propose une approche du cinéma fantastique espagnol des années 1990 et 2000, et plus spécifiquement de la période allant de 1993 à 2005. En effet, on assiste alors à l’arrivée d’une nouvelle génération de réalisateurs qui donne un nouvel élan au genre en se le réappropriant. Nous partons du constat initial qu’au sein des diverses approches du genre présentes dans chacun de ces films, le fantastique espagnol semble privilégier l’apparition de trois incarnations du surnaturel : le fantôme, le slasher et le monstre. Notre étude se penche sur chacune d’entre elles afin de dégager quelles sont les lignes de force qui les structurent. Pour cela, nous nous servons de la notion de figure, qui à partir de l’étude de la représentation cinématographique des corps, permet également de déterminer quels sont les enjeux thématiques qui y sont associés, ainsi que la reconfiguration particulière que chacune d’entre elles opère sur le genre fantastique
This thesis tackles Spanish fantastic cinema from the 1990s and 2000s, and more specifically from 1993 to 2005. Indeed, this period of time corresponds to the rising of a new generation of directors who gave a new impetus to the genre by re-appropriating it. We start off with the initial premise that within the various approaches of the genre present in each of these films, the Spanish fantastic seems to favour the emergence of three types of supernatural : the ghost, the slasher and the monster. Our study focuses on each of these types so as to highlight its structuring driving forces. In that respect, we use the notion of figure which, based on the study of the cinematographic representation of bodies, also allows to determine the thematic stakes related to it, as well as the specific reconfiguration that each of them operates on the fantastic genre

Plusieurs films américains des années 2000 (Mulholland Drive et INLAND EMPIRE de David Lynch, The Virgin Suicides de Sofia Coppola, Memento de Christopher Nolan, The Pledge de Sean Penn, Broken Flowers de Jim Jarmusch et Zodiac de David Fincher) opèrent une remise en question de la fonction, du fonctionnement et de la représentation des indices sur lesquels s’appuient tant la littérature que le cinéma policiers. Ces films, qui reprennent certains codes du genre sans être tous à proprement parler des « films policiers », ont pour point commun de mettre en scène une enquête qui n’aboutit pas et qui se retourne contre l’enquêteur jusqu’à ébranler son identité. Ils font ainsi écho aux récits de détection dits métaphysiques (The Crying of Lot 49 de Thomas Pynchon, City of Glass de Paul Auster...) : l’indice, loin de permettre la clôture du récit, devient le moyen de son ouverture. À sa juste interprétation succède le foisonnement des lectures et des histoires possibles. Autrefois transparent, il se fait opaque ; de fluide, sa circulation devient accidentée – ce à quoi correspondent de nouvelles manières de le filmer. Les codes du genre policier visant à marquer l’indice tout en favorisant sa lisibilité et l’identification avec l’enquêteur (insert en gros plan, raccord-regard, faible profondeur de champ…) sont détournés selon diverses stratégies : inversion, exagération, etc. Celles-ci ont pour effet de déjouer les attentes des spectateurs et de les rendre inquiets en rétablissant l’incertitude fondamentale de la littérature policière, que le cinéma policier tend à minorer, tout en la mettant au service de projets esthétiques par ailleurs très différents les uns des autres
A few American films released between 2000 and 2007 (David Lynch’s Mulholland Drive and INLAND EMPIRE, Sofia Coppola’s The Virgin Suicides, Christopher Nolan’s Memento, Sean Penn’s The Pledge, Jim Jarmusch’s Broken Flowers and David Fincher’s Zodiac) question the function, inner workings and representation of the clues on which detective fiction and film rely. These movies, which take up certain tropes of the genre without necessarily being detective films per se, all revolve around an investigation which is left incomplete and eventually turns against the investigator, to the point of shattering his or her sense of identity. They thus follow in the footsteps of metaphysical detective fiction (novels such as Thomas Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49 and Paul Auster’s City of Glass), in that the clue, instead of bringing about the closure of the narrative, becomes the instrument of its open-endedness. Its one correct interpretation is replaced by a proliferation of possible readings and stories. Once transparent, it turns opaque; once fluid, its circulation becomes problematic – which leads to new ways of filming it. The codes that detective films use to point out the clue, increase its legibility and foster identification with the investigator (close-up insert, eyeline match, shallow focus…) are subverted through a number of strategies such as inversion and exaggeration. These aim to deceive the spectator’s expectations and to unsettle him or her by reinstating the fundamental uncertainty of detective fiction, which detective films normally tend to repress, and which is here incorporated into aesthetic projects that otherwise differ widely

Cette thèse vise à définir l’espace post-apartheid tel qu’il est représenté dans le cinéma sud-africain. Depuis 1994, l’Afrique du Sud démocratique constitue un nouvel espace géographique et socio-économique, profondément marqué par l’héritage de l’apartheid. Notre thèse vise à conjuguer l’analyse stylistique de films sud-africains et une réflexion civilisationniste, influencée par la géographie et la sociologie, sur ce qui fonde l’espace post-apartheid. Nous étudions le cinéma de fiction qui permet la représentation de l’espace tel qu’il est perçu, voire souhaité par le cinéaste, parfois en contradiction avec les enjeux commerciaux. La refondation du cinéma sud-africain après 1994 a-t-elle donné naissance à une nouvelle représentation de l’espace ?L’espace post-apartheid au cinéma se définit d’abord en rapport avec l’ancien espace, en opposition ou dans la continuité. Notre étude se concentre sur l’héritage de l’apartheid dans les années 2000, dans l’industrie du film et dans la mise en image d’un territoire national clivé et de villes divisées. Nous abordons ensuite la représentation récurrente de trajectoires individuelles en butte à cette géographie héritée, focalisation qui contribue à mettre à distance l’espace prescrit par l’ancien régime. Nous établissons enfin que l’espace cinématographique post-apartheid est défini en rapport avec la construction d’une nouvelle identité depuis 1994. Certaines ambiguïtés en découlent, dans la représentation du township et des étrangers africains ou dans la réception des films, et soulignent la redéfinition complexe de l’espace et de l’identité en Afrique du Sud afin que celle-ci puisse être véritablement « nouvelle »
This study focuses on the representation of post-apartheid space in indigenous South African fiction films. I work towards a definition of cinematic post-apartheid space, putting forth its ambivalent relations to the apartheid past, between heritage and rejection, on the levels of geographical space, socio-economic space and, mostly, represented space. I situate myself at the intersection of South African cultural studies and reflections on post-apartheid space, and of the study of the new South African cinema. I focus on fiction since it gives most room for filmmakers to represent space as they perceive it, or desire it, to be, and on feature films which carry most of the South African industry’s ambitions in terms of international recognition.I first look at the heritage of apartheid in terms of the South African film industry, the divisions of the national territory and the structure of the South African city. I argue that post-apartheid cinematic space is first and foremost defined in relation to apartheid space, whether in opposition or in terms of heritage. However, recurrent representations of individual trajectories clash with that inherited geography and are a means for filmmakers to distance themselves from the previously prescribed relations between characters and space. I also argue that the definition of a new South African identity is crucial to the characterization of post-apartheid space in films. The ambiguous representations of township space or African foreigners in South African films and the emphasis on the nationality of films in film reception put forth how deeply paradoxical the reinvention of space and identity is in post-apartheid South Africa

Recent films set in Paris have called attention in various ways to the diversity of cultures, beliefs, and languages that come together in the French capital. This chapter examines four films characterized as ‘activist’. Whether it is a question of the intersecting fates of Malian or Romanian immigrants in the French capital in Austrian director Michael Haneke’s Code inconnu (2000), the life-or-death situation of an Algerian immigrant who has been forced into prostitution in Coline Serreau’s Chaos (2001, France), the purposely hilarious socio-political activism of a young woman whose father is an immigrant from Algeria and whose newfound love is of Jewish descent in Michel Leclerc’s Le nom des gens (2010), or the spontaneous kindness a witness to a fatal hit-and-run accident shows to the Moldavian victim’s wife in Catherine Corsini’s Trois mondes (2012), it is clear that these filmmakers have turned an attentive eye to the injustices that mark the experience of those from elsewhere whose trajectories have brought them to the City of Lights.

The purpose of this study is to trace the relationship between male, masculinity, and violence in Turkish films after 2000. For this purpose, action, adventure, political, and drama films featuring Kenan İmirzalıoğlu, the pioneering anti-hero of male violence in popular Turkish films between 2000-2010 were focused. Thus, the sample of the study was composed of Deli Yürek: Bumerang Cehennemi (2001), Yazı Tura (2004), Kabadayı (2007), and Ejder Kapanı (2010) films. In all of these films Yusuf, Cevher, Devran, and Celal acted by İmirzalıoğlu use intense violence in the name of honor, power, and virility. Starting from such observation, the study has endeavored to make an interpretation on appearance of the relationship among man, masculinity, and violence based on the type, orientation, perspective and purpose of violence in the films, included the sample since the 2000s. In pursuit of such meaning first, it will be useful to mention the relationship among violence, man, and masculinity.

The purpose of this study is to trace the relationship between male, masculinity, and violence in Turkish films after 2000. For this purpose, action, adventure, political, and drama films featuring Kenan İmirzalıoğlu, the pioneering anti-hero of male violence in popular Turkish films between 2000-2010 were focused. Thus, the sample of the study was composed of Deli Yürek: Bumerang Cehennemi (2001), Yazı Tura (2004), Kabadayı (2007), and Ejder Kapanı (2010) films. In all of these films Yusuf, Cevher, Devran, and Celal acted by İmirzalıoğlu use intense violence in the name of honor, power, and virility. Starting from such observation, the study has endeavored to make an interpretation on appearance of the relationship among man, masculinity, and violence based on the type, orientation, perspective and purpose of violence in the films, included the sample since the 2000s. In pursuit of such meaning first, it will be useful to mention the relationship among violence, man, and masculinity.

This chapter presents an educational and consulting path for the use of new technologies that support the improvement of learning relationships in groups (Parmigiani, 2009), the construction of knowledge (Lakkala et al., 2007; Kangas et al., 2007) and the ability to recognize and explore the experience of communication and relationship at professional and personal levels, for the individual and for groups in order to enhance abilities and professional skills on several levels: cognitive, affective, conative and practical (Paquay, Altet, Charlier, & Perrenoud, 2001). Through the report of the experiments carried out for two years and applied to two training projects for teachers of five Primary and Secondary Italian schools, the main objective is to describe and present the overall results. The approaches used were inspired by the method of participatory research and action research with a clinical and pedagogical approach. The methodology is based on the case study of the Clinica della Formazione (Massa, 1992; Franza, 2003) that increases the emotional, communicative and relationship dimensions and gives concreteness not only to the educational action but also to the process behind it, which then becomes the target of investigations.

Moufida Tlatli et Raja Amari, deux réalisatrices tunisiennes qui ont recours à l’élément aquatique en tant que métaphore visuelle de la construction de leurs univers féminins particuliers. L’eau, en tant que symbole d’impulsion vitale et moyen de transformation identitaire, est souvent présent dans l’imaginaire des cinéastes magrébines. Mes réflexions verseront sur deux films concrets où il existe un traitement antithétique de l’eau : Tlatli présente, dans La Saison des hommes (2000), une cartographie du désir où le regard et la figure féminines sont liés à la liberté d’une mer mythique et à l’île de Djerba. Elle montre un gynécée, dans un chronotope contrasté de fermeture et d’ouverture, où les hommes, qui travaillent sur le continent, rendent visite à leurs femmes une fois par an. Et Raja Amar, par contre, enferme son groupe de femmes dans une maison aquarium aux murs bleus, où l’eau morbide de la salle de bains renforce le sentiment d’angoisse.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/XXVColloqueAFUE.2016.3145

The paper is focused on the role of cinemas in culture-led urban regeneration, their potential in the process of place-making and community building. Existing research has shown that there is a link between social and spatial identities based on small town cinemas and that community needs to be at the centre of the regeneration process for it to be sustainable. The paper follows the debate with its objective being to explore this link using a mixed method approach based on a case study. The case study deals with a local community cinema project located in the centre of Košice, Slovakia. It started the process of cinema restoration in 2015 and reflected the collective aspirations of urban inhabitants for the cinema’s survival. The findings conclude that the cinema is an active social actor and cultural asset in the neighbourhood and contributes to the development of a vital and inclusive community. On the other hand, it opens up the debate on the Slovak Audiovisual policies and cinema situation across Slovak districts as potential for further research.

Amor à Flor da Pele (2000) ganhou em Cannes o prêmio de melhor ator (Tony Leung Chiu Wai) e o Technical Grand Prize (pela edição e fotografia). É o sétimo longa-metragem de Wong Kar-wai, apontado no Festival Internacional de Cinema de Cannes por Felizes Juntos (1997), foi o primeiro diretor de nacionalidade chinesa a presidir o júri do mesmo festival (2006).

Este estudo investiga se há diferença na distribuiço de recursos entre pesquisadores homens e mulheres para financiar a pesquisa academica no Brasil nas áreas de Cincia, Tecnologia, Engenharia e Matemática acrescidas da área de Economia (STEEM). Verificamos se a probabilidade de conseguir financiamento para pesquisa difere entre homens e mulheres e testamos se o montante de recursos para a pesquisa difere entre as cientistas mulheres e os cientistas homens. Utilizamos dados das distribuiçes de bolsas de produtividade em pesquisa do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) de 2017 e 2020, dados das concesses de auxílios pela Fundaço de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de So Paulo (FAPESP) de 2015 a 2020, e dados sobre as características dos pesquisadores brasileiros cadastrados na Plataforma Lattes. Nossos resultados indicam que as candidatas mulheres a bolsistas de produtividade do CNPq possuem menor probabilidade de terem a bolsa aprovada, mesmo controlando por área de atuaço, instituiço de doutorado, quantidade e qualidade média de publicaçes nos últimos cinco anos, entre outras características. O resultado é mantido e intensificado no recorte para pesquisadores das áreas STEEM. Em relaço à FAPESP, no so encontradas diferenças significativas de genero na probabilidade de aprovaço de financiamento de projeto, tanto na amostra geral quanto entre as áreas STEEM. Todavia, observamos que as mulheres solicitam e tm aprovado e recebido valores menores de financiamento de projetos. Encontramos evidencias de que as pesquisadoras mulheres com mesmo perfil de pesquisadores homens tm maior corte de recursos nos projetos aprovados pela FAPESP.

African migrants in Mexico are migratory flows that have been less studied than migration from Latin America (Cinta Cruz, 2020). In the last five years, migrants from 35 different African countries were detained in Mexico. Although arrests of African persons are much lower than in the case of Central American countries, on average, between 6 and 19 African persons are detained per day. It is essential to know their mobility patterns, identify their international protection needs, and the main obstacles they face, whether to cross into the United States or to remain in Mexico as refugees (Narváez Gutiérrez, 2015). In addition, these populations are often highly stigmatized and exposed to face racism and institutional violence when they contact Mexican authorities (Immigration, 2021). In this working paper, my objective is to present some data on the migration of African people in Mexico after the arrival of caravans in 2018 and to reflect on the impact of a global discourse that stereotypes migrants as criminals or sick people in the access to human rights of African asylum seekers in Mexico and on the effects of a growing tendency to treat migrants as beneficiaries of temporary humanitarian aid rather than as subjects of rights.

1.1 Macroeconomic summary Economic recovery has consistently outperformed the technical staff’s expectations following a steep decline in activity in the second quarter of 2020. At the same time, total and core inflation rates have fallen and remain at low levels, suggesting that a significant element of the reactivation of Colombia’s economy has been related to recovery in potential GDP. This would support the technical staff’s diagnosis of weak aggregate demand and ample excess capacity. The most recently available data on 2020 growth suggests a contraction in economic activity of 6.8%, lower than estimates from January’s Monetary Policy Report (-7.2%). High-frequency indicators suggest that economic performance was significantly more dynamic than expected in January, despite mobility restrictions and quarantine measures. This has also come amid declines in total and core inflation, the latter of which was below January projections if controlling for certain relative price changes. This suggests that the unexpected strength of recent growth contains elements of demand, and that excess capacity, while significant, could be lower than previously estimated. Nevertheless, uncertainty over the measurement of excess capacity continues to be unusually high and marked both by variations in the way different economic sectors and spending components have been affected by the pandemic, and by uneven price behavior. The size of excess capacity, and in particular the evolution of the pandemic in forthcoming quarters, constitute substantial risks to the macroeconomic forecast presented in this report. Despite the unexpected strength of the recovery, the technical staff continues to project ample excess capacity that is expected to remain on the forecast horizon, alongside core inflation that will likely remain below the target. Domestic demand remains below 2019 levels amid unusually significant uncertainty over the size of excess capacity in the economy. High national unemployment (14.6% for February 2021) reflects a loose labor market, while observed total and core inflation continue to be below 2%. Inflationary pressures from the exchange rate are expected to continue to be low, with relatively little pass-through on inflation. This would be compatible with a negative output gap. Excess productive capacity and the expectation of core inflation below the 3% target on the forecast horizon provide a basis for an expansive monetary policy posture. The technical staff’s assessment of certain shocks and their expected effects on the economy, as well as the presence of several sources of uncertainty and related assumptions about their potential macroeconomic impacts, remain a feature of this report. The coronavirus pandemic, in particular, continues to affect the public health environment, and the reopening of Colombia’s economy remains incomplete. The technical staff’s assessment is that the COVID-19 shock has affected both aggregate demand and supply, but that the impact on demand has been deeper and more persistent. Given this persistence, the central forecast accounts for a gradual tightening of the output gap in the absence of new waves of contagion, and as vaccination campaigns progress. The central forecast continues to include an expected increase of total and core inflation rates in the second quarter of 2021, alongside the lapse of the temporary price relief measures put in place in 2020. Additional COVID-19 outbreaks (of uncertain duration and intensity) represent a significant risk factor that could affect these projections. Additionally, the forecast continues to include an upward trend in sovereign risk premiums, reflected by higher levels of public debt that in the wake of the pandemic are likely to persist on the forecast horizon, even in the context of a fiscal adjustment. At the same time, the projection accounts for the shortterm effects on private domestic demand from a fiscal adjustment along the lines of the one currently being proposed by the national government. This would be compatible with a gradual recovery of private domestic demand in 2022. The size and characteristics of the fiscal adjustment that is ultimately implemented, as well as the corresponding market response, represent another source of forecast uncertainty. Newly available information offers evidence of the potential for significant changes to the macroeconomic scenario, though without altering the general diagnosis described above. The most recent data on inflation, growth, fiscal policy, and international financial conditions suggests a more dynamic economy than previously expected. However, a third wave of the pandemic has delayed the re-opening of Colombia’s economy and brought with it a deceleration in economic activity. Detailed descriptions of these considerations and subsequent changes to the macroeconomic forecast are presented below. The expected annual decline in GDP (-0.3%) in the first quarter of 2021 appears to have been less pronounced than projected in January (-4.8%). Partial closures in January to address a second wave of COVID-19 appear to have had a less significant negative impact on the economy than previously estimated. This is reflected in figures related to mobility, energy demand, industry and retail sales, foreign trade, commercial transactions from selected banks, and the national statistics agency’s (DANE) economic tracking indicator (ISE). Output is now expected to have declined annually in the first quarter by 0.3%. Private consumption likely continued to recover, registering levels somewhat above those from the previous year, while public consumption likely increased significantly. While a recovery in investment in both housing and in other buildings and structures is expected, overall investment levels in this case likely continued to be low, and gross fixed capital formation is expected to continue to show significant annual declines. Imports likely recovered to again outpace exports, though both are expected to register significant annual declines. Economic activity that outpaced projections, an increase in oil prices and other export products, and an expected increase in public spending this year account for the upward revision to the 2021 growth forecast (from 4.6% with a range between 2% and 6% in January, to 6.0% with a range between 3% and 7% in April). As a result, the output gap is expected to be smaller and to tighten more rapidly than projected in the previous report, though it is still expected to remain in negative territory on the forecast horizon. Wide forecast intervals reflect the fact that the future evolution of the COVID-19 pandemic remains a significant source of uncertainty on these projections. The delay in the recovery of economic activity as a result of the resurgence of COVID-19 in the first quarter appears to have been less significant than projected in the January report. The central forecast scenario expects this improved performance to continue in 2021 alongside increased consumer and business confidence. Low real interest rates and an active credit supply would also support this dynamic, and the overall conditions would be expected to spur a recovery in consumption and investment. Increased growth in public spending and public works based on the national government’s spending plan (Plan Financiero del Gobierno) are other factors to consider. Additionally, an expected recovery in global demand and higher projected prices for oil and coffee would further contribute to improved external revenues and would favor investment, in particular in the oil sector. Given the above, the technical staff’s 2021 growth forecast has been revised upward from 4.6% in January (range from 2% to 6%) to 6.0% in April (range from 3% to 7%). These projections account for the potential for the third wave of COVID-19 to have a larger and more persistent effect on the economy than the previous wave, while also supposing that there will not be any additional significant waves of the pandemic and that mobility restrictions will be relaxed as a result. Economic growth in 2022 is expected to be 3%, with a range between 1% and 5%. This figure would be lower than projected in the January report (3.6% with a range between 2% and 6%), due to a higher base of comparison given the upward revision to expected GDP in 2021. This forecast also takes into account the likely effects on private demand of a fiscal adjustment of the size currently being proposed by the national government, and which would come into effect in 2022. Excess in productive capacity is now expected to be lower than estimated in January but continues to be significant and affected by high levels of uncertainty, as reflected in the wide forecast intervals. The possibility of new waves of the virus (of uncertain intensity and duration) represents a significant downward risk to projected GDP growth, and is signaled by the lower limits of the ranges provided in this report. Inflation (1.51%) and inflation excluding food and regulated items (0.94%) declined in March compared to December, continuing below the 3% target. The decline in inflation in this period was below projections, explained in large part by unanticipated increases in the costs of certain foods (3.92%) and regulated items (1.52%). An increase in international food and shipping prices, increased foreign demand for beef, and specific upward pressures on perishable food supplies appear to explain a lower-than-expected deceleration in the consumer price index (CPI) for foods. An unexpected increase in regulated items prices came amid unanticipated increases in international fuel prices, on some utilities rates, and for regulated education prices. The decline in annual inflation excluding food and regulated items between December and March was in line with projections from January, though this included downward pressure from a significant reduction in telecommunications rates due to the imminent entry of a new operator. When controlling for the effects of this relative price change, inflation excluding food and regulated items exceeds levels forecast in the previous report. Within this indicator of core inflation, the CPI for goods (1.05%) accelerated due to a reversion of the effects of the VAT-free day in November, which was largely accounted for in February, and possibly by the transmission of a recent depreciation of the peso on domestic prices for certain items (electric and household appliances). For their part, services prices decelerated and showed the lowest rate of annual growth (0.89%) among the large consumer baskets in the CPI. Within the services basket, the annual change in rental prices continued to decline, while those services that continue to experience the most significant restrictions on returning to normal operations (tourism, cinemas, nightlife, etc.) continued to register significant price declines. As previously mentioned, telephone rates also fell significantly due to increased competition in the market. Total inflation is expected to continue to be affected by ample excesses in productive capacity for the remainder of 2021 and 2022, though less so than projected in January. As a result, convergence to the inflation target is now expected to be somewhat faster than estimated in the previous report, assuming the absence of significant additional outbreaks of COVID-19. The technical staff’s year-end inflation projections for 2021 and 2022 have increased, suggesting figures around 3% due largely to variation in food and regulated items prices. The projection for inflation excluding food and regulated items also increased, but remains below 3%. Price relief measures on indirect taxes implemented in 2020 are expected to lapse in the second quarter of 2021, generating a one-off effect on prices and temporarily affecting inflation excluding food and regulated items. However, indexation to low levels of past inflation, weak demand, and ample excess productive capacity are expected to keep core inflation below the target, near 2.3% at the end of 2021 (previously 2.1%). The reversion in 2021 of the effects of some price relief measures on utility rates from 2020 should lead to an increase in the CPI for regulated items in the second half of this year. Annual price changes are now expected to be higher than estimated in the January report due to an increased expected path for fuel prices and unanticipated increases in regulated education prices. The projection for the CPI for foods has increased compared to the previous report, taking into account certain factors that were not anticipated in January (a less favorable agricultural cycle, increased pressure from international prices, and transport costs). Given the above, year-end annual inflation for 2021 and 2022 is now expected to be 3% and 2.8%, respectively, which would be above projections from January (2.3% and 2,7%). For its part, expected inflation based on analyst surveys suggests year-end inflation in 2021 and 2022 of 2.8% and 3.1%, respectively. There remains significant uncertainty surrounding the inflation forecasts included in this report due to several factors: 1) the evolution of the pandemic; 2) the difficulty in evaluating the size and persistence of excess productive capacity; 3) the timing and manner in which price relief measures will lapse; and 4) the future behavior of food prices. Projected 2021 growth in foreign demand (4.4% to 5.2%) and the supposed average oil price (USD 53 to USD 61 per Brent benchmark barrel) were both revised upward. An increase in long-term international interest rates has been reflected in a depreciation of the peso and could result in relatively tighter external financial conditions for emerging market economies, including Colombia. Average growth among Colombia’s trade partners was greater than expected in the fourth quarter of 2020. This, together with a sizable fiscal stimulus approved in the United States and the onset of a massive global vaccination campaign, largely explains the projected increase in foreign demand growth in 2021. The resilience of the goods market in the face of global crisis and an expected normalization in international trade are additional factors. These considerations and the expected continuation of a gradual reduction of mobility restrictions abroad suggest that Colombia’s trade partners could grow on average by 5.2% in 2021 and around 3.4% in 2022. The improved prospects for global economic growth have led to an increase in current and expected oil prices. Production interruptions due to a heavy winter, reduced inventories, and increased supply restrictions instituted by producing countries have also contributed to the increase. Meanwhile, market forecasts and recent Federal Reserve pronouncements suggest that the benchmark interest rate in the U.S. will remain stable for the next two years. Nevertheless, a significant increase in public spending in the country has fostered expectations for greater growth and inflation, as well as increased uncertainty over the moment in which a normalization of monetary policy might begin. This has been reflected in an increase in long-term interest rates. In this context, emerging market economies in the region, including Colombia, have registered increases in sovereign risk premiums and long-term domestic interest rates, and a depreciation of local currencies against the dollar. Recent outbreaks of COVID-19 in several of these economies; limits on vaccine supply and the slow pace of immunization campaigns in some countries; a significant increase in public debt; and tensions between the United States and China, among other factors, all add to a high level of uncertainty surrounding interest rate spreads, external financing conditions, and the future performance of risk premiums. The impact that this environment could have on the exchange rate and on domestic financing conditions represent risks to the macroeconomic and monetary policy forecasts. Domestic financial conditions continue to favor recovery in economic activity. The transmission of reductions to the policy interest rate on credit rates has been significant. The banking portfolio continues to recover amid circumstances that have affected both the supply and demand for loans, and in which some credit risks have materialized. Preferential and ordinary commercial interest rates have fallen to a similar degree as the benchmark interest rate. As is generally the case, this transmission has come at a slower pace for consumer credit rates, and has been further delayed in the case of mortgage rates. Commercial credit levels stabilized above pre-pandemic levels in March, following an increase resulting from significant liquidity requirements for businesses in the second quarter of 2020. The consumer credit portfolio continued to recover and has now surpassed February 2020 levels, though overall growth in the portfolio remains low. At the same time, portfolio projections and default indicators have increased, and credit establishment earnings have come down. Despite this, credit disbursements continue to recover and solvency indicators remain well above regulatory minimums. 1.2 Monetary policy decision In its meetings in March and April the BDBR left the benchmark interest rate unchanged at 1.75%.