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1
Anderson, John E., Christian Bucher, Bruno Briseghella, Xin Ruan y Tobia Zordan, eds. Sustainable Structural Engineering. Zurich, Switzerland: International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE), 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/sed014.
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<p>Sustainability is the defining challenge for engineers in the twenty-first century. In addition to safe, economic, and effi-cient structures, a new criterion, sustainable, must be met. Furthermore, this new design paradigm–addressing social, economic, and environmental aspects–requires prompt action. In particular, mitigation of climate change requires sustainable solutions for new as well as existing structures. Taking from both practice and research, this book provides engineers with applicable, timely, and innovative information on the state-of-the-art in sustainable structural design. <p>This Structural Engineering Document addresses safety and regulations, integration concepts, and a sustainable approach to structural design. Life-cycle assessment is presented as a critical tool to quantify design options, and the importance of existing structures–in particular cultural heritage structures–is critically reviewed. Consideration is also given to bridge design and maintenance, structural reassessment, and disaster risk reduction. Finally, the importance of environmentally friendly concrete is examined. Consequently, structural engineers are shown to have the technical proficiency, as well as ethical imperative, to lead in designing a sustainable future.
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Guffey, Patrick J. y Martin Culwick. Adverse Event Prevention and Management. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199366149.003.0009.
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Adverse events are an unfortunate reality of caring for patients in our current healthcare system. Preventing and mitigating these events are an important part of quality improvement. First, an understanding of what events occur and how often they are occurring is critical to planning improvements. Incident reporting systems are one way of gathering this information. Then, events should be categorized and analyzed for improvement. The failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) and bow-tie diagram are two tools for this purpose. Once an event has occurred, consideration should be given to the caregivers as well as the patient when managing and resolving adverse events. Prevention requires strong analysis of events and recognition of both latent (system) and human causes. Interventions have different degrees of effectiveness, ranging from highly effective forcing functions, to marginally effective encouraging statements. There are four steps to event management: mitigation, immediate management, refractory management, and follow-up.
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McSheffrey, Shannon. Conclusions. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198798149.003.0008.
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Through the 1530s sanctuary remained an option for fleeing felons, but by about 1545 it had ceased. The conclusion to the book looks back on how various strands interwove to create conditions for sanctuary’s growth between 1400 and the late 1530s—mercy, mitigation, jurisdiction, aristocratic honour—and considers how that cloth rather suddenly unravelled between 1535 and 1545. A 1540 statute attempted to save the sanctuary system after the closure of the religious houses in whose precincts sanctuary seekers had sought refuge; although this legislation was not designed to fail, it was poorly thought-out and never became fully operational. An important means of mitigating harsh capital penalties died with it; for the elite, other paths around the hangman could be found, and for the poor, execution rates climbed.
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Ovodenko, Alexander. Downstream Consumers and Climate Change Mitigation in the Airlines and Shipping Industries. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190677725.003.0002.
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The chapter contrasts multilateral negotiations on energy efficiency in the airlines and shipping sectors to explain the importance of consumer demand in the politics of multilateral negotiations on climate change mitigation. Since the analysis focuses on how governments have handled the same issue over the same time span but across two different sectors, both of which are oligopolistic, it is possible to isolate the impacts of downstream markets on the politics of emissions mitigation. The research design examines the impacts of price elasticity, product substitution, and asset requirements among consumers on the economics of emissions mitigation, referencing the differential outcomes in the multilateral negotiations. The findings show that consumer preferences in the airlines industry have made the economics of emissions mitigation unfavorable for building large coalitions in support of global regulation, in contrast to the more traditional coalitions formed around maritime emissions.
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Wilson, Robyn S., Sarah M. McCaffrey y Eric Toman. Wildfire Communication and Climate Risk Mitigation. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.570.
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Throughout the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, risks associated with wildfire were addressed by suppressing fires as quickly as possible. However, by the 1960s, it became clear that fire exclusion policies were having adverse effects on ecological health, as well as contributing to larger and more damaging wildfires over time. Although federal fire policy has changed to allow fire to be used as a management tool on the landscape, this change has been slow to take place, while the number of people living in high-risk wildland–urban interface communities continues to increase. Under a variety of climate scenarios, in particular for states in the western United States, it is expected that the frequency and severity of fires will continue to increase, posing even greater risks to local communities and regional economies.Resource managers and public safety officials are increasingly aware of the need for strategic communication to both encourage appropriate risk mitigation behavior at the household level, as well as build continued public support for the use of fire as a management tool aimed at reducing future wildfire risk. Household decision making encompasses both proactively engaging in risk mitigation activities on private property, as well as taking appropriate action during a wildfire event to protect personal safety. Very little research has directly explored the connection between climate-related beliefs, wildfire risk perception, and action; however, the limited existing research suggests that climate-related beliefs have little direct effect on wildfire-related action. Instead, action appears to depend on understanding the benefits of different mitigation actions and in engaging the public in interactive, participatory communication programs that build trust between the public and natural resource managers. A relatively new line of research focuses on resource managers as critical decision makers in the risk management process, pointing to the need to thoughtfully engage audiences other than the lay public to improve risk management.Ultimately, improving the decision making of both the public and managers charged with mitigating the risks associated with wildfire can be achieved by carefully addressing several common themes from the literature. These themes are to (1) promote increased efficacy through interactive learning, (2) build trust and capacity through social interaction, (3) account for behavioral constraints and barriers to action, and (4) facilitate thoughtful consideration of risk-benefit tradeoffs. Careful attention to these challenges will improve the likelihood of successfully managing the increasing risks that wildfire poses to the public and ecosystems alike in a changing climate.
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Rønne, Anita. Smart Cities and Smart Regulation. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198822080.003.0004.
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Increasing focus on sustainable societies and ‘smart cities’ due to emphasis on mitigation of climate change is simultaneous with ‘smart regulation’ reaching the forefront of the political agenda. Consequently, the energy sector and its regulation are undergoing significant innovation and change. Energy innovations include transition from fossil fuels to more renewable energy sources and application of new computer technology, interactively matching production with consumer demand. Smart cities are growing and projects are being initiated for development of urban areas and energy systems. Analysis from ‘Smart Cities Accelerator’, developed under the EU Interreg funding programme that includes Climate-KIC,——provides background for the focus on a smart energy system. Analysis ensures the energy supply systems support the integration of renewables with the need for new technologies and investments. ‘Smart’ is trendy, but when becoming ‘smart’ leads to motivation that is an important step towards mitigating climate change.
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Burger, John. Side Effects of Medications and Mitigation Strategies. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190461508.003.0009.
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Sexual dysfunction is a common side effect of many common medications, including the first-line agents for treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Selective serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors have been especially well studied. This chapter reviews the different classes of medications used to treat PTSD, TBI, and ADHD that can cause sexual side effects as well as several strategies important in understanding the source of sexual symptoms. Specific mitigation strategies are then reviewed, including changing the dose, switching within a class, switching to a different class, adding an augmenting agent, watching and waiting, and taking drug holidays. Key research supporting each strategy is presented and discussed with consideration for the typical responses of both men and women. Strength of research is also weighed. Finally, some considerations for future treatment strategies are considered.
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O'Sullivan, Bob y Charlotte Streck. A Jigsaw Waiting to be Assembled? Editado por Kevin R. Gray, Richard Tarasofsky y Cinnamon Carlarne. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199684601.003.0025.
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This chapter describes the current treatment of the land-use sector under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol. It discusses how various financial incentive and accounting frameworks can complement each other under a future climate treaty. Despite recognizing the importance of forestry and agriculture, the climate change regime has failed to formulate incentives to encourage mitigation in the land-use sector while maintaining the ecological and social functions of landscapes. Unfortunately, the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol only formulate a fragmented set of rules, incentives, and obligations. The Protocol considers forest emissions in developed countries, but fails to create incentives for the sector’s highest emissions reduction and carbon storage potential in developing countries. This phenomenon highlights the importance of a new future climate treaty. Its discussion creates an integrated accounting and incentive framework that facilitates the formulation of robust and complementary adaptation and mitigation strategies.
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Curtis, William, Martin Kemper, Alexandra Miller, Robert Pawlosky, M. Todd King y Richard L. Veech. Mitigation of Damage from Reactive Oxygen Species and Ionizing Radiation by Ketone Body Esters. Editado por Detlev Boison. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780190497996.003.0027.
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Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, ROS and RNS, are ubiquitous in living cells. They have beneficial effects but are also the cause of a wide variety of diseases. However adding excessive amounts of reducing agents has a long history of clinical failure. This problem can be overcome by providing a novel ester of D-beta-hydroxybutyrate–R-1,3-butanediol, which is rapidly hydrolyzed to ketone bodies, the metabolism of which leads to the production of NADPH. The free cytosolic [NADP+]/[NADPH] redox potential is the most negative in the cell and sets the potential of the glutathione and ascorbic acid couples. Ketone bodies also act by inhibiting histone deacetylases, activating the transcription factor FOXO3 and increasing the transcription of enzymes involved in the destruction of ROS. Ketone esters would be effective in the treatment of a variety of disparate diseases where ROS play a role, ranging from Parkinson’s disease to radiation sickness and aging.
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Taylor, Peter, Geoff O'Brien y Phil O'Keefe. Cities Demanding the Earth. Policy Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1332/policypress/9781529210477.001.0001.
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Current climate change policy is necessary but insufficient. This is because the basic modus operandi – presenting scientific evidence to states for them to take action - misrepresents the complex process of anthropogenic climate change. The ‘anthropo’ bit is neglected in a misconceived supply-side (carbon) interpretation. The key question is, why is there so much demand for this carbon in the first place? This book introduces a demand-side interpretation bringing cities to the fore as central players in both generating climate changes and for finding solutions. Jane Jacobs’ urban analysis is combined with William F. Ruddiman’s historical tracing of greenhouse gases to provide a new understanding and narrative of anthropogenic climate change. The conclusion is that we are locked into a path to terminal consumption, which is accelerating as a consequence of Chinese urban growth, historically unprecedented in its sheer scale. To counter this we need to harness the power of cities in new ways, to steer urban demand away from its current destructive path. This is nothing less than re-inventing the city: not mitigation (the resilient city, necessary but not sufficient), not adaptation (sustainable city, also necessary but not sufficient) but stewardship, a process of dynamic stability creating the posterity city in sync with nature.
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Gancone, Agita. Transition Towards Result-Based Agriculture Sector and Climate Targets. RTU Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.7250/9789934227967.
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In the agriculture sector the reduction of greenhouse gases (GHG) is a major challenge, but at the same time it is possible to achieve it with smart reduction measures. The main aim of the Thesis is to develop an integrative decision-making methodology for evaluation of GHG emission reduction measures in the agriculture sector, thus moving towards the result-based agriculture sector and climate neutrality from the perspective of evaluation of climate change mitigation. The Thesis is designed as a set of publications including the main GHG emission problems in the agriculture sector.
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Shemtov, Noam. Legal Mechanisms for Mitigating the Effect of Restrictive Licensing Provisions. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198716792.003.0002.
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This chapter examines the legal mechanisms for mitigating the effect of restrictive licensing provisions used by right holders to regulate the use of functional elements of software, focusing on both negotiable and non-negotiable licences. In particular, it considers the extent to which existing judicial and statutory tools are effective in regulating restrictive licensing provisions in the software industry. The chapter first discusses contract law-based mechanisms, giving emphasis to the implications of whether a transaction is classified as a sale or a licence for the publishers’ ability to restrict third parties from reproducing or appropriating functional features in their software product. It then analyses pre-emption-based mechanisms, as well as competition law-based mechanisms, citing the EU competition law and the US antitrust law.
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Rosell, Frank y Róisín Campbell-Palmer. Beavers. Oxford University Press, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198835042.001.0001.
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Today, beavers are represented by two species, the Eurasian beaver and the North American beaver. Though these are the last remaining representatives of a once much larger consortium of animals, they have played a significant role in human history and dominated wetland ecology in the northern hemisphere. Their behaviour and ecology both fascinate and perhaps even infuriate, but seemingly they never fail to amaze. This comprehensive text serves to go beyond the natural history of these species, also describing their impacts on humans, conflict mitigation, animal husbandry, and conservation. This practical and accessible text incorporates some of the latest scientific findings, whilst setting the background of the broad depth of knowledge on beavers. The recovery and active restoration of both species has emerged following relentless persecution to the verge of extinction, a major conservation success story. Now can perhaps be described as the new dawn of the beaver, where more than ever its landscape-scale impacts, such as potential for water resource management, are being increasingly recognized.
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Shagan, Ethan H. Religious Nonconformity and the Quality of Mercy. Editado por Malcolm Smuts. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199660841.013.23.
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This chapter explores the relationship between religious arguments for and against the mitigation of legal penalties for religious nonconformity, and the arguments in Shakespeare’sMerchant of Venicefor and against the moderation of legal rigour. It argues that Elizabethan legal debates overepieikeiaor equity were heavily inflected with the debate over conscientious nonconformity. Shakespeare’s play restages these debates, not only in the courtroom scene but in a variety of moral dilemmas or cases of conscience, repeatedly supporting the ideal of individual conscience against the claims of Church of England conformists such as Richard Hooker that law can only be mitigated when it serves the public good.
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Buchanan, Ben. Conclusion. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190665012.003.0010.
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The conclusion recapitulates the argument of the book. It shows as well the stakes of the problem, describing the damage that can flow from an unchecked cybersecurity dilemma. It shows how the cybersecurity dilemma can box states into self-defeating positions, can increase the risk of crises, and can make brinksmanship and misperception more dangerous. But the conclusion also notes that mitigating the cybersecurity dilemma has real costs, and states must be willing to make sacrifices in order to address the dangers—something that they may well be unwilling to do.
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Chan, Emily Ying Yang. Essentials for Health Protection. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198835479.001.0001.
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Essentials for Health Protection: Four Key Components is an introductory to intermediate level textbook and reference book for undergraduate and postgraduate students, as well as healthcare professionals, non-health actors, and policymakers who are interested in obtaining an overview of an integrated and comprehensive public health approach to health protection. Health protection is one of the three major core theoretical domains of public health, which aims to prevent and manage communicable disease outbreaks and environmental health risks and related diseases. Effective health protection measures may enhance individual, community, and institutional resilience in coping with extreme events. In addition to introducing the four areas covering both health and environmental protection, namely, climate change adaptation and mitigation, emergency preparedness, communicable disease control, and environmental health, this book will also explore a number of new health protection frontiers, such as key discussions in Health Emergency and Disaster Risk Management (H-EDRM), planetary health, and sustainability. The whole health protection spectrum from risk mitigation, prevention interventions, and emergency response are discussed in a comprehensive, contextual, multidisciplinary, and cross-national way. Various text boxes and case examples are included throughout the book to illustrate what the current status of health protection is globally and impart the latest controversies and dynamics that might change the landscape and reality of health protection practices and development.
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Huntjens, Patrick, Ting Zhang y Katharina Nachbar. Climate Change and Implications for Security and Justice. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198805373.003.0007.
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This chapter examines state-of-the art research and thinking on the implications of climate change for security and justice, clarifying the linkages between them and identifying key governance challenges. Climate justice is about protecting the rights of the most vulnerable and sharing the burdens and benefits of climate change and responses to it equitably and fairly, at the state level as well as beyond the state, while safeguarding the rights of future generations. Broader conceptions of climate security as human security have prevailed, and no trend toward greater militarization of climate action is evident, but successful mitigation and adaptation strategies will be critical components of future peacebuilding work. The chapter ends with recommendations that provide potential pathways for policy and governance reform at multiple levels, both to make multilevel climate governance more fit for purpose, and to better anticipate and address the predicted security and justice implications of climate change.
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David W, Rivkin y Amirfar Catherine. Part III Public International Law Disputes, Climate Disputes, and Sustainable Development in the Energy Sector, 18 Climate Disputes and Sustainable Development in the Energy Sector: Future Directives. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198805786.003.0018.
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This chapter addresses both climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation. It makes ‘the case for international arbitration’, analyzing in particular current dispute resolution structures on carbon trading and the specific set of arbitration rules developed by the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) to resolve environmental disputes. It shows how increased awareness of climate change and its effects have clearly influenced the litigation and arbitration worlds. Developing bespoke environmental arbitration rules offers a number of benefits, including transparency, procedural flexibility, access to technical experts and arbitrators with key climate change expertise, and the possibility of multiparty involvement. Such rules may be of particular benefit to parties involved in carbon credit trading systems and investment projects motivated by such systems.
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Reichman, Ravit. Law’s Affective Thickets. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190456368.003.0007.
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Most efforts to bring law and affect together focus on discrete emotions more than on the inchoate terrain of affect. With the development of affect theory, however, legal scholarship is poised to take a new turn into the realms of mood and intensity, and to embrace affect with greater robustness. Affect theory offers a way to imagine law in noninstrumental ways, considering it in the context of culture. Within this cultural, affective framework, the chapter examines Kazuo Ishiguro’s novel The Remains of the Day and the notion of reasonable force in circumstances of police violence, making the case for understanding reasonability in law not as a mitigation of feeling but an affect in its own right.
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Joseph, Oliver y Vasil Vashchanka. Vote Buying: International IDEA Electoral Processes Primer 2. International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31752/idea.2022.61.
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Vote buying is an electoral campaign violation that occurs in many countries, which undermines the integrity of elections and is detrimental to democratic governance. Many factors beyond electoral politics drive vote buying. Such factors influence the ‘supply side’ (political actors’ decisions to engage in vote buying), the ‘demand side’ (voters’ willingness to participate in vote buying) or both. This Primer outlines what vote buying is (and what it is not) and analyses the drivers behind the practice. It provides insights into vote-buying strategies and practices before considering options for policy interventions to effectively counter the practice. It also offers an analytical framework for a strategic approach to support such efforts to stakeholders seeking to gain comparative insights into vote buying and mitigation.
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Beardsworth, Richard. Reflections on Institutional Cosmopolitanism. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190905651.003.0003.
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With its moral commitment to the individual, cosmopolitanism has often downplayed the role of the state in cosmopolitan commitments and their practices. There is, however, emerging concern to put the state back into cosmopolitan concerns. This chapter argues that two outstanding reasons for this intellectual move are of an institutional and political nature. First, despite the recent pluralization of global actors, states remain the major agents of change within a (post-Western) system of states; both the moral and political purpose of the state should therefore be aligned with global imperatives. Second, a clearly formulated “marriage” between the global and the national is required to line up institutional motivation for enlightened global policy. This chapter argues, accordingly, for cosmopolitan state responsibilities toward the provision of global public goods (examples include nuclear disarmament, climate change mitigation and adaptation, and sustainable development).
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Arent, Douglas, Channing Arndt, Mackay Miller, Finn Tarp y Owen Zinaman, eds. The Political Economy of Clean Energy Transitions. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198802242.001.0001.
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The 21st Conference of the Parties (CoP21) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) shifted the nature of the political economy challenge associated with achieving a global emissions trajectory that is consistent with a climate. The shifts generated by CoP21 place country decision-making and country policies at centre stage. Under moderately optimistic assumptions concerning the vigour with which CoP21 objectives are pursued, nearly every country in the world will set about to design and implement the most promising and locally relevant policies for achieving their agreed contribution to global mitigation. These policies are virtually certain to vary dramatically across countries. In short, the world stands at the cusp of an unprecedented era of policy experimentation in driving a clean energy transition. This book steps into this new world of broad-scale and locally relevant policy experimentation. The chapters focus on the political economy of clean energy transition with an emphasis on specific issues encountered in both developed and developing countries. Lead authors contribute a broad diversity of experience drawn from all major regions of the world, representing a compendium of what has been learned from recent initiatives, mostly (but not exclusively) at country level, to reduce GHG emissions. As this new era of experimentation dawns, their contributions are both relevant and timely.
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Gray, Kevin R., Richard Tarasofsky y Cinnamon Carlarne, eds. The Oxford Handbook of International Climate Change Law. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199684601.001.0001.
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Climate change presents one of the greatest challenges of our time, and has become one of the defining issues of the twenty-first century. The radical changes which both developed and developing countries will need to make, in economic and in legal terms, to respond to climate change are unprecedented. International law, including treaty regimes, institutions, and customary international law, needs to address the myriad challenges and consequences of climate change, including variations in the weather patterns, sea level rise, and the resulting migration of peoples. This book provides an authoritative overview of all aspects of international climate change law as it currently stands, with guidance for how it should develop in the future. This book sets out to analyse the legal issues that surround this vitally important but still emerging area of international law. This book addresses the major legal dimensions of the problems caused by climate change: not only in the content and nature of the international legal frameworks, which need implementation at the national level, but also the development of carbon trading systems as a means of reducing the costs of meeting emission reduction targets. After an introduction to the field, the book assesses the relevant institutions, the key applicable principles of international law, the international mitigation regime and its consequences, and climate change litigation, before providing perspectives focused upon specific countries or regions.
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Somin, Ilya. Free to Move. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190054588.001.0001.
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Ballot box voting is often considered the essence of political freedom. But it has two major shortcomings: individual voters have only a tiny chance of making a difference, and they also have strong incentives to remain ignorant about the issues at stake. “Voting with your feet” is far superior on both counts. In Free to Move, Ilya Somin explains how expanding foot-voting opportunities can greatly enhance political freedom for millions of people around the world. That applies to foot voting in federal systems, foot voting in the private sector, and especially foot voting through international migration. These three types of foot voting are rarely considered together. But Somin explains how they have major common virtues, and can be mutually reinforcing. Free to Move addresses a variety of objections to expanded migration rights, including claims that the “self-determination” of natives requires giving them power to exclude migrants, and arguments that migration is likely to have harmful side effects, such as undermining political institutions, overburdening the welfare state, increasing crime and terrorism, and spreading undesirable cultural values. While these objections are usually directed at international migration, Somin shows how a consistent commitment to such theories would also justify severe restrictions on internal freedom of movement. That implication is yet another reason to be skeptical of such arguments. The book also shows how both domestic constitutional systems and international law can be structured to increase opportunities for foot voting while mitigating potential downsides of freedom of movement.
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Sabel, Charles, Jonathan Zeitlin y Sigrid Quack. Capacitating Services and the Bottom-Up Approach to Social Investment. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198790488.003.0012.
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A crucial component of the new social investment paradigm is the provision of capacitating social services aimed at the early identification and mitigation of problems. We argue that conceiving of this paradigm change as a comprehensive and concerted investment is misguided. That perspective ignores more practical, piecemeal approaches in which costs and benefits are clarified through efforts at implementation, rather than estimated ex ante. Similarly, in this bottom-up approach, reform coalitions are not formed through comprehensive initial bargaining, but rather developed on the fly as programmes demonstrate their benefits and create clienteles. A crucial proviso is that decentralized efforts are carefully monitored to rapidly identify dead ends and generalizable successes. To illustrate the possibilities of the bottom-up approach, we discuss the Perspective 50plus programme for the activation of older workers in Germany and the current decentralization of social care in the Netherlands.
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Arent, Douglas, Channing Arndt, Finn Tarp y Owen Zinaman, eds. Moving Forward. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198802242.003.0029.
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With the passage of CoP21, the world is leaving a relatively inactive stage and entering a second stage characterized by broad-based efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A third stage of reductions will almost certainly be required. This should chart a feasible path to a stabilized climate and put in place the necessary policy architecture for following that path, marking a global tipping point where effective climate change mitigation is no longer a goal but an accepted fact, with broad implications for behaviour and decision-making, not least a massive reduction in the resources allocated to prospecting for new fossil fuel reserves. A clear proximate operational challenge for achieving this tipping point involves effective implementation of country Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) with attendant information needs. Looking further ahead, four key research frontiers are presented, focused on achieving this tipping point and entering the third stage of emissions reductions.
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Eckersley, Robyn. Responsibility for Climate Change as a Structural Injustice. Editado por Teena Gabrielson, Cheryl Hall, John M. Meyer y David Schlosberg. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199685271.013.37.
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This chapter critically explores the political and moral challenges involved in understanding the harms of climate change as the product of structural injustices with a specific focus on political responsibility. The chapter stages a critical encounter between Iris Marion Young’s account of political responsibility, and the debate among climate justice theorists on how to assign responsibility for mitigation and adaptation to citizens and states. This encounter demonstrates the value of a hybrid approach that includes, and bridges, forward looking shared responsibility and backward looking liability models, but also reveals a major predicament. The more that structural injustices based on historical responsibility are backgrounded, the easier it becomes to reach agreements between the world’s most vulnerable and most privileged. Yet doing so accelerates the skewed distribution of climate vulnerability toward the least privileged, diminishing the common ground needed to achieve an equitable allocation of responsibility for climate change.
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Robertson, David Brian. Federalism and American Political Development. Editado por Richard Valelly, Suzanne Mettler y Robert Lieberman. Oxford University Press, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697915.013.001.
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Federalism has influenced American political development deeply because it has been used as a powerful, enduring weapon in battles over politics and policy. The Constitution authorized the national government to exercise the tools of national sovereignty, but authorized the states to govern most of everyday life. This constitutional arrangement has encouraged interstate competition and market-driven economic growth, while it has impeded policies aimed at mitigating economic hardship and inequality. Federalism encouraged fragmented political parties and a pluralistic interest group system, splintering both organized business and trade unions and thus many political conflicts. State policy initiation has left domestic policy profoundly fragmented and unequal. Decentralized power allowed states to implement separate and inferior citizenship rights for different categories of citizens, most prominently, racial minorities and women. In turn, state laws and their legacy frequently shape national efforts to mitigate these inequalities.
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Baggett, Ryan K., Chad S. Foster y Brian K. Simpkins, eds. Homeland Security Technologies for the 21st Century. ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798400666179.
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A comprehensive textbook that overviews common technologies utilized within the homeland security enterprise with an emphasis on contemporary homeland security mission areas and end-user applications. Designed for students entering or currently working in the safety, security, and emergency management disciplines in the public or private sectors, this textbook presents a broad array of homeland security technology types from the viewpoint of end-user applications and homeland security mission areas. The authors investigate various theories behind the use of technologies and assess the importance of technologies for achieving goals and objectives. The content includes not only technical capabilities but also a blend of sample applications of technologies using an all-hazards framework and use cases at all levels of practice, including both the public and private sectors. The authors provide an overview of preparedness applications; preventive and protective systems; and mitigation, response, and recovery technologies. Topics such as ethical and privacy concerns associated with implementing technologies and use of the Internet and social media receive special attention. In addition to readers directly involved in the security disciplines, this book will be useful for students in technical fields of study such as geographic information systems (GIS), computer science, or engineering who are seeking information on standards, theories, and foundations underlining homeland security technologies.
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Moreno, Jonathan D., Michael N. Tennison y James Giordano. Security threat versus aggregated truths: Ethical issues in the use of neuroscience and neurotechnology for national security. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198786832.003.0027.
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This chapter explores uses of brain science for purposes of national security intelligence and defense, discusses the neuroethical issues that these approaches foster, and posits ways that such ethical concerns can be addressed. The chapter begins with a historical overview of military attempts to employ the tools and techniques of brain and cognitive science, and illustrates ethical problems generated by these attempts. It then focuses on the ways that ethical systems and approaches might be utilized or limited in neuroscience and neurotechnology for military and security operations. With recognition of the global trends and the power dynamics that such scientific capacity can yield, the chapter emphasizes the importance of neuroethical preparedness and provides a novel paradigm for neuroethical risk assessment and mitigation. The authors of this chapter offer their insights through their perspectives as American scholars engaged not only in American issues, but as scholars engaged through collaboration and cooperation on the global stage.
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Bohnet, Iris, Benedikt Herrmann, Maliheh Paryavi, Anh Tran y Richard Zeckhauser. Improving Outcomes in the Trust Game. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190630782.003.0013.
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This chapter examines how people in Oman, the United States, and Vietnam deal with trust situations. It offers two trust-fostering mechanisms—a mitigation-based approach (“insurance”), decreasing the principal’s cost of betrayal, and a prevention-based approach (“bonus”), increasing the agent’s benefits of trustworthiness. What choices principals make were measured, as well as how agents respond to them and how both parties’ behaviors compare to a situation where insurance or bonus was assigned by chance. About two-thirds of our principals prefer the safety of the insurance mechanism and about one-third prefer sending a bonus, making themselves vulnerable to the agent. This vulnerability pays off by tripling the likelihood of trustworthiness compared to when insurance is chosen. Still, when a bonus is chosen, only about half of the agents reward trust. This fraction is insufficient to make the principals whole. In terms of expected payoffs principals would be better off with insurance.
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Farnsworth, John Seibert y Thomas Lowe Fleischner. Nature beyond Solitude. Cornell University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501747281.001.0001.
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The field notes taken for this book are not only about nature, but from nature as well. The book lets the reader peer over the author'shoulder as he takes his notes. The reader follows him to a series of field stations where he teams up with scientists, citizen scientists, rangers, stewards, and graduate students engaged in long-term ecological study, all the while scribbling down what he sees, hears, and feels in the moment. The field stations are located at Hastings Natural History Reservation, studying acorn woodpeckers; Santa Cruz Island Reserve, studying island foxes; Golden Gate Raptor Observatory, hawkwatching; H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, recording a forest log for two weeks through the Spring Creek Project; and North Cascades Environmental Learning Center, which was built as mitigation for the environmental harm caused by the hydroelectric dam. The book explores how communal experiences of nature might ultimately provide greater depths of appreciation for the natural world.
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Baldwin, Kenneth G. H., Mark Howden, Michael H. Smith, Karen Hussey y Peter J. Dawson, eds. Transitioning to a Prosperous, Resilient and Carbon-Free Economy. Cambridge University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/9781316389553.
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This book is a comprehensive manual for decision-makers and policy leaders addressing the issues around human caused climate change, which threatens communities with increasing extreme weather events, sea level rise, and declining habitability of some regions due to desertification or inundation. The book looks at both mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming and adaption to changing conditions as the climate changes. It encourages the early adoption of climate change measures, showing that rapid decarbonisation and improved resilience can be achieved while maintaining prosperity. The book takes a sector-by-sector approach, starting with energy and includes cities, industry, natural resources, and agriculture, enabling practitioners to focus on actions relevant to their field. It uses case studies across a range of countries, and various industries, to illustrate the opportunities available. Blending technological insights with economics and policy, the book presents the tools decision-makers need to achieve rapid decarbonisation, whilst unlocking and maintaining productivity, profit, and growth.
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Thompson, Alexander. Political and Legal Challenges. Editado por Kevin R. Gray, Richard Tarasofsky y Cinnamon Carlarne. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780199684601.003.0007.
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This chapter explores the interplay between politics and international law in the field of climate finance, with an emphasis on its North-South dimensions, which is the promotion of resource flows by developed nations towards developing nations. Participation by developing countries in the climate regime is critical as they are the largest emitters of greenhouse gas. Unfortunately, it is the less-developed nations that are harmed the most by climate change. It is here where North-South finance emerges as an important issue. The chapter addresses two critical issues in the governance and future of the climate finance regime. First, the wide variety of institutions and mechanisms involved expands the scope for attracting and supplying resources but they remain fragmented and require greater coordination to be effective. Second, the mobilization of North-South finance is insufficient relative to mitigation and adaptation needs. Such a challenge requires greater political will and a stronger legal regime.
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Light, Andrew. Climate Diplomacy. Editado por Stephen M. Gardiner y Allen Thompson. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199941339.013.43.
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This chapter explores the ethical dimensions of diplomatic efforts to form a global agreement on climate change. It offers a brief historical background on the core multilateral climate negotiation body, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and highlights some contentious moral elements of these negotiations. In particular, it explores the complex ways in which the principle of “common but differentiated responsibilities” (CBDR) has driven debates on how burdens for mitigation, adaptation, and finance should be distributed between developed and developing countries. It then considers the transformation in these climate negotiations since 2009, including the move toward a bottom-up architecture as part from the Copenhagen Accord to the Paris Agreement. Finally, it assesses the current state of climate diplomacy in relation to broader diplomatic priorities, arguing that climate diplomacy must be elevated alongside other top-tier foreign policy issues today in order to eventually achieve some level of climate stability.
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Schizer, David M. Tax and Corporate Governance. Editado por Jeffrey N. Gordon y Wolf-Georg Ringe. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198743682.013.47.
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This chapter examines the influence of tax on managerial agency costs, with particular emphasis on public companies in the United States. Focusing on “C-corporations,” this chapter first considers why tax is an imperfect vehicle for mitigating managerial agency costs. It then discusses how tax influences the compensation of managers, both in ways policy makers intended, and in ways they did not. The chapter also considers how tax affects management decisions about capital structure, hedging, and acquisitions. In addition, this chapter explores the tax system’s influence on the ability and incentives of shareholders to monitor management. This chapter then concludes with an analysis of how the tax system itself monitors managers.
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Morris, Shad y James Oldroyd. Stars that Shimmer and Stars that Shine. Editado por David G. Collings, Kamel Mellahi y Wayne F. Cascio. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198758273.013.5.
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Stars are not only much higher performing than their peers, but also much more visible within the firm. Star employees are likely to be sought out by their lower-performing peers. Moreover, high visibility and frequent interaction make it likely that the stars will develop abundant social capital. Thus, they are relied on to develop information advantage through their social capital. However, not all of the information effects of stardom are beneficial. Stars’ abundant social capital may produce the unintended side effect of information overload. We highlight the role of talent management in mitigating these information-overload effects for stars, to allow them to shine.
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Peng, Syd, ed. Surface Subsidence Engineering. CSIRO Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/9781486312559.
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Underground coal mining disturbs both the overburden strata and the immediate floor strata. The subject of surface subsidence deals with the issues associated with the movement of overburden strata, which are the layers from the seam to the surface, where structures and water resources important to human activities are located.
Surface Subsidence Engineering provides comprehensive coverage of the major issues associated with surface subsidence. The chapters are written by experts on surface subsidence in the three leading coal producing and consuming countries in the world: Australia, China and the United States. They discuss general features and terminologies, subsidence prediction, subsidence measurement techniques, subsidence impact on water bodies, subsidence damage, mitigation and control, and subsidence on abandoned coal mines. In addition, the final chapter addresses some of the unique features of surface subsidence found in Australian coal mines. The book provides information on coal seams ranging from flat to gently inclined to steep to ultra-steep seams.
Written for mining engineers, geotechnical engineers and students of mining engineering, this book covers both theories and practices of surface subsidence. Unlike previous publications, it also deals with the subsidence impact on surface and groundwater bodies, crucial resources that are often neglected by subsidence researchers.
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Gardiner, Stephen M. y Allen Thompson, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Environmental Ethics. Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199941339.001.0001.
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Environmental ethics is an academic subfield of philosophy concerned with normative and evaluative propositions about the world of nature and, perhaps more generally, the moral fabric of relations between human beings and the world we occupy. This Handbook contains forty-five newly commissioned essays written by leading experts and emerging voices. The essays range over a broad variety of issues, concepts, and perspectives that are both central to and characteristic of the field, thus providing an authoritative but accessible account of the history, analysis, and prospect of ideas that are essential to contemporary environmental ethics. The Handbook includes sections on the broad social contexts in which we find ourselves (e.g., chapters on history, science, economics, governance, and the Anthropocene), on what ought to count morally and why (e.g., chapters on humanity, animals, living individuals, ecological collectives, and wild nature), on the nature and meaning of environmental values (e.g., truth and goodness, practical reasons, hermeneutics, phenomenology, and aesthetics), on theoretical understandings of how we should act (e.g., on consequentialism, duty and obligation, character, caring relationships, and the sacred), on key concepts (e.g., responsibility, justice, gender, rights, ecological space, risk and precaution, citizenship, future generations, and sustainability), on specific areas of environmental concern (e.g., pollution, population, energy, food, water, mass extinction, technology and ecosystem management), on climate change considered as the defining environmental problem of our time (e.g., chapters on mitigation, adaptation, diplomacy, and geoengineering), and on social change (e.g., pragmatism, conflict, sacrifice, and action).
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Dolman, Han. Biogeochemical Cycles and Climate. Oxford University Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198779308.001.0001.
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This book describes the interaction of the main biogeochemical cycles of the Earth and the physics of climate. It takes the perspective of Earth as an integrated system and provides examples of both changes in the current climate and those in the geological past. The first three chapters offer a general introduction to the context of the book, outlining the climate system as a complex interplay between biogeochemistry and physics and describing the tools available for understanding climate: observations and models. These chapters describe the basics of the system, the rates and magnitudes and the crucial aspects of biogeochemical cycles needed to understand their functioning. The second part of the book consists of four chapters that describe the physics required to understand the interaction of the climate with biogeochemistry and change. These chapters describe the physics of radiation, and that of the atmosphere, ocean circulation and thermodynamics. The interaction of aerosols with radiation and clouds is addressed in an additional chapter. The third part of the book deals with Earth’s (bio)geochemical cycles. These chapters focus on the stocks and fluxes of the main reservoirs of Earth’s biogeochemical cycles—atmosphere, land and ocean—and their role in the cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, phosphorus, oxygen, sulphur and water, as well as their interactions with climate. The final two chapters describe possible mitigation and adaptation actions, in relation to recent climate agreements, but always with an emphasis on the biogeochemical aspects.
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de Heredia, Marta Iñiguez. Creative survival as subversion. Manchester University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526108760.003.0007.
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This chapter explores how creative survival, reciprocity and solidarity allow for mitigating extractive practices and the military rule that is put in place in rural areas. These practices represent forms of reappropriation, simultaneously delegitimising political order, and hence subverting it. The chapter illustrates that despite the context of violence, popular classes still aspire to improve their conditions of living in terms of political participation and economic distribution. In contrast with the last chapter, these practices have women as their protagonists, but as in the previous chapter, they are interconnected with different forms of resistance. This chapter also illustrates the pre-existing democratic configurations of order and how national and international strategies largely operate by disregarding them.
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Speiser, Peter. “How the Army of a Democratic Nation Should Behave”. University of Illinois Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.5406/illinois/9780252040160.003.0006.
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This chapter illustrates the attempts by the administration in London and on the ground in Germany to influence the BAOR and use it as a tool to tie the Federal Republic into the Western system of defense. These include the use of the BAOR to strengthen the Konrad Adenauer government, to promote British values, and to control Germany at a time of increasing independence of the young Federal Republic. To a larger extent, it also involves mitigating problems created by the presence of the BAOR. The chapter also explores the crucial period of the mid-1950s, when German sovereignty fundamentally changed both Anglo-German relations in general along with the position of the BAOR in Germany.
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Rezende, Felipe Carvalho de. Financial Sustainability and Infrastructure Finance. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198827948.003.0012.
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Among the lessons that can be drawn from the global financial crisis is that private financial institutions have failed to promote the capital development of the affected economies, and to dampen financial fragility. This chapter analyses the macroeconomic role that development banks can play in this context, not only providing long-term funding necessary to promote economic development, but also fostering financial stability. The chapter discusses, in particular, the need for public financial institutions to provide support for infrastructure and sustainable development projects. It concludes that development banks play a strategic role by funding infrastructure projects in particular, and outlines the lessons for enhancing their role as catalysts for mitigating risks associated with such projects.
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Hussong, Andrea M. y Ruth K. Smith. Parent-Based Models of Adolescent Substance Use. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190847128.003.0014.
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Adolescence is the typical time of substance use onset and escalation around the world, though prevalence rates vary dramatically across countries. Given that substance use is a significant risk factor contributing to global disease burden, the consequences of substance abuse are staggering. Substantial evidence, primarily from high-income countries but increasingly corroborated by that from middle- and low-income countries, suggests that parents and families can play a key role in mitigating risk for substance use involvement and related negative consequences. This chapter reviews that evidence as well as features of family evidence-based interventions for adolescent substance use, highlighting two in particular, and discusses the role of such interventions in a multisectoral approach to prevention.
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D'Costa, Anthony P. y Achin Chakraborty, eds. The Land Question in India. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198792444.001.0001.
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This book takes a fresh look at the land question in India. It goes beyond re-engagement in the rich transition debate by critically examining both theoretically and empirically the role of land in contemporary India. Springing from the political economy discourse surrounding the classic capitalist transition issue in agriculture in India, the book gravitates toward the development discourse that inevitably veers toward land and the role of the state in pushing a process of dispossession of peasants through direct expropriation for developmental purposes. Contemporary dispossession may look similar to the historical process of primitive accumulation that makes room for capitalist agriculture and expanded accumulation. But this volume shows that land in India is sought increasingly for non-agricultural purposes as well. These include risk mitigation by farmers, real estate development, infrastructure development by states often on behalf of business, and special economic zones. Tribal communities (advasis), who depend on land for their livelihoods and a moral economy that is independent of any price-driven markets, hold on to land for collective security. Thus land acquisition continues to be a turbulent arena in which classes, castes, and communities are in conflict with the state and capital, each jockeying to determine the terms and conditions of land transactions or their prevention, through both market and non-market mechanisms. The volume collectively addresses the role of the state involved in the process of dispossession of peasants and tribal communities. It provides new analytical insights into the land acquisition processes, their legal-institutional and ethical implications, and captures empirically the multifaceted regional diversity of the contestations surrounding the acquisition experiences in India.
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Nixon, Dennis W., Michael J. Daly, Susan E. Farady, Read D. Porter y Julia B. Wyman. Marine and Coastal Law. 3a ed. ABC-CLIO, LLC, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9798400682865.
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This extensively updated third edition of the classic casebook Marine and Coastal Law provides readers with an authoritative, comprehensive, and up-to-date guide to landmark laws, regulations, and legal decisions governing the United States' vast marine and coastal resources. This thoroughly revised and updated third edition of the prestigious Marine and Coastal Law casebook provides an essential overview of landmark legal decisions and statutory provisions in U.S. marine and coastal law, with a particular emphasis on regulatory changes and legal conflicts involving climate change, coastal resilience/protection, and sea level rise. In addition to a thorough updating of the contents of the second edition (including editorial commentary on every case), this new revised edition features extensive new content, including two entirely new chapters and new "learning objectives" for each chapter. Produced by five experts in U.S. marine law, this third edition stands as an accessible and invaluable resource for both lay readers and legal professionals who are seeking greater understanding of the ever-evolving and frequently contentious laws and regulations governing U.S. and international fisheries, maritime shipping and transport, offshore oil and mineral resources, climate change mitigation strategies, coastal protection, marine pollution, and port and harbor operations.
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Rozeboom, Grant J. The Anti-Inflammatory Basis of Equality. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198828310.003.0008.
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We are moral equals, but in virtue of what? The most plausible answers to this question have pointed to our higher agential capacities, but we vary in the degrees to which we possess those capacities. How could they ground our equal moral standing, then? This chapter argues that they do so only indirectly. Our moral equality is most directly grounded in a social practice of equality, a practice that serves the purpose of mitigating our tendencies toward control and domination that interpreters of Rousseau call “inflamed amour-propre.” We qualify as participants in this practice of equality by possessing certain agential capacities, but it is our participation in the practice, and not the capacities themselves, that makes us moral equals. Thus, in contrast with recent accounts that simply posit a threshold above which capacity-variations are ignored, this chapter proposes moving from a capacity-based to a practice-based view of moral equality.
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Monaghan, Sean F. y Alfred Ayala. Adaptive immunity in critical illness. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199600830.003.0311.
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The development of sepsis remains a significant morbid event facing the critically-ill/severely-injured patient and while substantial improvements in supportive care have been made, a true molecular pharmacological treatment directed at mitigating the development of this condition has remained elusive. This is due, at least in part, to our lack of appreciation of the complex and intertwined changes in the nature of not only the innate, but also the adaptive immune response and how they affect our response to septic challenge. Here, we consider some of the aspects of the adaptive immune response, how it changes in the response to sepsis, possible pathological processes contributing to patient/experimental animal susceptibility to poorer outcomes and where novel immune-therapeutic targets/biomarkers may exist.
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Linarelli, John, Margot E. Salomon y Muthucumaraswamy Sornarajah. Human Rights. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198753957.003.0007.
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This chapter interrogates whether international human rights law has settled for preventing and mitigating deprivations without changing the terms under which that suffering is not only made possible but is reproduced, including by reinforcing the structural features that engender it. Human rights exist within an extreme capitalist global economy and their deployment needs to be considered against that backdrop, and not merely as a discrete, benevolent response to it. Taking the inquiry one step further, this chapter considers the ways in which human rights work against a transformative or radical agenda, to the detriment of their own aims and objectives. It explores how international human rights law is not limited to redistribution, but has not gone so far as to effecting ‘predistribution’, that is, making international law just, ex ante, in a structural sense. Moreover, its demands for redistribution in order to realize human rights can also serve to drive the possibility of predistribution further away.
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Cornish, Paul, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Cyber Security. Oxford University Press, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198800682.001.0001.
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As societies, governments, corporations, and individuals become more dependent on the digital environment, so they also become increasingly vulnerable to misuse of that environment. A considerable industry has developed to provide the means with which to make cyberspace more secure, stable, and predictable. Cybersecurity is concerned with the identification, avoidance, management, and mitigation of risk in, or from, cyberspace—the risk of harm and damage that might occur as the result of everything from individual carelessness to organized criminality, to industrial and national security espionage, and, at the extreme end of the scale, to disabling attacks against a country’s critical national infrastructure. But this represents a rather narrow understanding of security and there is much more to cyberspace than vulnerability, risk, and threat. As well as security from financial loss, physical damage, etc., cybersecurity must also be for the maximization of benefit. The Oxford Handbook of Cybersecurity takes a comprehensive and rounded approach to the still evolving topic of cybersecurity: the security of cyberspace is as much technological as it is commercial and strategic; as much international as regional, national, and personal; and as much a matter of hazard and vulnerability as an opportunity for social, economic, and cultural growth.