Tesis sobre el tema "Building Adobe"

Doutoramento em Engenharia Civil
Earthen construction has been widely used throughout the world, since approximately 10000 years ago and until the present day. A significant part of the world earthen built heritage – including many properties inscribed on the UNESCO’s World Heritage List –, however, is at risk. In Portugal, earth was also a widely used construction material until the middle of the 20th century. In Aveiro district, in particular, adobe construction was very common. Currently, there are still a great number of adobe constructions in this region, a large part of which are in use. Many of the existing buildings are of social, cultural, and architectural value. Despite their value, however, many of these buildings are in a poor state of conservation, suffering from various structural and non-structural defects. The problems observed in existing adobe buildings result in large part from a lack of knowledge regarding the materials and building systems used in this type of construction. There is, in particular, a lack of knowledge about the properties and behaviour of adobe masonry walls, which are key structural elements that influence the overall behaviour of buildings. The main aim of the research developed and discussed in this thesis is thus to contribute to this knowledge, focusing, in particular, on the adobe buildings of Aveiro district. For this purpose, a visual and dimensional inspection of the facade walls of twenty-one representative adobe buildings was conducted. With this inspection, it was possible to carry out a detailed analysis of the facade walls – including their structural system, coatings, and traditional masonry materials – and to assess the vulnerabilities, common defects, and state of conservation of these elements. A series of experimental tests were also carried out. Simple compression tests were performed on cylindrical and cubic adobe specimens, flexural tests on adobe bricks, and splitting tests on cylindrical specimens. Simple compression and diagonal compression tests were also conducted on ten full-scale adobe masonry wall panels, built with adobes taken from an existing construction. Finally, an in-plane horizontal cyclic test was performed on a full-scale double-T shaped adobe wall, also built with adobes from an existing construction. With the tests carried out, it was possible to characterise the strength, stiffness, stress-strain relationships, and common damage pattern of the test specimens, and to assess correlations between different mechanical properties. It was also possible to develop a comparison between the strength values obtained and the limits indicated in existing standards for earthen construction, and between the results obtained and those determined by other authors for test specimens representative of adobe construction in other countries. The results presented and discussed in this thesis contribute to the enrichment of knowledge that is considered essential to support the conservation and rehabilitation of existing adobe buildings, not only in Portugal, but also in other regions of the world.
A construção em terra tem sido muito utilizada em todo o mundo, desde há cerca de 10000 anos atrás e até aos dias de hoje. Uma parte significativa do património mundial construído com terra, incluindo vários bens inscritos na Lista de Património Mundial da UNESCO, encontra-se, no entanto, em risco. Em Portugal, a terra foi também um material de construção muito utilizado até meados do século XX. No distrito de Aveiro, em particular, a construção em adobe era muito comum. Atualmente, existe ainda um elevado número de construções em adobe nesta região, grande parte das quais se encontram em uso. Muitos dos edifícios existentes são de valor social, cultural e arquitetónico reconhecido. No entanto, apesar do seu valor, muitos destes edifícios estão em mau estado de conservação, apresentando anomalias estruturais e não estruturais variadas. Os problemas observados nos edifícios existentes de adobe resultam, em grande parte, de falta de conhecimento sobre os materiais e sistemas de construção utilizados neste tipo de edificação. Há, em particular, falta de conhecimento sobre as propriedades e o comportamento das paredes de alvenaria de adobe, que são elementos estruturais principais que influenciam o comportamento global dos edifícios. Assim, o trabalho de investigação desenvolvido e discutido nesta tese tem como principal objetivo contribuir para este conhecimento, debruçando-se, em particular, sobre as construções em adobe do distrito de Aveiro. Para este efeito, foi realizada uma inspeção visual e dimensional das paredes de fachada de vinte e um edifícios de adobe representativos. Com esta inspeção, foi possível analisar de forma detalhada as paredes de fachada – incluindo o seu sistema estrutural, revestimentos e materiais de alvenaria tradicionais – e avaliar as vulnerabilidades, anomalias comuns e estado de conservação destes elementos. Uma série de ensaios experimentais foi também levada a cabo. Foram realizados ensaios de compressão simples sobre provetes cilíndricos e cúbicos de adobe, ensaios de flexão sobre blocos de adobe e ensaios de compressão diametral sobre provetes cilíndricos. Foram ainda realizados ensaios de compressão simples e compressão diagonal sobre dez painéis de alvenaria de adobe à escala real, construídos com adobes recolhidos de uma construção existente. Por fim, realizou-se o ensaio de uma parede à escala real em forma de ‘duplo T’, construída também com adobes de uma construção existente, sob a ação de uma carga horizontal cíclica, aplicada no plano da parede. Com os ensaios realizados, foi possível caracterizar a resistência, a rigidez, as relações de comportamento tensão-deformação e o padrão comum de dano dos elementos ensaiados, e avaliar as correlações entre diferentes propriedades mecânicas. Foi ainda desenvolvida uma comparação entre os valores de resistência obtidos e os limites indicados nas normas existentes para a construção em terra, bem como entre os resultados obtidos e aqueles determinados por outros autores para a alvenaria de adobe representativa da construção em adobe noutros países. Os resultados apresentados e discutidos nesta tese contribuem para o enriquecimento de conhecimento que é considerado essencial para apoiar a conservação e reabilitação dos edifícios de adobe existentes, não só em Portugal, mas também noutras regiões do mundo.

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Diante da preocupação atual com construções ecologicamente corretas, o adobe surge como importante opção em edificações de baixo custo, por economizar em transporte, quando a terra adequada encontra-se disponível no próprio local da obra; não requerer mão-de-obra especializada; possuir excelente conforto térmico; e não consumir energia para sua fabricação. Trata-se de um material de construção milenar, muito utilizado em diversas partes do mundo. As matérias-primas necessárias para a sua produção (terra e água) são facilmente encontradas na natureza. Apresenta baixo custo energético, pois seu processo de fabricação é simples e não requer cozimento, configurando-se numa tecnologia apropriada plenamente inserida nos preceitos da construção sustentável. Avaliou-se, neste trabalho, a confecção de adobes com adição de cimento e resíduos de construção. Foram realizados ensaios de caracterização dos materiais, compreendendo análise granulométrica, determinação de massa específica no estado solto e limites de consistência. No caso dos adobes, com dimensões de 7,5 cm x 15 cm x 30 cm, realizaram-se ensaios de massa específica, retração linear, umidade higroscópica, absorção e resistência mecânica à compressão. Visando melhorar a sua homogeneização, procedeu-se à mistura dos componentes em betoneira, tendo como resultado um material de consistência plástica. A cura foi feita em câmara úmida aos 7, 28 e 56 dias. Concluiu-se que a adição de resíduo de concreto contribuiu no sentido de promover uma tendência de aumento da resistência, redução da absorção e da retração linear. A adição de cimento promoveu aumento de resistência em função do tempo e redução da absorção.
In view of current preoccupation with ecologic buildings right, the adobe comes as an important choice in low cost edifications, because it saves on transportation when the appropriate land is found in the same place that the work; doesn´t require skilled labor; has excellent thermal comfort; and doesn’t consume energy to production. It´s a millennial construction material, very used in many parts of the world. The raw material necessary to production of adobe is land and water, found easily in the nature. Besides that, it has low energy cost, the manufacture process is simple and doesn´t need baking, being considered an appropriate technology with sustainability concept. In this research, it evaluated the production of adobes with addition of cement and construction waste. Material characterization tests were performed, including particle size analysis, determination of density in loose condition and consistency limits. The tests with the adobe, with dimensions of 7,5 cm x 15 cm x 30 cm, were out specific mass, linear shrinkage, hygroscopic moisture, absorption and mechanical resistance to compression. To improve the homogenization proceeded to the mixture of components in a concrete mixer, resulting in a material of plastic consistency. Curing was done in a humid at 7, 28 and 56 days chamber. It was concluded that the addition of concrete residue contributed to promote a trend of increased resistance, reduced absorption and linear shrinkage. The addition of cement promoted an increase in resistance as a function of time and decreased absorption.

Orientador: Antonio Anderson da Silva Segantini
Banca: Marco Antonio Morais Alcantara
Banca: Paulo José Rocha de Albuquerque
Resumo: Diante da preocupação atual com construções ecologicamente corretas, o adobe surge como importante opção em edificações de baixo custo, por economizar em transporte, quando a terra adequada encontra-se disponível no próprio local da obra; não requerer mão-de-obra especializada; possuir excelente conforto térmico; e não consumir energia para sua fabricação. Trata-se de um material de construção milenar, muito utilizado em diversas partes do mundo. As matérias-primas necessárias para a sua produção (terra e água) são facilmente encontradas na natureza. Apresenta baixo custo energético, pois seu processo de fabricação é simples e não requer cozimento, configurando-se numa tecnologia apropriada plenamente inserida nos preceitos da construção sustentável. Avaliou-se, neste trabalho, a confecção de adobes com adição de cimento e resíduos de construção. Foram realizados ensaios de caracterização dos materiais, compreendendo análise granulométrica, determinação de massa específica no estado solto e limites de consistência. No caso dos adobes, com dimensões de 7,5 cm x 15 cm x 30 cm, realizaram-se ensaios de massa específica, retração linear, umidade higroscópica, absorção e resistência mecânica à compressão. Visando melhorar a sua homogeneização, procedeu-se à mistura dos componentes em betoneira, tendo como resultado um material de consistência plástica. A cura foi feita em câmara úmida aos 7, 28 e 56 dias. Concluiu-se que a adição de resíduo de concreto contribuiu no sentido de promover uma tendência de aumento da resistência, redução da absorção e da retração linear. A adição de cimento promoveu aumento de resistência em função do tempo e redução da absorção.
Abstract: In view of current preoccupation with ecologic buildings right, the adobe comes as an important choice in low cost edifications, because it saves on transportation when the appropriate land is found in the same place that the work; doesn't require skilled labor; has excellent thermal comfort; and doesn't consume energy to production. It's a millennial construction material, very used in many parts of the world. The raw material necessary to production of adobe is land and water, found easily in the nature. Besides that, it has low energy cost, the manufacture process is simple and doesn't need baking, being considered an appropriate technology with sustainability concept. In this research, it evaluated the production of adobes with addition of cement and construction waste. Material characterization tests were performed, including particle size analysis, determination of density in loose condition and consistency limits. The tests with the adobe, with dimensions of 7,5 cm x 15 cm x 30 cm, were out specific mass, linear shrinkage, hygroscopic moisture, absorption and mechanical resistance to compression. To improve the homogenization proceeded to the mixture of components in a concrete mixer, resulting in a material of plastic consistency. Curing was done in a humid at 7, 28 and 56 days chamber. It was concluded that the addition of concrete residue contributed to promote a trend of increased resistance, reduced absorption and linear shrinkage. The addition of cement promoted an increase in resistance as a function of time and decreased absorption.
Mestre

There is a need to counteract economic injustice in the world. As an architect, as a creator, it is my responsibility to make the world a better place. I want to help people to help themselves by concentrating their efforts in a constructive way. I desire to create a prototypical solution for a village in an area with high unemployment and desperate poverty as a means to give work to people and to serve as an example for other groups of people wanting to do the same. The site I've chosen to illustrate this concept of self-help housing is a 300 x 500 meter plateau in Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
Master of Architecture

Building with earth is still a living practice in Nigeria most especially in the northern region. Pear shaped sun-dried earth brick (tubali) was used traditionally by the Hausa in northern Nigeria. However, the use of tubali has ceased to exist in favour of the adobe blocks in both the urban and rural settlements in Nigeria. Sabon Gari, the study area is one of the urban areas in this region with buildings constructed with adobe. However, these adobe buildings are in deplorable conditions and in dire need of repair. Sabon Gari in Kaduna was selected as the thesis’ study area because of its strategic location and the dual function which the adobe buildings serve (i.e. residential and commercial purposes). This provided an opportunity to study the effect of the two activities on adobe building in an urban area. 20 compounds with buildings constructed with adobe blocks were selected and thoroughly examined. In the course of this study it was identified that the major factors inhibiting the repair of these buildings are social factors. This thesis therefore argued that with an appropriate framework these social factors can be corrected. Consequently, the adobe building in Sabon Gari can be repaired. This informed the decision to develop a repair framework through participatory approach involving the adobe building’s stakeholders, which include tenants, landlords, architects, masons and the planning authority. In the course of the development of this repair framework, this thesis draws on, and contextualises its argument on the fact that tried and tested repair strategies exists at international levels, which can be adapted to the situation in Sabon Gari. Consequently, ideas from relevant building repair literature, Terra conferences papers, earthen architecture conservation projects and adobe building repair projects were critically analysed and used in developing the proposed repair framework for Sabon Gari. To ensure the sustainability of the framework, which is one of the research aims, the content of the framework was validated by some of the stakeholders interviewed at the inception of this research. This proposal was amended based on the stakeholders’ recommendations and now has the input and approval of the stakeholders.

Thesis ((MPhil (Sustainable Development Planning and Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Adequate shelter for the majority of the Mozambican population is still not a reality. Conventional building materials are not affordable for the poor and the governmental policies do not put much focus on the issue of housing. Also, the consideration of environmental issues in the construction industry is becoming relevant concerning the process of sustainability promotion. In most instances, communities in Mozambique have been using local alternative materials to build their houses and unfired adobe brick is one of these materials. Compared to conventional materials, unfired adobe brick is relatively cheaper and has low negative environmental impacts. This study analysed the use of this material in Mozambique from a sustainability viewpoint to find out whether there were opportunities to construct sustainable housing for local communities. To gather information regarding socio-economic, environmental and technical dimensions of the use of unfired adobe brick, the main research strategy privileged the use of a qualitative approach where the data collection methods involved interviews, focus group discussions, observation and direct involvement of the researcher in practical work. Findings indicate that low costs related to the use of unfired adobe brick address the problem of affordability for the majority of local people. Local availability of suitable soils, minimal processing, use of renewable sources of energy for processing the material and recyclability/reusability all indicate that this material has very little environmental impact. Identified stresses (moisture) affecting unfired adobe structures can be avoided through low-impact methods of earth stabilization and specific design measures. It is concluded that unfired adobe brick has the potential to contribute to the provision of sustainable housing in Mozambique. In order for this to happen, there needs to be: More research on construction methods applicable to the Mozambican context; The introduction of construction codes related to adobe construction; Training of local communities in adobe construction; The creation of housing policies; and Investigation into the opportunities offered by unfired adobe brick concerning sustainability.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ordentlike behuising vir die meerderhede van die mense van Mosambiek is nog steeds nie ʼn werklikheid nie. Die meeste mense van Mosambiek kan nie gewone bou materiale bekostig en die staat beleide fokus baie min op die verskafing van behuising of pogings om bou materiale meer toegangklik te maak. Toegang tot bou materiale is een probleem maar bekommernis oor omgewings probleme is ook iets wat meer en meer in ag geneem moet word, spesifiek in terme van die bou industrie. Volhoubarheid is ook iets wat ʼn grote rol speel in ontwikkelings beluister en kan ook ander opsies vir arme gemeenskappe ontlok. Plaaslike gemeenskappe van Mosambiek het vir ʼn lang tyd, alternatiewe produkte gebruik om hul huise te bou, een van die is modder adobe bakstene. In vergelyking met konvensionele materiale is die modder bakstene goedkoper en het a baie kleiner omgewings impak. Die projek bestudeer die gebruik van die modder adobe baksteen in Mosambiek van ʼn volhoubaarheid oogpunt en ondersoek of dit geleenthede skep in terme van volhoubare behuising vir plaaslike gemeenskappe. Die navorsing het verskillende metode behels, die van persoonlike onderhoude, groep onderhoude, observasie en praktiese gebou van ʼn huis met die modder adobe bakstene. Die navorsing het bewys dat die gebruik van die adobe bakstene wel die probleem van toegang en hoe bou koste vir die arm plaaslike gemeenskap oplos. Plaaslike omstandighede werk ook om die vrag van volhoubaarheid op te los omdat die materiale en kennis plaaslik beskikbaar is. Die navorsing bewys ook dat opleiding en ʼn samestelling van die plaaslike kennis kan ook lui tot ʼn toename van die gebruik van die modder adobe baksteen tektologie wat volhoubaarheid oor die algemeen sal verbeter en dat dié ʼn beter toekoms vir die plaaslike gemeenskappe van Mosambiek kan skep.

Modern building procedures and requirements demand that the selection and stabilisation of soils for the purposes of rammed earth construction be better quantified. This study examines the relationships between soil properties, stabiliser treatments, and stabilised strength and density for 111 soil samples taken from sites in New South Wales (Australia), and develops new quantitative criteria for soil assessment, selection, and stabilisation. Laboratory measurements of soil particle size distribution, plasticity, and shrinkage were made for each soil. Various quantities from 0-6 % of lime, cement, and asphalt were added to the soil samples, and the resulting 230 specimens were compacted, and cured for 28 days. Determinations were made of the optimum moisture content, maximum dry density, and compressive strength of the stabilised material. The samples showed stabilised strengths ranging from 1.0-5.4 MPa, with a mean of 2.62 MPa, and densities from 1.44-2.21 t/m3, with a mean of 1.86 t/m3. The results show that over 90 % of the variation in stabilised strength and density of the samples is due to variation in soil properties, with differences in stabiliser type or stabiliser quantity being relatively minor. The most important soil properties explaining stabilised strength are linear shrinkage and plasticity index. These properties have been used to categorise the soils into three groups on the basis of their suitability for stabilisation as measured against a compressive strength criterion of 2 MPa. Favourable soils have shrinkages of < 7.1 % and plasticities of < 16 %, and 90 % of these samples passed the 2 MPa criterion. Satisfactory soils have shrinkages of 7.1-13.0 % and plasticities of 16-30 %, and 65 % of these samples had strengths in excess of 2 MPa. Unfavourable soils have shrinkages of > 13 % and plasticities of > 30 %, and only 10 % of these samples exceeded the 2 MPa value. Soils in the favourable and satisfactory categories can be further discriminated using textural information. On that basis, all soils classified as favourable, and those classified as satisfactory and which also have sand contents < 60 %, are recommended as being suitable for stabilisation. Soils not fulfilling these criteria are unlikely to be successfully stabilised and should be rejected. These results stress the importance of selecting a soil favourably predisposed to stabilisation. Field techniques to search for such soils could be refined on the basis of the new soil criteria presented. Use of the criteria should also minimise unnecessary laboratory testing of the density and strength of soils that subsequently prove unsuitable for stabilisation. A flow chart is presented to guide practitioners through the different stages of soil testing, assessment, and rammed earth stabilisation.

[EN] Over time, the construction potentialities and traditional architecture of Saudi Arabia have declined substantially. The modern generation in Saudi Arabia has neglected the traditional structural and architectural designs for building towns, cities and homes. The materials used in the construction of traditional structures has been replaced by more westernized building materials such as concrete, cement and glass. Westernized methods of design and architecture often fail to last long due to the climatic and topographical conditions of the country, such as extreme heat and fast sand-blowing winds. Reviving traditional architectural and structural building married with westernized building technologies will yield strong structures that are capable of withstanding the harsh conditions of the country. This research seeks to identify the most applicable methods of structural procedures that can be used in historical earthen buildings in Saudi Arabia for conservation purposes. This dissertation addresses the important structural and architectural perspectives of traditional Saudi Arabian buildings. It also examines the perspectives of the Saudi population that affect the selection of building materials and architectural styles that are widely used. An examination of the old techniques employed in traditional Saudi Arabian buildings, how they can help in the formulation of a new approach for contemporary architecture and how this can be implemented in Saudi Arabia are also discussed in this dissertation. In the preparation of this dissertation, conforming processes were performed in order to fulfil the set objectives of the study. The first step was configured to examine different earthen architectural structures in Saudi Arabia. This stage involved travelling to different locations, observing the structures and also conducting interviews with older contractors. To collect more information on the topic, visits to Yemen and South Morocco were made, as these are two countries that have already married earthen architecture with modern architecture. The traditional architecture of Morocco and Yemen is similar to that of Saudi Arabia, but it has taken longer for these countries to shift to modern architecture. A laboratory examination was carried out to examine the relationship between the soil composition, stability, and strength of the structures that are built. Empirical studies were also conducted to examine the compactness, solidity, dimensional steadiness and permeability of the materials used in the constructions. These factors influence the choice of building materials for the conservation of traditional architecture and to solve the current need for cheap housing in the urban fabric. The results of this study indicate that the Adobe and Cob traditional architectural styles are two of the leading architectural styles in Saudi Arabia, with each style symbolizing the perspective of the people living in a particular locality. This dissertation also found that different architectural patterns were influenced by functionality, convenience, efficiency and availability of the construction materials needed. This explains the reason for different structural and architectural patterns in different parts of Saudi Arabia. This study concludes that mixing traditional architectural methods with modern technologies would serve to construct stronger and longer-lasting houses in Saudi Arabia. The new houses would not only serve to conserve the magnificent architecture of the country but would also help in building cheap houses, hence solving the rising demand for housing in urban areas. This study will add to the literature available on architectures in Saudi Arabia.
[ES] Con el tiempo, las posibilidades de construcción con técnicas tradicionales en Arabia Saudita han disminuido considerablemente. La nueva generación de Arabia Saudita ha dejado caer en el olvido los diseños arquitectónicos y estructurales tradicionales a la hora de construir pueblos, ciudades y viviendas. Los materiales utilizados en la construcción de las estructuras tradicionales han sido sustituidos por materiales de construcción más occidentalizados, tales como el hormigón, el cemento y el vidrio. Los métodos arquitectónicos y de diseño occidentalizados no suelen perdurar mucho tiempo debido a las condiciones climáticas y topográficas del país, tales como el calor extremo y las fuertes tormentas de arena. La revitalización de la construcción de estructuras y arquitecturas tradicionales, unida a las tecnologías de construcción occidentalizadas, dará como resultado unas estructuras sólidas capaces de soportar las duras condiciones del país. Esta investigación busca identificar los métodos de construcción de estructuras más aplicables que puedan ser utilizados en edificios históricos de tierra en Arabia Saudita para fines de conservación. Esta tesis aborda la importancia de las perspectivas estructurales y arquitectónicas para los edificios tradicionales de Arabia Saudita. La tesis también analiza el punto de vista de la población saudí frente a la selección de materiales de construcción y a los estilos arquitectónicos utilizados frecuentemente. En esta investigación también se examinan las antiguas técnicas empleadas en los edificios tradicionales de Arabia Saudita, cómo éstas pueden ayudar en la formulación de un nuevo enfoque para la arquitectura contemporánea y cómo pueden introducirse en la construcción actual en Arabia Saudita. En la preparación de esta tesis se ha trabajado con una metodología que permite cumplir con los objetivos establecidos al inicio del estudio. El primer paso fue examinar las diferentes estructuras arquitectónicas de tierra de Arabia Saudita. Esta etapa consistió en viajar a diferentes lugares para observar las estructuras así como para realizar entrevistas a los antiguos constructores. Para recopilar más información sobre el tema se hicieron también visitas a Yemen y al sur de Marruecos, dado que en estos dos países ya se ha unido la arquitectura de tierra con la arquitectura contemporánea. La arquitectura tradicional de Marruecos y Yemen es similar a la de Arabia Saudita, pero en estos países la nueva arquitectura contemporánea se ha desarrollado más tarde. Se han realizado ensayos de laboratorio para determinar la relación entre la composición del suelo y la estabilidad y solidez de las estructuras construidas. También se realizaron estudios empíricos para determinar la compactación, solidez, estabilidad dimensional y la permeabilidad de los materiales utilizados en las construcciones. Estos factores influyen en la elección de materiales de construcción para la conservación de la arquitectura tradicional y para resolver la necesidad actual de construir viviendas económicas en el tejido urbano actual. Los resultados de este estudio indican que las técnicas constructivas tradicionales del adobe y el cob (pared de mano) son dos de las principales técnicas de Arabia Saudita, y cada una de ellas tiene relación con las particularidades de las poblaciones que viven en un determinado lugar. Con esta tesis también se ha determinado que los diferentes patrones arquitectónicos estaban influenciados por la funcionalidad, la comodidad, la eficiencia y la disponibilidad de los materiales de construcción necesarios. Esto explica la razón por la que existen diferentes tipologías estructurales y arquitectónicas en distintas partes de Arabia Saudita. Este estudio concluye que la unión de los métodos arquitectónicos tradicionales con las nuevas tecnologías puede servir para construir viviendas más sólidas y de larga duración en Arabi
[CAT] Amb el temps, les possibilitats de construcció amb tècniques tradicionals a l'Aràbia Saudita han disminuït considerablement. La nova generació d'Aràbia Saudita ha deixat caure en l'oblit els dissenys arquitectònics i estructurals tradicionals a l'hora de construir pobles, ciutats i habitatges. Els materials utilitzats en la construcció de les estructures tradicionals s'han substituït per materials de construcció més occidentalitzats, com ara formigó, ciment i vidre. Els mètodes arquitectònics y de disseny occidentalitzats no solen perdurar molt de temps degut a les condicions climàtiques i topogràfiques del país, com ara la calor extrema i les fortes tempestes d'arena. La revitalització de la construcció d'estructures i arquitectures tradicionals, unida a les tecnologies de construcció occidentalitzades, donarà com resultat unes estructures sòlides capaces de suportar les dures condicions del país. Esta investigació pretén identificar quins són els mètodes de construcció d'estructures més aplicables que es poden utilitzar en els edificis històrics de terra d'Aràbia Saudita amb fins de conservació. Esta tesi aborda la importància de les perspectives estructurals i arquitectòniques per als edificis tradicionals d'Aràbia Saudita. La tesi també analitza el punt de vista de la població saudita front a la selecció de materials de construcció y als estils arquitectònics més àmpliament utilitzats. En esta investigació també s'examinen les antigues tècniques emprades en els edificis tradicionals d'Aràbia Saudita, com estes poden ajudar en la formulació d'un nou enfocament per a l'arquitectura contemporània i com poden introduir-se en la construcció actual a Aràbia Saudita. En la preparació d'esta tesi s'ha treballat amb una metodologia que permet complir amb els objectius establerts a l'inici de l'estudi. El primer pas va ser examinar les diferents estructures arquitectòniques de terra d'Aràbia Saudita. Esta etapa va consistir en viatjar a diferents llocs per a observar les estructures així com per a realitzar entrevistes als antics constructors. Per a recopilar més informació sobre el tema es van fer també visites al Iemen i al sud del Marroc, ja que en aquests dos països ja s'ha unit l'arquitectura de terra amb l'arquitectura contemporània. L'arquitectura tradicional del Marroc i del Iemen és semblant a la d'Aràbia Saudita, però en estos països la nova arquitectura contemporània s'ha desenvolupat més tard. S'han realitzat assajos de laboratori per a determinar la relació entre la composició del sòl i l'estabilitat i solidesa de les estructures construïdes. També es van realitzar estudis empírics per a determinar la compactació, solidesa, estabilitat dimensional i la permeabilitat dels materials emprats en les construccions. Estos factors influeixen en l'elecció de materials de construcció per a la conservació de l'arquitectura tradicional i per a resoldre la necessitat actual de construir cases econòmiques en el teixit urbà actual. Els resultats d'este estudi indiquen que les tècniques constructives tradicionals de l'adob i el cob (paret de mà) són dos de les principals tècniques d'Aràbia Saudita, i cada una d'elles té relació amb les particularitats de les poblacions que viuen en una lloc determinat. Amb esta tesi també s'ha determinat que els diferents patrons arquitectònics estaven influenciats per la funcionalitat, la comoditat, l'eficiència i la disponibilitat dels materials de construcció necessaris. Açò explica la raó per la qual hi ha diferents tipologies estructurals i arquitectòniques en distintes parts d'Aràbia Saudita. Este estudi conclou que la unió dels mètodes arquitectònics tradicionals amb les noves tecnologies modernes pot servir per a construir habitatges més sòlids i de llarga duració a Aràbia Saudita.
Alaidarous, AAH. (2016). Investigating the best methods for structural stabilization procedures for Historical earthen building conservation in Saudi Arabia: a technology-led construction analysis [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/68476
TESIS

This report is about Adobe Acrobat 3D and their new PDF format witch can contain 3 dimensional models that are interactive. The purpose is to find out if the program and the format work in a level that is suitable for the market. To create this PDF you need Acrobat 3D installed on your computer but it only needs Acrobat Reader 7 or 8 to open it, and the Reader is free to download on the internet.

The examination is focusing on four formats: U3D, 3DS, DWG and DXF because they are the most common in the building industry seen from the architects’ way. From a 3D model exported to these four formats they where converted to PDF in different settings to be compared in different points as information and size of the files. The result where put together in tables for an easy overview.

During the work there were no big differences between the results from the different settings noticed. The differences depended more from which format the PDF where converted from. Then the program is not that old on the market there are still some things that can be improved.

In the last decades, earthen constructions have long been debated in the civil engineering and architecture community. Two are the focal points at the center of this debate: on one hand, the rediscovery of earth as an eco-friendly and easily available material, which can be used for the design of new constructions; on the other hand, the recovery, restoration and structural reinforcement of the existing buildings, particularly sensitive to degradation phenomena and vulnerable to seismic actions. Portugal has a significant heritage of earthen constructions. Currently, many vernacular buildings, especially in the district of Aveiro, are still in use and some of them have historical and artistic value. However, many of them are in poor state of conservation and many of the incurred problems are due to the lack of in depth knowledge of the materials and construction systems traditionally used. In this contest, the present study aims to increase the knowledge of adobe constructions in Portugal concerning the characterization of the material and its mechanical properties, such as the uniaxial compressive stress in some adobe samples and the shear strength of masonry joints, to have valid instruments for the recovery and conservation. These data are achieved through the development of some diagnostic testing carried out on site on a vernacular building in Aveiro region, which were integrated with laboratory tests in order to reach a better reliability of the obtained results. This research aims to prove the importance of tiling several diagnostic tests to optimize the knowledge of properties and mechanical characteristics of the tested material. This study also has the objective to draw up some guidelines and recommendations for future researches and to provide a valid contribution for all the future interventions of restoration, conservation and rehabilitation of earthen constructions, because earth is a not standardized material and still little investigated.

It is estimated that only one percent of global freshwater is available to humans, with nearly three billion people living in water scarce conditions. Populations living in impoverished settings are particularly vulnerable to water related illnesses, with approximately 2.2 million people dying each year from to waterborne illnesses. This research uses modeling and field studies to assess the quantity, quality, and economics of distillate produced for drinking water from a brackish water source using two single-sloped, single-basin distillation reactors. The reactors were constructed from adobe and concrete in an arid rural community in San Luis Potosí, Mexico and tested from August to October. The cost of one adobe reactor with an evaporative area of 0.65 m2 is 430 pesos, whereas the same size reactor made from concrete costs 630 pesos. Results show that desalination reactors made from adobe produce 848 mL/m2-day and reactors made from concrete produce 979 mL/m2-day of distillate, while similar reactors made from other materials are estimated to produce over 2,100 mL/m2-day under similar meteorological conditions. These volumes represent approximately 10 percent of drinking water needs of a local family with typical water use habits. The concentrations of total dissolved solids in the source water decreased from 1,102 mg/L to 40.3 mg/L over the study's duration for a removal of 96% which is comparable to current desalination systems (97%). Results suggest that over 90% of a household's drinking water demand could be satisfied (91%) if a network of thirteen distillation reactors were constructed and maintained for ten years when compared to purchasing water from private water vendors.

Este trabalho busca otimizar a utilização de biomassa de macrófitas aquáticas na produção de adobe (tijolos de terra crua, secos ao sol), baseado na determinação e estudo de suas características físicas e mecânicas, assim como nas características físicas e químicas destas plantas. A pesquisa foi desenvolvida no reservatório de Salto Grande, no município de Americana - SP. Este lago está localizado em uma área com déficit de habitações de interesse social, apresentando altos índices de urbanização e industrialização, o que acarreta no seu avançado processo de eutrofização artificial, decorrente das ações antrópicas. As macrófitas aquáticas predominantes no reservatório (Brachiaria arrecta, Eichhornia crassipes e Pistia stratiotes) apresentam níveis elevados de metais pesados e nutrientes (nitrogênio e fósforo), o que torna inviável sua utilização como forragem ou fertilizante. A utilização desta biomassa em materiais de construção é aqui apresentada como uma alternativa de manejo integrado do lago, na forma de encapsulamento (ou solidificação / estabilização) destas substâncias químicas, além de possibilitar a autoconstrução de habitações de baixo custo. Uma outra função do uso da biomassa no adobe é a estabilização do solo, que apresenta alto teor de argila (59 %, com 21 % de silte e 20 % de areia, classificado como A-7-6 HRB) e sofreria grandes retrações durante o processo de secagem, com surgimento de fissuras excessivas e conseqüente redução de resistência mecânica dos tijolos. A adição da biomassa contribuiu com a redução destas fissuras e da massa específica dos tijolos. Os resultados demonstraram ser esta utilização perfeitamente viável, com expressiva retirada de biomassa (juntamente com os metais e nutrientes) do sistema, além de significativas melhorias na qualidade do adobe, tanto físicas como mecânicas. Em linhas gerais, Eichhornia crassipes se mostrou a mais eficiente neste aspecto. Além de tudo, os resultados da pesquisa mostram que, apesar do adobe ser talvez o mais antigo material de construção manufaturado, sua aplicação se mostra perfeitamente viável, numa perspectiva mais ampla de sustentabilidade, se apresentando como um material completamente ecológico e adequado para regiões tropicais.
This work intends to optimise the utilization of aquatic macrophyte biomass in the adobe (a sun-dried mud brick) production, based on the study of the physical and mechanical characteristics of these bricks and the macrophytes biomass estimate as well as their chemical characteristics. The research was developed in the Salto Grande Reservoir region, in Americana (a town in São Paulo State, Brazil). This lake is located in an area of high urbanization and industrialization level, with common dwelling deficit, which is in advanced artificial eutrophication process by human activity action. The aquatic macrophytes found in that place (Brachiaria arrecta, Eichhornia crassipes and Pistia stratiotes) present a high level of heavy metals and nutrients that make impracticable their utilization as forage or fertilizer. The biomass utilization in the construction of materials appears here as an alternative of integrated management of the lake in the stabilization/solidification (or “encapsulation”) of these chemical substances, in addition to the fact that it makes possible the self-building of low cost dwellings. The other biomass function is to stabilize the soil that has a high clay concentration (59%, with 21% silt and 20% sandy) and would suffer a large drawing back during the drying process, with the introduction of excessive fissures. This biomass addition was made to reduce these fissures and the specific mass of the bricks. Besides, the research results show that, even though the adobe bricks are perhaps the oldest manufactured building material, their application persists practicable mainly in the sustainability hopes for being a completely ecological building material and adequate for the tropical regions.

The first step of Master's thesis was to gain knowledge about technologies Adobe Flex SDK and Google Maps API. Knowledge was used to develop an application, which let users create, generate and modify graphical wireless network model. Position and characteristics of each single unit are monitored either in a map interface or in building plans. Dates are gathered from forms filled by current user, from external file or periodically from connected database system. Theoretical part enlightens technologies that were used. It describes program development and solutions, which were made, along with examples of the source code. Included are printscreens of graphical user interface as well as description of how does it all work.

Nuestro País, posee grandes riquezas en su territorio, Áreas naturales, restos arqueológicos, entre otros que lo dotan de un gran potencial turístico. Sin embargo, muchos de estos son desconocidos y considerados como lugares de paso. Esta es la situación en la que se encuentra La Reserva Natural Salinas y Aguada Blanca, ubicada entre la ciudad de Arequipa y el Cañón del Colca. Un bello lugar con atractivos paisajísticos, restos de pintura rupestres, y hogar de vegetación y fauna en peligro de extinción. La reserva es transitada por miles de turistas, por lo cual, la propuesta consiste en consolidar el Poblado Pampa Cañahuas, punto medio en la ruta y lugar en el cual hoy en día hay una parada de descanso en la que los turistas pueden consumir algún mate o comida y comprar artesanías elaboradas por los pobladores. El planteamiento del poblado es entorno a la plaza principal y unas plazuelas denominadas “Eco-Patios” con los cuales se busca dotar al poblado de un desarrollo autosostenible y bioclimático. Así mismo el elemento principal del poblado es el Museo, lugar que servirá para dar a conocer la Reserva. La propuesta además de la exposición interna incluye espacios que se relacionan directamente con el paisaje, permitiendo que a través de visuales el visitante se pueda relacionar con su entorno. El Museo y poblado, tienen la finalidad de dar a conocer a la Reserva, no solo sus atractivos turísticos sino también a los pobladores, un Tambo moderno.
Our country has great wealth in its territory, natural areas, archaeological remains, among others that endow it with great tourist potential. However, many of these are unknown and considered as places of passage. This is the actual situation of the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve, located between the city of Arequipa and the Colca Canyon. It’s a beautiful place with attractive landscapes, remains of cave paintings, and home of vegetation and fauna in danger of extinction. The reserve is traveled by thousands of tourists, so the approach is to consolidate the Pampa Cañahuas Village, a midpoint on the route and place where today there is a rest stop where tourists can consume some typical beverage or food and buy handicrafts made by the villagers. The new design of the town is developed around the main square and some minor squares called "Eco-Patios" with which it seeks to provide the town with a self-sustainable and bioclimatic development. Likewise, the main element of the town is the Museum, a place that will serve to publicize the Reserve. In addition to the internal exhibition, the proposal includes spaces that relate directly to the landscape, allowing visitors to interact with their surroundings through views. The Museum and town, have the purpose of making known the Reserve, not only its tourist attractions but also the inhabitants, a modern “Tambo”
Tesis

Nel corso degli ultimi decenni, le costruzioni in terra cruda sono tornate al centro del dibattito tra architetti e ingegneri di tutto il mondo, non solo perché costituiscono una vasta porzione del patrimonio architettonico mondiale, ma anche perché rappresentano una valida alternativa nell’ambito della sostenibilità alle tradizionali tipologie costruttive. In Portogallo, fino alla metà del XX secolo, ebbero molta diffusione gli edifici realizzati in adobe, ovvero in muratura di mattoni in terra cruda. Ad oggi, molte di queste architetture, di cui alcune in stile Art Noveau di grande valore storico e artistico, si trovano in pessimo stato di conservazione. Risulta quindi fondamentale promuovere programmi di ricerca multidisciplinari finalizzati a fornire validi strumenti per il recupero e il rinforzo strutturale di questi edifici. In questo contesto, il presente studio ha come obiettivo quello di implementare la conoscenza delle proprietà della muratura in adobe e in particolare dei parametri di resistenza meccanica. A questo scopo, ho condotto test sperimentali su mattoni provenienti dalla città portoghese di Aveiro per meglio caratterizzare le proprietà e la natura del materiale. Nello specifico, ho analizzato campioni cubici di adobe tramite prova di assorbimento d’acqua, analisi della distribuzione granulometrica, calcimetria e diffrattometria a raggi X. Sono stati poi effettuati test di compressione assiale su dodici provini cubici di adobe con diversi tenori di umidità per verificare in che modo e in che misura la presenza di umidità influenzi il comportamento meccanico e la resistenza di questo materiale. Ho inoltre realizzato la calibrazione di un programma di modellazione numerica (Nastra In-Cad) e, nella parte finale della ricerca, lo stesso programma è stato utilizzato per prevedere il comportamento di porzioni murarie in adobe con diversi tenori di umidità, utilizzando i valori ottenuti dai test di compressione sperimentali.

Historical earthen buildings are vulnerable to external solicitations, as earthquakes, tsunamis, environmental conditions and others, and, often, they are under unacceptable risks. For all these aspects, earthen buildings need an indispensable intervention but also an accurate diagnosis to respect the modern restoration principles. Nowadays, the research field related to the structural analysis of existing earthen buildings is very far from a complete and exhaustive knowledge. For studying these types of buildings, experimental investigations are mandatory. The thesis has the ambitious goal to fill the lack of knowledge about the dynamic behavior of historical earthen buildings. The work started with the study of effects of temperature and humidity on the “earth material”. For this reason, single adobe walls were built and analyzed by a continuous monitoring of the internal and external environmental parameters and dynamic properties to understand their behavior as simple adobe construction systems. The main challenges in this stage were the development of a suitable algorithm to automatically identify the dynamic parameters, the study of the internal distribution of temperature and humidity, and, the analysis of the environmental effects on the long-term monitoring of simple adobe systems. The results showed a good heat storing capacity of the walls and the existence of an internal thermal flow connected to a combined effect of air temperature, wind, solar radiation, and wall orientation. Furthermore, environmental seasonal and daily effects were first identified and subsequently isolated from the structural response, demonstrating a clear inverse relationship between temperature and dynamic properties. After this first stage, the application of the achieved knowledge was applied to a real case study to verify the obtained results in a larger scale. The Church of San Pedro de Andahuaylillas was chosen as case study. This church was built in the sixteenth century and represents a suitable example of historical earthen building. This architecture is one of the most amazing and beautiful example of religious art, solemn testimony of the Andean culture. To this church, a long-term monitoring system was applied for a better understanding of the earthen building behavior. The results indicated that he environmental variable affect the structural behavior at two levels: a seasonal long-term influence was detected as well as a daily short- term one. Seasonal effects caused variations of up to 8% in natural frequencies, and shorter-term influences were also verified causing variations of up 3.8%. Daily results showed a delayed effect of the environmental conditions in the structural response. Finally, multiple linear regression models were developed using the absolute humidity as independent variable to successfully predict the long-term frequency variation of the analyzed case study for structural health assessment purpose.
Los edificios históricos de tierra son vulnerables a solicitudes externas, como terremotos, tsunamis, condiciones ambientales y otros, por lo que están bajo riesgos inaceptables. Para todos estos aspectos, los edificios de tierra necesitan una intervención indispensable pero también un diagnóstico preciso para respetar los principios modernos de restauración. Hoy en día, el campo de investigación relacionado con el análisis estructural de los edificios de tierra existentes está muy lejos de un conocimiento completo y exhaustivo. Para el estudio de este tipo de edificios, las investigaciones experimentales son obligatorias. La tesis tiene el objetivo ambicioso de cubrir la falta de conocimiento sobre el comportamiento dinámico de los edificios históricos de tierra. El trabajo comenzó con el estudio de los efectos de la temperatura y la humedad en la tierra como material. Con este fin, se construyeron muros de adobe y se analizaron mediante un monitoreo continuo de los parámetros ambientales internos y externos y de las propiedades dinámicas con el objetivo de comprender su comportamiento como sistemas de construcción. Los principales desafíos en esta etapa fueron el desarrollo de un algoritmo adecuado para identificar automáticamente los parámetros dinámicos, el estudio de la distribución interna de la temperatura y la humedad, y el análisis de los efectos ambientales en el monitoreo a largo plazo. Los resultados mostraron una buena capacidad de almacenamiento de calor de los muros y la existencia de un flujo térmico interno conectado a un efecto combinado de la temperatura del aire, el viento, la radiación solar y la orientación. Además, los efectos ambientales estacionales y diarios fueron identificados primero y luego fueron aislados de la respuesta estructural, demostrando una clara relación inversa entre la temperatura y las propiedades dinámicas. El conocimiento obtenido en esta primera etapa se aplicó a un estudio de caso real para verificar los resultados obtenidos en una escala mayor. El caso de estudio elegido fue la iglesia San Pedro de Andahuaylillas. Este templo fue construido en el siglo XVI y es la muestra más emblemática de arte religioso, solemne testimonio de la cultura andina. Para esta iglesia, se aplicó un sistema de monitoreo a largo plazo para una mejor comprensión del comportamiento de los edificios de tierra. Los resultados indicaron que la variable ambiental afecta el comportamiento estructural de dos maneras: se detectó una influencia estacional a largo plazo y una diaria a corto plazo. Los efectos estacionales causaron variaciones de hasta 8% en las frecuencias naturales, y también se verificaron influencias a corto plazo, lo que causó variaciones de hasta 3.8%. Los resultados diarios mostraron un efecto retardado de las condiciones ambientales en la respuesta estructural. Finalmente, se desarrollaron modelos de regresión lineal múltiple utilizando la humedad absoluta como variable independiente para predecir con éxito la variación de frecuencia a largo plazo con el fin de evaluar la salud estructural.
Tesis

A new wall construction technique utilizing concrete filled PVC tubes, adobe, polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic bottles and cabling was designed, analyzed and implemented. The system was designed as an alternative to traditional earthen buildings in Honduras that are vulnerable to hurricane winds and seismic activity. Six prototype panels were constructed at the Alternative Village located at the University of Manitoba to evaluate the wall system for racking and transverse load capacity. A kitchen was then constructed at an elementary school in western Honduras.
October 2015

Community Renewal International is a not profit group based in Shreveport, La. whose mission is to partnering with God and with each other to make our world a home where every child can grow up safe and loved. This report is the personal account from the photographer of a photojournalism project covering the organization. It includes the struggles of, stories from, and intention of the photographer.
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It is my contention that through activating participatory design and community engagement strategies, in conjunction with innovative construction methods that address issues of resource scarcity, the standard of living and level of accessibility to critical resources in impoverished portions of Honduras can be drastically improved. The newly provided model of construction can be done it such a way that it is cost effective in its building method, and provides highly sought after scarce critical resources. This allows participants to allocate more of their finances towards other necessary resources they normally would not be able to acquire. A new community center designed to address the issues of resource scarcity and job opportunities will stand as a first built model with the intent that the methods of construction and innovations employed will be replicated in further applications. The center will be innovative in its construction in such a way that it recognizes local building practices, and brings some new ideas to them allowing for a method of construction that is both improved and more affordable. The center will also take a fresh look at ways the community can address issues of food and water through architectural innovations. The intent is that the success of the center’s combined interventions will encourage local people to replicate the design ideas in their own residential applications. This will improve the quantity of resources available in the community and also start to build a new job market for installing the newly desirable systems. Resource scarcity has wreaked havoc on the typical Honduran villages’ sense of community. Hondurans are in constant competition with their neighbors for scarce critical resources required to sustain life. These resources include, food, water, shelter, and employment opportunities. Violent conflict often arises within communities as individuals compete with their neighbors for the basic necessities required to sustain life. While architecture alone cannot solve all the issues that contribute to the problem of violence, a new center with a program that builds community and provides needed resources stands to potentially curb neighborhood conflict and begin the community healing process. The center stands as not only a replicable model, but also as an immediate community element to bring neighbors back together physically in daily interactions and emotionally in the new resources being provided.

碩士
國立高雄應用科技大學
土木工程與防災科技研究所
93
The historical construction, is the ancients culture crystallization, also is one of Taiwan culture characteristics, during 921 and 1022 earthquakes, these historical constructions encounters the serious harm, enables the precious historical memory instantaneous to be disillusioned, while which was regretted regarding this the person precious cultural heritage, also enhanced has repaired the conservator to bear regarding the historical construction shakes the secure value. Has to this, this article simulates in the historical construction earth wall which in the earthquake suffers injury, the penetration experiment discusses its main body structure, shakes harms the phenomenon, induces it to shake harms in the reason and the structure bears shakes weakness, by will bear as the future shakes the appraisal and the design reference. This article carries on the location experiment to carry on the simulation earthquake evil, the induction shakes harms the reason the discussion, then carries on the existing appraisal method the utilization, then the appraisal present paper earth wall bears shakes the ability. Demonstrated after this article test result that, 10 groups try in the body by SUL, SDL, SULC, SDLC, bears shakes the ability to be best, demonstrated above the unearthed adobe building has the load capacity or load-bearing and has the brick column strut to be able to increase the adobe building to bear shakes the ability.