Tesis sobre el tema "Biogeomorphology"

Thesis (PhD (Conservation Ecology and Entomology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Min aandag is al gegee aan biogeomorfologiese interaksies in glasiale en periglasiale omgewings. Nietemin is hierdie interaksies, wat op die skeidingsvlak tussen ekologie en geomorfologie fokus, baie belangrik in hierdie omgewings, waar organismes in noue verband met die abiotiese omgewing saamleef. In hierdie tesis bestudeer ek die interaksies tussen die vaskulêre plantspesies met die hoogste voorkoms op sub-Antarktiese Marion Eiland, Azorella selago Hook. (Apiaceae), en die omringende geomorfologiese landskapsvorme, -prosesse en meettegnieke. Verder verskaf die tesis voorstelle om toekomstige geïntegreerde biogeomorfologiese navorsing te vergemaklik. Om die gevolge van A. selago-plante vir sedimentbeweging en -verspreiding te verstaan, het ek die verspreiding van sedimentgroottes om hierdie plante gemeet deur middel van 'n kombinasie van fotografiese analise-metodes. Deur as sedimentbewegingsobstruksies te dien, het plante 'n waarneembare effek op die omringende sedimentverdeling. Dit is veral belangrik om hierdie interaksies tussen A. selago en sy omgewing te verstaan in die lig van onlangse klimaatsverandering op die eiland, omdat sedimentgrootte belangrike grondeienskappe soos waterretensiekapasiteit en vriesgevoeligheid beïnvloed. Om die effek wat A. selago plante op die omringende mikroklimaat het beter te verstaan, is die kleinskaalse variabiliteit in grondtemperature om A. selago plante bestudeer. Grootskaalse grondligting as gevolg van fors is gemeet, ten spyte van relatief ligte forseienskappe. Dit dui daarop dat naaldys ook by temperature bo -2°C kan vorm. Wintergrondtemperature aan die oostekant van plante was effens laer en minder veranderlik as aan die westekant van plante, waarskynlik as gevolg van laer windsnelhede en/of sneeu wat ophoop aan die oostelike, lykant van plante. Die resultate benadruk dat A. selago plante 'n belangrike rol speel in die verandering van mikroklimate en dat dit belangrik is om die gevolge van sulke veranderings, soos die skep van mikrohabitatte vir grondorganismes, te verstaan. Daar word vermoed dat positiewe plantinteraksies negatiewe interaksies oorheers in omgewings met hoe abiotiese druk. Gevolglik wys ek dat daar 'n positiewe verband bestaan tussen A. selago plante en saailinge van beide A. selago self, asook van die meerjarige gras Agrostis magellanica Lam. (Poaceae). Ek stel voor dat beide plante en klippe sade, wat deur wind, reenval en/of afdraande sedimenttransportering as gevolg van vriesprosesse vervoer word, opvang. Verder dui verhoogde A. selago saailinggetalle om plante, maar nie om klippe nie, daarop dat plante een of ander biologiese voordeel aan A. selago saailinge bied. Dit is bekend dat die verspreidingspatrone van plantspesies as gevolg van abiotiese stresgradiente varieër. Met hierdie bevinding in gedagte, is moontlike faktore verantwoordelik vir A. selago saailinggetalle en -verspreidingspatrone, soos hoogte bo seespieël en substraatbedekking, bestudeer. Alhoewel dit wil voorkom asof daar 'n verband tussen saailinggetalle en hoogte bo seespieël is, is saailinggetalle en verpreidings meestal afhanklik van ongemeette perseel-spesifieke eienskappe. Plante kan die omringende geomorfologie beïnvloed, maar ook geomorfologiese meettegnieke. Om die potensiaal van kosmogeniese dateringsmetodes as geomorfologiese hulpmiddels in fellfield habitatte te verken, is die akkumulasietempo van die kosmogeniese isotoop ¹ºBe onder en langs 'n A. selago plant bepaal. Die resultate dui daarop dat ¹ºBe nie ten volle in die grondprofiel behoue bly nie en verskeie potensiële redes word bespreek. Verder dui die resultate daarop dat ¹ºBe konsentrasies in fellfield habitatte versigtig geïnterpreteer moet word, aangesien A. selago plante effektief ¹ºBe opvang in hulle grondryke kern. Om vordering in biogeomorfologie te vergemaklik, is dit belangrik om bewus te wees van die verskillende metodes wat geomorfoloë en ekoloë volg. Ekologiese benaderings is dikwels op strenger statistiese tegnieke gebaseer, terwyl geomorfoloë eerder fokus op 'n meer beskrywende benadering en teoretiese beredenering. Ek verduidelik hoekom die twee velde sulke uiteenlopende benaderings volg, benadruk moontlike struikelblokke en verskaf voorstelle om samewerking te vergemaklik.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: There are few scientific publications that relate to biogeomorphological interactions in glacial and periglacial environments. Interactions that focus on the interface between ecology and geomorphology are very important in these environments, as a tight coupling often exists between organisms and their abiotic surroundings. In this thesis the interactions between the dominant vascular cushion plant species on sub-Antarctic Marion Island, Azorella selago Hook. (Apiaceae), and the surrounding geomorphological landforms, processes and measuring techniques were studied. In addition, the thesis provides suggestions to facilitate future integrated biogeomorphological research. To understand the consequences of A. selago cushions for substrate movement and sorting, the grain size distribution of sediment surrounding these cushions was quantified using a combination of image analysis approaches. Through obstructing frost-related sediment transport, A. selago cushions are shown to affect the grain size sorting of the surrounding sediment. Particle size affects soil properties such as water-holding capacity and frost susceptibility. It is therefore important to understand the interactions between A. selago cushions and sediment distributions, especially in the light of recent warming and drying on the island. Fine scale variability in soil temperature parameters was studied around cushions to improve understanding on how A. selago affects the surrounding soil microclimate. Despite the mild frost climate, extensive frost heave occurred in the study area, indicating that needle ice forms above the previously suggested required temperature of -2°C. Lower and less variable winter temperatures were found on eastern than on western cushion sides, probably as a result of lower wind speeds or leeside snow accumulation on eastern cushion sides. These research findings highlight the importance of A. selago cushions in modifying site microclimates. Such modifications could have important potential consequences, such as providing microhabitats for soil microorganisms and seedlings. Positive plant interactions have been suggested to dominate over negative interactions in environments with high abiotic stress. Positive associations were found between A. selago and both its own seedlings and those of the perennial grass, Agrostis magellanica Lam. (Poaceae) on Marion Island. It is suggested that both cushions and rocks trap seeds dispersed by wind, runoff and/or downslope sediment transport through frost creep. In addition, increased A. selago seedling numbers around cushions, but not around rocks, suggest that cushions provide a biological nurse effect to seedlings of their own kind. Plant species' distributions have been known to vary in response to abiotic stress gradients. In light of this, determinants of A. selago seedling distributions and abundance, such as altitude and substrate cover, were explored. Although there appears to be some altitudinal trend, seedling distributions and abundance patterns were largely attributed to unaccounted variation between sites. Plants can affect the surrounding geomorphology, but also geomorphological measuring techniques. To explore the potential of cosmogenic dating techniques as geomorphological tools in fellfield habitats, accumulation rates of the cosmogenic isotope ­¹ºBe were assessed underneath and adjacent to an A. selago cushion. The results show that ¹ºBe is not fully retained in the soil profile and various reasons are discussed. Furthermore, the results suggest that ¹ºBe concentrations should be interpreted cautiously in fellfield habitats, as A. selago cushions effectively intercept the isotope in their soil-rich core. To facilitate the integration of geomorphological and ecological principles, as was attempted in this thesis, it is important to understand the philosophies behind the different research approaches that ecologists and geomorphologists employ. Ecologists often employ a more statistics-based approach, whereas geomorphologists focus on a more descriptive approach and reasoning based on established theories. I attempt to explain why the two fields follow such different approaches, highlight some potential challenges and provide suggestions to facilitate progress in the interdisciplinary field of biogeomorphology.

Natural interactions between riparian vegetation, large woody debris (LWD) and the fluvial geomorphology of forest streams in North America and Europe have been well researched. In southeastern Australia, where rainfall and runoff are highly variable, where riparian vegetation species are unique and where many streams have been altered since European settlement, there is a paucity of research on such biogeomorphic interactions. This thesis aimed to partly address this knowledge gap by undertaking detailed case studies of four undisturbed streams that varied in their degree of lateral confinement by materials of limited erodibility, i.e. differences in the size and nature of the valley floor trough. These included a laterally and vertically bedrock-confined channel flanked by a series of discontinuous inchannel benches but with no floodplain (Mogo Creek); a laterally bedrock-confined channel flanked by a discontinuous high vertically accreted floodplain and a series of discontinuous in-channel benches (Wheeny Creek); a partially bedrock- and terrace-confined channel discontinuously flanked by pockets of floodplain (Bruces Creek); and a slightly terraceconfined channel continuously flanked by floodplain (Tonghi Creek). Extensive radiocarbon dating of floodplain charcoal at each site highlighted the fact that episodic, rainfall-generated cataclysmic floods have occurred during the late Holocene. These floods totally removed alluvial landforms, including the floodplain forest, from within the valley floor trough. Riparian vegetation communities that have colonised the landforms that redeveloped in the erosional void exhibit a distinct lateral and vertical zonation of species that is determined by the degree of resistance of different species to natural flood disturbance. More flood-resistant tree species, such as Tristaniopsis laurina, are able to grow and survive within the channel and on the channel banks and in—channel benches; possess the ability to reshoot from epicormic buds following high-energy flood disturbance; and can rapidly colonise recently formed alluvial landforms. Less flood—resistant species, such as the Eucalyptus species, grow on higher parts of the floodplain or on remnant Pleistocene river terraces where flood flows are of lower energy and occur less frequently. Measured LWD loadings ranged from 47 m3ha‘I at Mogo Creek to 751 m3ha‘l at Bruces Creek and varied in relation to specific stream power, the relaxation period between cataclysmic floods and the age-structure of the riparian vegetation community from which the LWD was recruited. Large woody debris recruitment processes varied in relation to the geomorphic setting and zonation of riparian vegetation. Episodic bank erosion, undercutting and senescence were identified as the dominant LWD recruitment processes from T. laurina trees growing along the banks of Tonghi and Bruces Creeks, while episodic windthrow was identified as the LWD recruitment process from Eucalyptus trees growing on the floodplains and terraces at these sites. At Mogo and Wheeny Creeks, destruction of in—channel benches by catastrophic floods was identified as the dominant LWD recruitment process from T. laurina and Leptospermum polygalifolium shrubs, while episodic windthrow was the dominant LWD recruitment process from the Eucalyptus trees growing on the high floodplains, where present, and adjacent hillslopes. The longitudinal distribution, orientation and hydraulic impacts of LWD pieces, and the development of log-steps were strongly influenced by the energy of flows experienced and the ratio of tree and LWD size to channel size. Due to high timber densities LWD tends to sink and become partially or completely buried by bedload. It is only in streams with high LWD loadings, low to medium energy bankfull flows and high LWD size to channel size ratios, such as Bruces Creek, that interlocking, wedged pieces of LWD form closely spaced debris dams. The maximum residence time for LWD identified by radiocarbon dating was 980 years on Eucalyptus timber in Wheeny Creek and was interpreted as representing the relaxation period following the most recent cataclysmic flood. Biogeomorphic evidence indicates that riparian vegetation and large woody debris can exert a significant influence on the fluvial geomorphology of sand-bed, forest streams in southeastern Australia by contributing to processes such as pool formation, stream energy dissipation, bank strength, sediment storage patterns, bed stability, oblique bank accretion, in—channel bench and mid-channel bar formation. However, rainfall—generated cataclysmic floods, capable of totally obliterating all landforms within the valley floor trough, including the floodplain forest, have occurred during the late Holocene. Cataclysmic floods exceed vegetationcontrolled thresholds of channel and floodplain stability and resultant specific stream powers of at least 2500 Wm‘2 enable the flood to erode the channel and floodplain to bedrock. Such floods occur more frequently in flood variable regions on high energy streams in narrow valley floor troughs. The width and nature of the valley floor trough, specific stream power and the relaxation period between floods are identified as important factors determining the subsequent influence of riparian vegetation and LWD on the stability of the landforms that redevelop in the erosional void.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--School of Geosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, 2004.
Degree awarded 2004; thesis submitted 2003. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy to the School of Geosciences, Faculty of Science. Title from title screen (viewed 13 January 2009). Includes bibliographical references. Also available in print form.

Abstract The main goal of this study is to examine mechanisms controlling valley asymmetry development at two locations with distinctly differing environmental parameters and to develop a model for the two locations. As a secondary aim the knowledge gained from the main goal is thought to help understand the very uncertain glacial past of the high Drakensberg as it can be compared to the much accepted glacial history of Abisko. Parameters studied were slope angle, landforms, vegetation cover, block abundance, available moisture, bedrock characteristics, temperature and soil moisture. Some parameters were not studied in the field due to time issues; these were instead gathered by literature study. These parameters were structural weakness, soil depth and glaciation. Results show that the environmental differences noted between each sites north and south facing slope are clear. The side facing the equator is at both locations less steep, warmer and has more diverse vegetation. Temperature development with elevation was statistically analyzed and showed no correlation or not statistically significant correlation on all slopes. The expectation the south facing side of the Sani Pass transect showed where a statistically significant decline in temperature with elevation. The main conclusion drawn is that valley asymmetry development at both locations is controlled by the increased intensity of denudational processes on the side facing the equator as a result of the larger input of radiative energy there. It is also suggested that internal feedback mechanisms are related to the hastening of asymmetric development. The main constraint of the study is that not large enough data sets were gathered and that some important parameters like soil depth could not be included in the study. More research is needed in the field of vegetation’s role in interacting with physical processes on mountain slopes. The role of vegetation as an enhancer or retarder of geomorphic processes is not sufficiently understood.
Sammanfattning Denna studies huvuduppgift var att undersöka de mekanismer som kontrollerar uppkomsten av dalgångsasymmetri vid två områden som innehar vitt skilda naturliga förutsättningar och att skapa en modell för platserna. Informationen som ges från huvuduppgiften tros kunna hjälpa förstå den osäkra glaciala historien för Sani Pass eftersom den då direkt kan jämföras med Abiskos väldokumenterade historia. Undersökta parametrar vid båda platserna är sluttningsvinkel, landformer, vegetation, blockmängd, vattenmängd, berggrundskaraktär, temperatur och markfukt. Vissa parametrar kunde inte mätas i fält och fick därför hämtas från facklitteratur. Exempel på sådana parametrar är svagheter i berggrunden, jorddjup och glacial historia. Resultaten visar att det finns tydliga skillnader mellan nord och sydsluttningarna vid båda platser. Den sida som vetter mot ekvatorn har lägre sluttningsvinkel, är varmare och har mer varierande vegetation. Temperaturutveckling vid ökande höjd över havet undersöktes statistiskt där resultaten inte påvisade någon signifikant korrelation mellan ökande höjd och lägre temperatur vid alla områden utom en. Denna plats, Sani Pass nordliga sluttning, påvisades en statistiskt signifikant sänkning av temperaturen med stigande elevation. Den huvudsakliga slutsatsen som utgår från studien är den att utvecklingen av dalgångsassymetri vid båda platserna är kontrollerad av den ökade intensiteten av de nedslitande processerna på den sida som vetter mot ekvatorn. Detta sker på grund av den större mängd solenergi som denna sida mottar. Interna feedback processer verkar även vara kopplade till skapandet av dalgångsasymmetri. Den största motgången i denna studie är att inte nog med data har samlats samt att vissa viktiga parametrar som jorddjup inte kunnat studeras. Mer forskning behövs inom vegetations roll i interaktionen med fysiska processer på bergssluttningar. Om vegetation intensifierar eller motverkar dessa geomorfiska processer är inte tillräckligt förstått.

Urbanisation is increasingly recognised as a major ecological pressure at the coast. By 2035, the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs will have to spend £1 billion each year on flood defence and erosion control infrastructure if current levels of protection are to be sustained in England and Wales; this represents a substantial commitment to building new hard structures. Ecological research has shown that structures like seawalls, breakwaters, and harbour and port infrastructure are poor surrogates for undisturbed rocky shores. This, alongside substantial international policy drivers, has led to an interest in the ways in which structures might be enhanced for ecological gain. Virtually all of this research has been undertaken by ecologists, while the contribution of geomorphological understanding has not been fully recognised. This thesis presents an assessment of the two-way interactions between colonising organisms and the materials used to build hard coastal structures under a framework of biogeomorphology. The influence of material type and small-scale surface texture on early colonisation is assessed alongside detailed observations of the ways in which biota are involved in the alteration of substratum properties and behaviours through weathering and erosion in the intertidal zone. The research demonstrates that biotic (organisms) and abiotic (material substrata) components of coastal structures are inherently linked at various spatial and temporal scales through complex biogeomorphic interactions and feedbacks. Importantly, these interactions have consequences for the subsequent operation of ecological and geomorphological processes that are of relevance to urban marine ecology, weathering and rock coast geomorphology, and engineering. This thesis demonstrates the considerable potential to manipulate substratum-biota interactions on artificial structures for ecological gain, both directly and indirectly. More broadly, the explicitly interdisciplinary methodological approach adopted shows the value and necessity of integrated research for achieving useful, applied outcomes.

Recent studies within the past decade or so have shown the importance of algae in geomorphic and hydrologic processes of lotic systems. However, the ecohydraulic role of algae in bedrock systems has largely been ignored. In addition, the utility of algae as indicators of channel dynamics have often been assumed by geomorphologists, but relatively few studies have examined this relationship. The purpose of this study was to determine whether algae, specifically diatoms, are useful indicators of channel geomorphological dynamics, and to examine if distinct habitats or biotopes typical in fluviokarst and bedrock systems provide unique habitat space for diatoms, and to address the potential ecohydraulic implications. The investigation was performed in a 100 m reach of Shawnee Run, a limestone, fluviokarst tributary to the Kentucky River in Mercer County, KY. The results of the study showed that periphyton are not useful indicators of channel dynamics, and that biotopes and other distinct habitats, including riffles, bedforms, and fine sediment, do not provide unique habitat in terms of diatom community composition.

The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 severely impacted the woody vegetation within the geomorphic floodplain as well as the morphology of the Upper South Fork Toutle River. Historic aerial imagery and LiDAR data were used in combination to create snapshots of the channel and vegetation in 1980, 1983, 1996, 2003, and 2014. This data was mapped and analyzed using GIS, with the primary focus on 2D channel change, vegetation change, and channel-vegetation interactions from 1980 to 2014. No vegetation was discernable in 1980-83 but the vegetation present in 1996 increased in area and in density from 1996 to 2014. The number of channels locations were dependent on vegetation density and presence while vegetation growth occurred predominately in areas previously occupied by the channel.

Marion Island is situated in the South Indian Ocean and belongs to the sub-Antarctic island group, Prince Edward Islands. The islands in the sub-Antarctic have over the past few decades been exposed to a warmer and drier climate trend. The aim of this thesis is to achieve better understanding of the small-scale spatial and temporal variability between Azorella selago andthe surrounding microclimate. Due to the consequences of climate change, the interactions between Azorella selago, landforms and soil processes are important for the future of the terrestrial ecosystems in the sub-Antarctic. The theory part in this thesis describes different processes and features that are essential to understand the context of this thesis. The energy balance and the insolation is shown to be an important aspect when looking at the spatialvariability of the microclimate. The summary of the results in the thesis is based on temperature and moisture measurements within two grids. One on the east and one on the west side of the island

The most important result from the measurements is that different weather conditions create different situations for the microclimate. The weather condition ‘sunny no wind’ created a high spatial variability in temperature on the ground, which was completely absent during overcast days. Temperature variability is highly dependent on cloud cover according to these results. Moisture changes also seem to be less weather dependent than temperaturechanges.

The data provide a first confirmation that an increase in sunshine hours gives increased spatial variability in temperature (not moisture) and soil frost. An increase in spatial variability of the microclimate within small areas could give rise to an expansion in the patchiness of soil frost processes in the landscape. The representivity of single point measurements of ground surface temperature should be questioned.

Patterns of areas with low moisture content within the grid correlate with points where measurements were taken on Azorella selago. The Azorella cushion could, according to the results of this thesis, be associated with dry areas within the grid. Azorella selago is thereby suggested to increase the spatial variability of moisture and also contribute to a locally drier microclimate. Moisture variability varies more between the east and west side of the island, than that it is weather dependent.

Shaded areas show a pattern of lower temperature than for the other variables under sunny conditions. If more shaded areas are created by for example landforms like Azorella selago or solifluction deposits, the temperatures would probably be lower and also create a wider spatial variability.

This study provides first data on the important interactions between Azorella selago and how it affects through spatial variability in micro-climate, ground frost potential and resulting soil disturbance by frost creep and solifluction.

In times of natural and anthropogenic climate change, tidal bio-geomorphic systems are most exposed to possibly irreversible transformations with far-reaching ecological and socio-economic implications. It is thus of critical importance to develop models for predicting the evolution of such systems under varying forcings and, if present, their dynamically-accessible stable states. The notion that freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems may switch abruptly to alternative stable states as a result of feedbacks between consumers and limiting resources is widely acknowledged. On the contrary, theoretical or observational proofs of the existence of alternative equilibrium states in intertidal ecosystems has until recently proven to be elusive. This is due to a prevalent reductionist approach, which has until recently mostly produced either purely ecological or purely geomorphological models, while the coupled dynamics of landforms and biota in the intertidal zone has remained largely unexplored. The presence and continued existence of tidal morphologies, and in particular of salt marshes, is intimately connected with biological activity, especially with the presence of halophytic vegetation. In fact, observations and models coupling geomorphological and biological processes indicate that vegetation crucially affects marsh equilibrium configurations through the production of organic soil, the capture of sediment, and the stabilization against erosion produced by wind waves. Often, different vegetation species live within very narrow elevation intervals, associated with similarly narrow ranges of environmental pressures, thus leading to the emerge of the zonation phenomenon. Here we present modeling analysis on the spatial distribution of geomorphological and vegetational spatial patterns in tidal landscapes arising as a result of two-way feedbacks between physical and biological processes. We challenge the traditional interpretation of zonation as a one--way relation between dominant processes in the intertidal frame (i.e. competition vs. edaphic controls), which fails to capture the active role played by vegetation in engineering its own environment. We use a point model of the coupled elevation-vegetation dynamics, which retains the description of the chief processes shaping these systems, to show how competing stable states are responsible for the formation of characteristic large-scale bio-geomorphic features in tidal landscapes worldwide. Our analyses extended to a one-dimensional context allows us to explore the mechanism that leads to the formation of well-known, smaller-scale patterns associated with marsh vegetation species distributions. We develop and present a model that for the first time incorporates species competition, species mutations, sediment transport and soil accretion in a spatially-extended setting, emphasizing that the formation of smaller-scale intertwined topographic and vegetation patterns are driven by bio-geomorphic feedbacks. We finally analyze the robustness of large-scale and marsh-scale bio-geomorphic features to changes in the forcings, with implications for marsh ecosystem resilience to climate change and anthropogenic pressures
I sistemi bio-geomorfologici a marea sono tra i sistemi più esposti a trasformazioni, anche irreversibili, a causa dei notevoli cambiamenti climatici generati da cause naturali o antropiche, con importanti conseguenze ecologiche e implicazioni socioeconomiche. E' quindi di fondamentale importanza lo sviluppo di modelli per prevedere l'evoluzione di questi sistemi soggetti a forzanti variabili e, se presenti, studiarne i loro stati di equilibrio dinamicamente stabili. L'idea che gli ecosistemi d'acqua dolce e terrestri possano essere soggetti a bruschi passaggi fra stati di equilibrio stabile alternativi, come risultato di retroazioni tra i diversi consumatori e le risorse limitanti, è ampiamente nota e riconosciuta. D'altro canto, dimostrazioni teoriche o osservazioni dirette della esistenza di tali stati di equilibrio negli ecosistemi intertidali non sono ancora consolidate o ampiamente discusse. Ciò è dovuto ad un approccio prevalente riduzionista, finora principalmente basato su modelli puramente ecologici o puramente geomorfologici, mentre la dinamica accoppiata di morfologia e biologia nella zona intertidale è ancora in gran parte inesplorata. La presenza e la sopravvivenza delle strutture morfologiche a marea, e in particolare delle barene, sono intimamente connesse con l'attività biologica, in particolare con la presenza di vegetazioni alofite. Infatti, le osservazioni e i modelli che accoppiano processi geomorfologici e biologici indicano che la vegetazione influenza in modo cruciale gli stati di equilibrio attraverso la produzione di suolo organico, la cattura di sedimenti, e la stabilizzazione contro l'erosione prodotta dalle onde da vento. Spesso, specie vegetali differenti vivono a quote altimetriche diverse ma molto ravvicinate fra loro, associate ad altrettanto diverse pressioni ambientali, determinando in tal modo l'emergere del fenomeno di zonazione. In questo studio si presentano alcune analisi modellistiche sulla distribuzione spaziale di strutture geomorfologiche e vegetali negli ambienti a marea come risultato di retroazioni bi-direzionali tra i processi fisici e biologici. Viene discussa e rielaborata l'interpretazione tradizionale che vede il fenomeno di zonazione come una relazione univoca fra i processi presenti nella zona intertidale (cioè competizione fra specie e controlli edafici), che non riesce a cogliere il ruolo attivo svolto dalla vegetazione nel modellare questo ambiente. Si utilizza così un modello puntuale che accoppia dinamiche fra elevazione e vegetazione, descrivendo i principali processi che portano alla formazione di tali sistemi, mostrando come gli stati di equilibrio stabile, in competizione fra loro, siano responsabili della formazione delle caratteristiche strutture osservate a grande scala negli ambienti a marea. L'estensione delle analisi ad un contesto unidimensionale permette di esplorare il meccanismo che porta alla formazione delle ben note strutture a piccola scala, associate a diverse distribuzioni di specie vegetali sulle barene. Il modello sviluppato, incorpora per la prima volta la competizione fra specie, la mutazione di specie, il trasporto di sedimenti e la produzione di suolo in un ambiente esteso nello spazio, evidenziando come la formazione a piccola scala di strutture topografiche e vegetali intrecciate fra loro, siano guidate da retroazioni bio-geomorfologiche. Si analizza infine la robustezza a larga e piccola scala delle strutture bio-geomofologiche al variare delle forzanti esterne presenti, con implicazioni sulla resistenza degli ecosistemi barenali al cambiamento climatico e alle pressioni antropiche

Signal crayfish are an internationally widespread invasive species that can have important detrimental ecological impacts. This thesis aims to determine whether signal crayfish have the potential to also impact the physical environment in rivers. A series of experiments were undertaken in purpose-built still-water aquaria using a laser scanner to obtain Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of narrowly-graded gravel surfaces before and after exposure to crayfish. The difference between DEMs was used to quantify volumetric changes in surface topography due to crayfish activity. Two distinct types of topographic change were identified. The first was the construction of pits and mounds which resulted in an increase in surface roughness and grain exposure. The second was the rearrangement of surface material caused by crayfish brushing past grains when walking and foraging, reorientating grains and altering friction angles. A series of 80 flume runs were undertaken to quantify alterations made by crayfish to water-worked, as well as loose, gravel substrates at low velocity flows. Crayfish significantly altered the structure of water-worked substrates, reversing the imbrication of surface grains to a more random arrangement. Surfaces were entrained at a relatively high velocity flow subsequent to crayfish activity in order to directly link topographic and structural alterations to substrate stability. Nearly twice as many grains were mobilised from surfaces which had been disturbed by crayfish in comparison to control surfaces that were not exposed to crayfish. A field investigation aimed to determine the potential significance of the geomorphic impact of crayfish in rivers. Signal crayfish were tracked through a 20 m reach of a small, lowland alluvial river for 150 days using a Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) system. Crayfish were active throughout the channel, although their activity became limited as water temperature dropped and flow stage increased. Substrate was not an important determinant of crayfish activity at this scale. Instead, crayfish tended to be found along the inner bank of a meander bend where there was a substantial cover of macrophytes. Consequently, signal crayfish were active for extended periods on substrates of a similar size to those that they could disturb in flume experiments. These results suggest that signal crayfish could have important geomorphic effects in rivers, disturbing bed structures and increasing the mobility of coarse material. This may have important implications for both the management of some rivers and benthic organisms that reside on the river bed.

The plants and animals that inhabit river channels may act as zoogeomorphic agents affecting the nature and rates of sediment recruitment, transport and deposition. The impact of benthic-feeding fish, which disturb bed material sediments during their search for food, has received little attention, even though benthic feeding species are widespread in rivers and may collectively expend significant amounts of energy foraging across the bed. A series of experiments were conducted to investigate the impacts of benthic feeding fish on the structure and composition of gravel-bed river sediments, and the implications for bed material transport. An ex-situ experiment was conducted to investigate the impact of a benthic feeding fish (European Barbel Barbus barbus) on particle displacements, bed sediment structures, gravel entrainment and transport fluxes. In a laboratory flume, changes in bed surface topography were measured and grain displacements examined when an imbricated, water-worked bed of 5.6-16 mm gravels was exposed to feeding juvenile Barbel. For substrates that had been exposed to feeding fish and control substrates which had not, grain entrainment rates and bedload fluxes were measured under a moderate transport regime. On average, approximately 37% of the substrate, by area, was modified by foraging fish during a four-hour treatment period, resulting in increased microtopographic roughness and reduced particle imbrication. Structural changes caused by fish increased bed load flux by 60% under entrainment flows, whilst on average the total number of grains transported during the entrainment phase was 82% higher from substrates that had been disturbed by Barbel. An ex-situ experiment utilising Barbel and Chub Leuciscus cephalus extended this initial study by considering the role of fish size and species as controls of sediment disturbance by foraging. Increasing the size of Barbel had a significant effect on measured disturbance and bedload transport. Specifically, the area of disturbed substrate, foraging depth, microtopographic roughness and sediment structure all increased as functions of fish size, as did bedload flux and total transported mass. In a comparison of the foraging effects of like-sized Barbel and Chub 8-10 in length, Barbel foraged a larger area of the riverbed and had a greater impact on microtopographic roughness and sediment structure. Foraging by both species was associated with increased sediment transport, but the bed load flux after foraging by Barbel was 150% higher than that following foraging by Chub and the total transported mass of sediment was 98% greater. An in-situ experiment quantified the effects of foraging fish, primarily Cyprinids (specifically Barbel and Chub), on gravel-river bed sediment structures, surface grain-size distributions, sediment transport fluxes and grain entrainment in the River Idle, Nottinghamshire, UK. This was achieved by installing large experimental sediment trays seeded with food at typical densities. The experiments yielded data about 1) topographic and structural differences between pre- and post-feeding substrates using DEMs interpolated from laser scans, 2) modifications to surface and sub-surface grain-size distributions as a function of fish foraging and 3) differences in sediment entrainment from water-worked substrates exposed to feeding fish and control substrates, without fish. Small sections of the substrate trays were recovered in tact from the field and for substrates that had been exposed to feeding fish and control substrates which had not, grain entrainment rates and bedload fluxes were measured under a moderate transport regime in the laboratory. On average, approximately 74% of the substrate, by area, was modified by foraging fish during a twelve-hour period, resulting in increased microtopographic roughness and substrate coarsening which had significant implications for bed material transport during the steady entrainment flow. Together, results from these experiments indicate that by increasing surface microtopography, modifying the composition of fluvial substrates and undoing the naturally stable structures produced by water working, foraging can influence sediment transport dynamics, predominately by increasing the mobility of river bed materials. The implication of this result is that by influencing the quantity of available, transportable sediment and entrainment thresholds, benthic feeding may affect sediment transport fluxes in gravel-bed rivers. In addition, three discrete studies were performed alongside the core experiments described above. A quantitative examination of habitat conditions favoured by feeding Barbel was conducted in the River Idle (Nottinghamshire, UK) which served to supplement existing literature pertaining to Barbel ecology, and inform experimental design during the core experiments. Two further studies considered the potential importance of foraging as a zoogeomorphic activity in terms of spatial extent, at a variety of scales, thereby extending core experiments to larger spatial scales in-situ.

The linkage between barrier island morphologies and dune topographies, vegetation, and biogeomorphic feedbacks, has been examined. The two-fold stability domain (i.e., overwash-resisting and overwash-reinforcing stability domains) model from case studies in a couple of islands along the Georgia Bight and Virginia coast has been proposed to examine the resilience properties in the barrier dune systems. Thus, there is a need to examine geographic variations in the dune topography among and within islands. Meanwhile, previous studies just analyzed and compared dune topographies based on transect-based point elevations or dune crest elevations; therefore, it is necessary to further examine dune topography in terms of multiple patterns and processes across scales. In this dissertation, I develop and deploy a cross-scale data model developed from resilience theory to represent and compare dune topographies across twelve islands over approximately 2,050 kilometers of the US southeastern Atlantic coast. Three sets of topographic variables were employed to summarize the cross-scale structure of topography (elevational statistics, patch indices, and the continuous surface properties). These metrics differed in their degree of spatial explicitness, their level of measurement, and association with patch or gradient paradigms. Topographic metrics were derived from digital elevation models (DEMs) of dune topographies constructed from airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR). These topographic metrics were used to construct dune topographic state space to investigate and visualize the cross-scale structure of dune topography. This study investigated (1) dune topography and landscape similarity among barrier islands in different barrier island morphologic contexts, (2) the differences in barrier island dune topographies and their resilience properties across large geographic extents, and (3) how geomorphic and biogeomorphic processes are related to resilience prosperities. The findings are summarized below. First, dune topography varies according to island morphologies of the Virginia coast; however, local controls (such as human modification of the shore or shoreline accretion and erosion) also play an important role in shaping dune topographies. Compared with tide-dominated islands, wave-dominated islands exhibited more convergence in dune topographies. Second, the dune landscapes of the Virginia Barrier Islands have a poorly consistent spatial structure, along with strong collinearity among elevational variables and landscape indices, which reflects the rapid retreat and erosion along the coast. The dune landscapes of the Georgia Bight have a more consistent spatial structure and a greater dimensionality in state space. Thus, the weaker multicollinearity and higher dimensionality in the dataset reflect their potential for resilience. Last, islands of different elevations may have similar dune topography characteristics due to the difference in resistance and resilience. Notwithstanding the geographic variability in geomorphic and biogeomorphic processes, convergence in dune topography exists, which is evidenced by the response curves of the topographic metrics that are correlated with both axes. This work demonstrates the usefulness of different representations of dune topography by cross-scale data modeling. Also, the two existing models of barrier island dune states were integrated to form a conceptual model that illuminates different, but complementary, resilience properties in the barrier dune system. The differences in dune topographies and resilience properties were detected in state space, and this information offers guidance for future study’s field site selections.

Previous research in the Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas suggests that, on relatively thin soils overlying bedrock, individual trees locally thicken the regolith by root penetration into bedrock. However, that work was conducted mainly in areas of strongly dipping and contorted rock, where joints and bedding planes susceptible to root penetration are more common and accessible. This project extended this concept to the Cumberland Plateau, Kentucky, with flat, level-bedded sedimentary rocks. Spatial variability of soil thickness was quantified at three nested spatial scales, and statistical relationships with other potential influences of thickness were examined. In addition, soil depth beneath trees was compared to that of non-tree sites by measuring depth to bedrock of stumps and immediately adjacent sites. While soil thickness beneath stumps was greater in the Ouachita Mountains compared to the Kentucky sites, there were no statistically significant differences in the difference between stump and adjacent sites between the two regions. In both regions, however, soils beneath stumps are significantly deeper than adjacent soils. This suggests the local deepening effects of trees occur in flat-bedded as well as steeply dipping lithologies. Regression results at the Cumberland Plateau sites showed no statistically significant relationship between soil depth and geomorphic or stand-level ecological variables, consistent with a major role for individual tree effects. Nested analysis of variance between 10 ha stands, 1.0 ha plots, and 0.1 ha subplots indicates that about 67 percent of total depth variance occurs at, or below, the subplot level of organization. This highly localized variability is consistent with, and most plausibly explained by, individual tree effects. The effects of biomechanical weathering by trees are not limited to areas with strongly dipping and contorted bedrock. Variability of soil depth in the Cumberland Plateau is likely influenced by positive feedbacks from tree root growth, that these interactions occur over multiple generations of growth, and that the effects of trees are the dominant control of local soil thickness. Since lateral lithological variation was minimal, this study also provides evidence that the positive feedback from biomechanical weathering by trees leads to divergent development of soil thickness.

It is generally accepted that tree roots can reinforce soil and improve the stability of vegetated slopes. Tree root reinforcement is also recognised in riverbanks although the contribution that the roots make to bank stability has rarely been assessed due to the reluctance of geomorphologists to examine riverbank stability by geomechanical methods that allow for the inclusion of quantified biotechnical parameters. This study investigates the interaction between alluvial soil and the roots of four southeastern Australian riparian trees. It quantifies the amount and distribution of root reinforcement present beneath typically vegetated riverbanks of the upper Nepean River, New South Wales, and examines the effect of the reinforcement on the stability of these banks. The ability of a tree to reinforce the soil is limited by the spatial distribution of its root system and the strength that the roots impart to the soil during shear. These two parameters were determined for the following four species of native riparian tree: Casuarina glauca, Eucalyptus amplifolia, Eucalyptus elata, and Acacia floribunda. The four species all exhibit a progressive reduction in the quantity of root material both with increasing depth and with increasing lateral distance from the tree stem. In the vertical direction there are two distinct zones that can be described. The first occurs from between 0 and approximately 15 % of the maximum vertical depth and consists of approximately 80 % of the total root material quantity. In this zone the root system consists of both vertical and lateral roots, the size and density of which varies between species. The second zone occurs below approximately 15 % of the maximum vertical depth and consists primarily of vertical roots. The quantity of root material in this zone decreases exponentially with depth due to the taper of individual roots. The earth reinforcement potential in terms of both geometric extent and the quantity of root material expressed as the Root Area Ratio (RAR) varies significantly from species to species. E. elata exhibited the highest values of RAR in soil zones beneath it while E. amplifolia reinforced a greater volume of soil than any of the other species examined. The increased shear resistance (Sr) of alluvial soil containing roots was measured by direct in-situ shear tests on soil blocks beneath a plantation. For three of the species (C. glauca, E. amplifolia, E. elata) Sr increased with increasing RAR measured at the shear plane, in a similar linear relationship. The shear resistance provided by A. floribunda roots also increased with increasing RAR at the shear plane but at a much greater rate than for the other three species. This is attributable to A. floribunda’s greater root tensile strength and therefore pull-out resistance, as well as its smaller root diameters at comparative RARs which resulted in a greater proportion of roots reaching full tensile strength within the confines of the test. Tree roots fail progressively in this system. Therefore determining the increased shear strength from the sum of the pull-out or tensile strengths of all individual roots and Waldron’s (1977) and Wu et al’s (1979) simple root model, would result in substantial over estimates of the overall strength of the soil-root system. The average difference between Sr calculated in this manner and that measured from direct in-situ shear tests is 10.9 kPa for C. glauca, 19.0 kPa for E. amplifolia, 19.3 kPa for E. elata, and 8.8 kPa for A. floribunda. A riverbank stability analysis incorporating the root reinforcement effect was conducted using a predictive model of the spatial distribution of root reinforcement beneath riparian trees within the study area. The model is based on measurements of juveniles and observations of the rooting habits of mature trees. It indicates that while the presence of vegetation on riverbank profiles has the potential to increase stability by up to 105 %, the relative increase depends heavily on the actual vegetation type, density, and location on the bank profile. Of the species examined in this study the greatest potential for improved riverbank stability is provided by E. amplifolia, followed by E. elata, A. floribunda, and C. glauca. The presence of trees on banks of the Nepean River has the potential to raise the critical factor of safety (FoS) from a value that is very unstable (0.85) to significantly above 1.00 even when the banks are completely saturated and subject to rapid draw-down. It is likely then that the period of intense bank instability observed within this environment between 1947 and 1992 would not have taken place had the riparian vegetation not been cleared prior to the onset of wetter climatic conditions. Typical ‘present-day’ profiles are critically to marginally stable. The introduction of vegetation could improve stability by raising the FoS up to 1.68 however the selection of revegetation species is crucial. With the placement of a large growing Eucalypt at a suitable spacing (around 3-5 m) the choice of smaller understorey trees and shrubs is less important. The effect of riparian vegetation on bank stability has important implications for channel morphological change. This study quantifies the mechanical earth reinforcing effect of some native riparian trees, thus allowing for improved deterministic assessment of historical channel change and an improved basis for future riverine management.

Au cours du XXe siècle, les lits de nombreuses rivières ont été sujets à l'installation de végétation alluviale. Dans le cas des rivières aménagées, cette tendance est souvent associée à des altérations géomorphologiques directes (extractions de granulats, endiguements, etc.) ainsi qu'à des modifications anthropiques de leur régime hydrologique et sédimentaire conduisant à une stabilisation du lit qui permet l'installation de la végétation. Cette végétation augmente le risque d'inondation en diminuant les vitesses d'écoulement et en augmentant les niveaux d'eau en crue. Par ailleurs la biodiversité est dégradée par la diminution des habitats pionniers caractéristiques de ces environnements. Manipuler artificiellement le régime hydrologique d'une manière qui pourrait limiter l'installation de végétation sur les bancs est une option considérée par les gestionnaires. Dans ce contexte, ce projet de thèse a pour objectif de comprendre les impacts des crues d'amplitude variable sur la destruction de végétation, et d'identifier les mécanismes associés. Le site d'étude sur lequel cette thèse se focalise est l'Isère en Combe de Savoie, une rivière à galets très aménagée des Alpes françaises.Dans le cadre de cette étude, la destruction de végétation a été étudiée à l'échelle du tronçon à partir d'une analyse des données hydrologiques, des photos aériennes, et des données topographiques disponibles pour la période 1996-2015. À l'échelle du banc, un suivi de terrain avant et après les événements hydrologiques marquants entre avril 2014 et septembre 2015 nous a permis d'étudier l'action des crues sur la mobilité sédimentaire et sur la végétation. Ces observations ont été complétées par une modélisation numérique bidimensionnelle de l'écoulement en crue.À l'échelle du tronçon (20 km), nous avons trouvé une corrélation très forte entre les volumes d'eau ayant transité dans le chenal sur une période donnée, et la destruction de végétation associée au cours de la période 1996-2015. Les débits associés à des temps de retour infra-annuels semblent permettre la destruction de végétation. Le mécanisme de destruction le plus efficace que l'on observe à cette échelle est l'érosion latérale ; les mécanismes prenant place à la surface des bancs sont très minoritaires. Cependant, les surfaces détruites sont modestes ; 3,4 % de la surface végétalisée est détruite annuellement en moyenne. À l'échelle du banc, la période de suivi de terrain a couvert une série de crues fréquentes (temps de retour < 1 an) et une crue de temps de retour 10 ans. Seule cette crue a partiellement détruit la végétation pionnière sur les bancs suivis. La destruction de végétation ligneuse jeune a eu lieu par le biais de quatre mécanismes : 1) déracinement par érosion de surface supérieure à 20 cm, 2) enfouissement sous une couche de sédiment grossiers supérieure à 30 cm, 3) déracinement par une combinaison d'érosion et de dépôt, et 4) érosion latérale en marge des bancs. La destruction de végétation est toujours associée à une mobilité sédimentaire importante.Ces résultats montrent qu'une crue très importante est nécessaire pour détruire la végétation par la mobilisation de la surface des bancs sur ce site. Par contraste, les débits forts mais non exceptionnels (temps de retour infra-annuel) sont en mesure de détruire la végétation par érosion latérale. Dans le cas de l'Isère en Combe de Savoie, il semble que l'utilisation de crues artificielles ne peut pas seule permettre de maintenir la largeur inter-digues libre de végétation. Pour la suite, on propose de s'intéresser à la destruction de végétation dans le contexte de la dynamique des bancs alternés plus ou moins végétalisés, en prenant en compte les apports et le transport des sédiments en plus de l'hydrologie
Many rivers worldwide have seen vegetation establish within their beds throughout the 20th century. In the case of managed rivers, this trend is usually linked to direct geomorphological alterations (sediment mining, diking, etc.) as well as anthropic alterations of flow regime and sediment supply. These pressures have stabilized river beds, allowing vegetation to establish permanently. This vegetation increases the risk of flooding by decreasing flow velocities and increasing water levels. In addition, the associated reduction in availability of pioneer habitats characteristic of these stabilized environments typically degrades biodiversity. Managing hydrology in a way that would limit vegetation establishment on bars presents an interesting management option. In this context, our study was aimed at understanding the impacts of floods of varying magnitude on vegetation removal, as well as identifying and quantifying the underlying mechanisms. This work focused on the Isère River, a heavily managed gravel bed river located in the western French Alps.Vegetation removal was studied at the reach scale using hydrological data, aerial photographs, and topographic data available between 1996 and 2015. At the bar scale, field monitoring before and after floods from april 2014 to september 2015 allowed us to document the impact of floods on sediment mobility and vegetation. A 2D numerical model was used to document fine scale hydraulics.At the reach scale, we found a strong correlation between water volume flowing through the river channel and the amount of vegetation removal. Discharges with return intervals of less than one year seem to have an impact on vegetation removal. The main mechanism observed from aerial photographs was lateral erosion; surface processes were negligible in comparison. However, global vegetation removal was modest: since 1996, on average 3,4 % of vegetated area was removed annually. At the bar scale, our study period permitted monitoring of a series of high frequency floods (return interval < 1 year) and a 10-year food event. Only the largest flood partially removed pioneer vegetation from bars. Young vegetation removal occurred through four different mechanisms: 1) uprooting by surface scour > 20 cm, 2) burial under a thick layer of coarse sediments > 30 cm, 3) uprooting by a combination of surface scour and sediment deposition resulting in no net topographic change, and 4) lateral erosion of bars. Vegetation removal was always associated with significant sediment mobility.We conclude that on the Isere River a very important flood is required to remove vegetation by mobilizing bar surfaces. In contrast, high but not exceptional flows (return interval < 1 an) are capable of removing vegetation through lateral erosion. However, artificial floods alone are unlikely to maintain the full width of the channelized bed of the Isere River free of vegetation. In the future, vegetation removal needs to be studied in the context of alternate bar dynamics with or without vegetation. It seems necessary to consider sediment transport as well as hydrology to understand the overall dynamics of the bed

Charwell Basin is a 6 km-wide structural depression situated at the boundary between the axial ranges and faulted and folded Marlborough Fault Zone of north-eastern South Island, New Zealand. The basin contains the piedmont reach of the Charwell River, and a series of late Quaternary loess-mantled alluvial terraces and terrace remnants that have been uplifted and translocated from their sediment source due to strike-slip motion along the Hope Fault which bounds the basin to its immediate north. The aim of this study was to provide an interdisciplinary, integrated and holistic analysis of late Quaternary landscape evolution and environmental change in Charwell Basin using terrain analysis, loess stratigraphy, soil chemistry and paleoecological data. The study contributes new understanding of New Zealand landscape and ecosystem responses to regional and global climatic change extending to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6, and shows that climatically-forced shifts in biogeomorphic processes play a significant role in lowland landscape evolution. Morphometric analysis of alluvial terraces and terrace remnants of increasing age demonstrated geomorphic evolution through time, with a decrease in extent of original planar terrace tread morphology and an increase in frequency of steeper slopes and convexo-concave land elements. Paleotopographic analysis of a >150 ka terrace mantled by up to three loess sheets revealed multiple episodes of alluvial aggradation and degradation and, subsequent to river abandonment, gully incision prior to and coeval with loess accumulation. Spatial heterogeneity in loess sheet preservation showed a complex history of loess accumulation and erosion. A critical profile curvature range of -0.005 to -0.014 (d2z/dx2, m-1) for loess erosion derived from a model parameterised in different ways successfully predicted loess occurrence on adjacent slope elements, but incorrectly predicted loess occurrence on an older terrace remnant from which all loess has been eroded. Future analyses incorporating planform curvature, regolith erosivity and other landform parameters may improve identification of thresholds controlling loess occurrence in Charwell Basin and in other South Island landscapes. A loess chronostratigraphic framework was developed for, and pedogenic phases identified in, the three loess sheets mantling the >150 ka terrace. Except for one age, infrared-stimulated luminescence dates from both an upbuilding interfluve loess exposure and colluvial gully infill underestimated loess age with respect to the widespread Kawakawa/Oruanui Tephra (KOT; 27,097 ± 957 cal. yr BP), highlighting the need for improvements in the methodology. Onset of loess sheet 1 accumulation started at ca. 50 ka, with a break at ca. 27 ka corresponding to the extended Last Glacial Maximum (eLGM) interstadial identified elsewhere in New Zealand. Loess accumulation through MIS 3 indicates a regional loess flux, and that glaciation was not a necessary condition for loess generation in South Island. Loess accumulation and local alluvial aggradation are decoupled: the youngest aggradation event only covers ~12 kyr of the period of loess sheet 1 accumulation. Older local aggradation episodes could not be the source because their associated terraces are mantled by loess sheet 1. In the absence of numerical ages, the timing of L2 and L3 accumulation is inferred on the basis of an offshore clastic sediment record. The upbuilding phase of loess sheet 2 occurred in late MIS 5a/MIS 4, and loess sheet 3 accumulated in two phases in MIS 5b and late MIS 6. Biogenic silica data were used to reconstruct broad shifts in vegetation and changes in gully soil saturation status. During interglacial/interstadial periods (MIS 1, early MIS 3, MIS 5) Nothofagus¬-dominated forest covered the area in association with Microlaena spp grasses. Lowering of treeline altitude during glacial/stadial periods (MIS 2, MIS 3, MIS 5b, late MIS 6) led to reduction in forest cover and a mosaic of shrubs and Chionochloa spp, Festuca spp and Poa spp tussock grasses. Comparison of interfluve and gully records showed spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover possibly related to environmental gradients of exposure or soil moisture. A post-KOT peak in gully tree phytoliths corresponds to the eLGM interstadial, and a shift to grass-dominated vegetation occurred during the LGM sensu stricto. Diatoms indicated the site became considerably wetter from ca. 36 ka, with peak wetness at ca. 30, 25 and 21 ka, possibly due to reduced evapotranspiration and/or increased precipitation from a combination of strengthened westerly winds and increased cloudiness, or strengthened southerly flow and increased precipitation. Human influence after ca. 750 yr BP led to re-establishment of grassland in the area, which deposited phytoliths mixed to 30 cm depth in the soil. A coupled gully colluvial infilling/vegetation record showed that sediment flux during the late Pleistocene was ~0.0019 m3 m-1 yr-1 under a shrubland/grassland mosaic, and Holocene sediment flux was ~0.0034 m3 m-1 yr-1 under forest. This increase of 60% through the last glacial-interglacial transition resulted from increased bioturbation and down-slope soil transport via root growth and treethrow, which formed a biomantle as evidenced by slope redistribution of the KOT. These results contrast with sediment transport rates and processes hypothesised to occur contemporaneously in adjacent mountain catchments. This suggests that intraregional biogeomorphic processes can differ significantly depending on topography and geological substrate, with different landscapes responding in unique ways to the same climate shifts. Analysis of Quaternary terrestrial landscape evolution in non-glaciated mountainous and lowland areas must therefore consider spatial and temporal heterogeneity in sediment fluxes and underlying transport processes.

Estudos biogeomorfológicos integrando a geomorfologia fluvial, neotectônica e a vegetação foram aplicados na ilha da Marchantaria, com a finalidade de analisar a distribuição da vegetação de várzea nas feições geomorfológicas. A planície do rio Amazonas é um mosaico de feições morfológicas de dimensões espaciais ora menores, ora maiores tais como ilhas, bancos arenosos, furos, paranás e lagos, que pela dinâmica fluvial estão continuamente se modificando. No canal do rio Amazonas, a ilha da Marchantaria, situada no baixo curso do rio Solimões motiva relevante interesse, tendo em vista a sua evolução areal nos últimos quarenta anos, bem como, a sua proximidade ao Encontro das Águas de Manaus EAM. A partir do arranjo dos elementos neotectônicos que condicionam as formas quaternárias atuais da ilha foram identificadas duas unidades estruturais distintas: Depósito Aluvial Subrecente (DASr) e Depósito Aluvial Recente (DAR). Também, foram definidas as unidades morfossedimentares holocênicas: feições espiras de meandro e barras de soldamento. A distribuição espacial da vegetação sobre as diferentes elevações do terreno foram agrupadas em duas unidades: vegetação lenhosa e vegetação herbácea. Os resultados mostram que: a) a vegetação distribui-se espacialmente nos diferentes níveis tectono-topográficos; b) a erosão fluvial, à montante da ilha, remove gradativamente a vegetação árborea, no entanto, à jusante, está ocorrendo sedimentação, propiciando a colonização de espécies herbáceas; c) a vegetação da ilha apresenta-se alterada devido à ação antrópica.
Biogeomorphologics studies, integrating fluvial geomorphology, neotectonic and vegetation, were applied on the island of Marchantaria, in order to analyze the distribution of vegetation in the floodplain geomorphological features. The Amazon River floodplain is a mosaic of morphological features from sometimes smaller spatial dimensions, sometimes larger such as islands, sandbars, furos, multichannels and lakes, the river dynamics that are continually changing. In the channel of the Amazon River, the island of Marchantaria, located on the lower course of the river Solimões, motivates relevant interest given its areal developments in the last forty years, as well as its proximity to the Encontro das Águas de Manaus - EAM. From the arrangement of neotectonic elements that condition the current quaternary forms of the island, two distinct structural units were identified: Sub-recent Alluvial Deposit (SrAD) and Recent Alluvial Deposit (RAD). The Holocene morpho-sedimentary units were also defined: features of scroll bars and annexation bars. The spatial distribution of vegetation on different ground elevations were grouped into two units: woody vegetation and herbaceous vegetation. The results show that: a) vegetation is distributed spatially in different tectono-topographic levels; b) fluvial erosion, the upstream of the island, gradually removes the arboreal vegetation, however, the downstream sedimentation is occurring, leading to colonization of herbaceous species; c) the island\'s vegetation is altered due to human action.

Charwell Basin is a 6 km-wide structural depression situated at the boundary between the axial ranges and faulted and folded Marlborough Fault Zone of north-eastern South Island, New Zealand. The basin contains the piedmont reach of the Charwell River, and a series of late Quaternary loess-mantled alluvial terraces and terrace remnants that have been uplifted and translocated from their sediment source due to strike-slip motion along the Hope Fault which bounds the basin to its immediate north. The aim of this study was to provide an interdisciplinary, integrated and holistic analysis of late Quaternary landscape evolution and environmental change in Charwell Basin using terrain analysis, loess stratigraphy, soil chemistry and paleoecological data. The study contributes new understanding of New Zealand landscape and ecosystem responses to regional and global climatic change extending to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6, and shows that climatically-forced shifts in biogeomorphic processes play a significant role in lowland landscape evolution. Morphometric analysis of alluvial terraces and terrace remnants of increasing age demonstrated geomorphic evolution through time, with a decrease in extent of original planar terrace tread morphology and an increase in frequency of steeper slopes and convexo-concave land elements. Paleotopographic analysis of a >150 ka terrace mantled by up to three loess sheets revealed multiple episodes of alluvial aggradation and degradation and, subsequent to river abandonment, gully incision prior to and coeval with loess accumulation. Spatial heterogeneity in loess sheet preservation showed a complex history of loess accumulation and erosion. A critical profile curvature range of -0.005 to -0.014 (d²z/dx², m⁻¹) for loess erosion derived from a model parameterised in different ways successfully predicted loess occurrence on adjacent slope elements, but incorrectly predicted loess occurrence on an older terrace remnant from which all loess has been eroded. Future analyses incorporating planform curvature, regolith erosivity and other landform parameters may improve identification of thresholds controlling loess occurrence in Charwell Basin and in other South Island landscapes. A loess chronostratigraphic framework was developed for, and pedogenic phases identified in, the three loess sheets mantling the >150 ka terrace. Except for one age, infrared-stimulated luminescence dates from both an upbuilding interfluve loess exposure and colluvial gully infill underestimated loess age with respect to the widespread Kawakawa/Oruanui Tephra (KOT; 27,097 ± 957 cal. yr BP), highlighting the need for improvements in the methodology. Onset of loess sheet 1 accumulation started at ca. 50 ka, with a break at ca. 27 ka corresponding to the extended Last Glacial Maximum (eLGM) interstadial identified elsewhere in New Zealand. Loess accumulation through MIS 3 indicates a regional loess flux, and that glaciation was not a necessary condition for loess generation in South Island. Loess accumulation and local alluvial aggradation are decoupled: the youngest aggradation event only covers ~12 kyr of the period of loess sheet 1 accumulation. Older local aggradation episodes could not be the source because their associated terraces are mantled by loess sheet 1. In the absence of numerical ages, the timing of L2 and L3 accumulation is inferred on the basis of an offshore clastic sediment record. The upbuilding phase of loess sheet 2 occurred in late MIS 5a/MIS 4, and loess sheet 3 accumulated in two phases in MIS 5b and late MIS 6. Biogenic silica data were used to reconstruct broad shifts in vegetation and changes in gully soil saturation status. During interglacial/interstadial periods (MIS 1, early MIS 3, MIS 5) Nothofagus-dominated forest covered the area in association with Microlaena spp grasses. Lowering of treeline altitude during glacial/stadial periods (MIS 2, MIS 3, MIS 5b, late MIS 6) led to reduction in forest cover and a mosaic of shrubs and Chionochloa spp, Festuca spp and Poa spp tussock grasses. Comparison of interfluve and gully records showed spatial heterogeneity in vegetation cover possibly related to environmental gradients of exposure or soil moisture. A post-KOT peak in gully tree phytoliths corresponds to the eLGM interstadial, and a shift to grass-dominated vegetation occurred during the LGM sensu stricto. Diatoms indicated the site became considerably wetter from ca. 36 ka, with peak wetness at ca. 30, 25 and 21 ka, possibly due to reduced evapotranspiration and/or increased precipitation from a combination of strengthened westerly winds and increased cloudiness, or strengthened southerly flow and increased precipitation. Human influence after ca. 750 yr BP led to re-establishment of grassland in the area, which deposited phytoliths mixed to 30 cm depth in the soil. A coupled gully colluvial infilling/vegetation record showed that sediment flux during the late Pleistocene was ~0.0019 m³ m⁻¹ yr⁻¹ under a shrubland/grassland mosaic, and Holocene sediment flux was ~0.0034 m³ m⁻¹ yr⁻¹ under forest. This increase of 60% through the last glacial-interglacial transition resulted from increased bioturbation and down-slope soil transport via root growth and treethrow, which formed a biomantle as evidenced by slope redistribution of the KOT. These results contrast with sediment transport rates and processes hypothesised to occur contemporaneously in adjacent mountain catchments. This suggests that intraregional biogeomorphic processes can differ significantly depending on topography and geological substrate, with different landscapes responding in unique ways to the same climate shifts. Analysis of Quaternary terrestrial landscape evolution in non-glaciated mountainous and lowland areas must therefore consider spatial and temporal heterogeneity in sediment fluxes and underlying transport processes.

Dans les écosystèmes, tels que les rivières, les marais salés, les mangroves, les dunes côtières, qui sont exposés à des flux hydrogéomorphologiques fréquents et réguliers (c’est-à-dire à des perturbations physiques), des rétroactions se mettent en place entre la géomorphologie (eau, sédiments et formes fluviales) et les plantes (par exemple Populus nigra L., Salix alba L., Salix purpurea L. dans les rivières). L’établissement de la végétation est contrôlé par des processus hydrogéomorphologiques qui, en retour, sont modulés par la végétation. De telles rétroactions contrôlent la dynamique des écosystèmes riverains. Dans cette thèse, nous avons abordé deux questions principales afin de mieux comprendre les rétroactions entre la végétation riveraine et les processus hydrogéomorphologiques : (i) comment la végétation riveraine répond-elle aux contraintes hydrogéomorphologiques ? (ii) comment et dans quelle mesure les plantes ingénieures, une fois établies, affectent-elles la géomorphologie fluviale ? Nous avons étudié ces questions sur la rivière Allier (France) à travers une approche emboîtée multi-échelles allant de l’échelle du patron paysager au trait de plante. Nous avons testé l’applicabilité de la méthode de photogrammétrie pour quantifier la réponse et l’effet de la végétation riveraine et des rétroactions biogéomorphologiques à différentes échelles spatio-temporelles (corridor, banc alluvial et individu). À l’échelle du corridor, nous avons recherché la signature topographique de la végétation riveraine dans le paysage, en utilisant des données photogrammétriques et LiDAR. À l’échelle intermédiaire du banc alluvial, nous avons étudié l’aptitude des trois espèces pionnières dominantes riveraines de Salicaceae (P. nigra, S. purpurea, S. alba) à s’établir et à agir comme ingénieurs d’écosystème en piégeant les sédiments fins. À l’échelle la plus fine du trait de plante, nous avons quantifié la relation existante entre les attributs de trait de réponse des jeunes plantes de P. nigra et leur exposition à trois niveaux différents de stress mécanique (tête de banc fortement exposée, queue de banc moins exposée, chute alluviale). Nous avons identifié les difficultés et les erreurs à ne pas commettre pour appliquer correctement la photogrammétrie dans les études des rétroactions biogéomorphologiques. En tout état de cause, la photogrammétrie s’est avérée être un outil performant pour quantifier un ensemble de paramètres pertinents pour répondre à des questions de recherche fondamentale aux trois échelles spatiales considérées. À l’échelle la plus large, la signature topographique de la végétation est particulièrement difficile à identifier en raison de la dynamique complexe des formes fluviales de la rivière Allier. Cependant, en concentrant les observations sur des zones de taille réduite et fortement connectées (bancs alluviaux bordant le chenal), la signature de la végétation a pu être identifiée par cette méthode. Elle semble augmenter avec la croissance de la hauteur végétale (progression temporelle de la succession biogéomorphologique), ce qui est en accord avec le modèle de succession biogéomorphologique fluviale (SBF). À l’échelle intermédiaire du banc alluvial, les rétroactions biogéomorphologiques pouvaient être bien identifiées. La capacité des plantes riveraines à s’établir et à agir comme ingénieurs d’écosystème dépend à la fois des espèces et de leur physionomie, de leur âge et de leur position respective sur les bancs alluviaux. À l’échelle la plus fine de l’individu, nous avons capturé la réponse morphologique et biomécanique contrastée de P. nigra à l’exposition aux différents niveaux de contrainte mécanique d’un point de vue de trait. Dans tous les niveaux hiérarchiques, des rétroactions biogéomorphologiques liées aux échelles ont été détectées et synthétisées dans un modèle conceptuel. [...]
N ecosystems, such as rivers, salt marshes, mangroves, coastal dunes which are exposed to frequent and regular hydrogeomorphic fluxes (i.e. physical disturbances), feedbacks between geomorphology (water, sediment and landforms) and plants (e.g. Populus nigra L., Salix alba L., Salix purpurea L. in rivers) can occur. Vegetation esta¬blishment is controlled by hydrogeomorphic processes which in turn are modulated by vegetation. Such feedbacks control riparian ecosystem dynamics. In this thesis, we addressed two main questions in an effort to better understand feedbacks between riparian vegetation and hydrogeomorphic processes: (i) How does riparian vegetation respond to hydrogeomorphic constraints? (ii) How, and to what extent, do established engineer plants affect fluvial geomorphology? We studied these questions through a nested multi-scale approach from landscape pattern to plant trait scales on the dynamic wandering Allier River (France). We tested the applicability of the method of photogrammetry to quantify the response and the effect of riparian vegetation and biogeomorphic feedbacks at different spatio-temporal scales (i.e. corridor, alluvial bar and individual). At the corridor scale, we searched for the topographic signature of riparian vegetation in the landscape, using photogrammetric and LiDAR data. At the intermediate alluvial bar scale, we investigated the aptitude of three dominant pioneer riparian Salicaceae species (P. nigra, S. purpurea and S. alba) to establish and to act as ecosystem engineers by trap¬ping fine sediment. At the finest, plant trait scale, we quantified the relation between response trait attributes of young P. nigra plants and their exposure to three different levels of mechanical stress (a highly exposed bar-head, a less exposed bar-tail, a chute channel). We identified some difficulties or failures to properly apply photogrammetry in biogeomorphic feedback studies. However, photogrammetry appeared as a useful tool to quantify a set of relevant parameters to respond to fundamental research questions concerning biogeomorphic feedbacks at the three nested spatial scales. At the broadest, the topographic signature of vegetation was not easy to capture because of the complex shifting mosaic of landforms of the Allier River. However, by focusing on more connec¬ted, restricted areas (i.e. alluvial bars), the signature of vegetation could be captured. It seems to increase with increasing vegetation height corresponding to the evolutionary phases of the fluvial biogeomorphic succession (FBS) model. At the intermediate, alluvial bar scale, biogeomorphic feedbacks could be well identified. The capacity of riparian plants to establish and act as ecosystem engineers depended both on species and their physiognomy, their age and their location on alluvial bars. At the finest, individual plant scale, we captured the contrasting morphological and biomechanical response of P. nigra to variable mechanical stress exposure from a trait perspective. In all hierarchical levels, scale-related biogeomorphic feedbacks were detected and described in a conceptual model. The three scales were considered as cycles composed of four different phases, which can have a variable temporality. The broadest spatio-temporal scale represents the evolution over several decades of the landscape mosaic resulting from the balance between constructive (vegetation establishment, growth and succession) and destruc¬tive (floods) forces. [...]

La présente analyse est ciblée sur la transition entre les phases géomorphologiques, pionnières et biogéomorphologiques décrites par le concept de succession biogeomorphologique fluviale d’une rivière sablo-graveleuse de plaine, la Loire moyenne. L’étude se focalise sur la reproduction sexuée et la survie (dans leur premiers stades, au cours des crues) de deux espèces de Salicacées : Populus nigra L. et Salix alba L. sur une barre sédimentaire et repose sur des approches in- et ex-situ. La dynamique hydro-sédimentaire d’une barre forcée influence le potentiel de survie des semis des ligneux pionniers. Les semis présentent des adaptations morphologiques différentes en fonction des conditions sédimentaires de germination modulant leur potentiel de survie. Trois modèles conceptuels sont proposés : (i) dynamique d’une barre forcée en crue, (ii) évolution longitudinale des processus de mortalité des semis selon le granoclassement amont-aval, (iii) vitesse d’évolution d’une barre forcée vers une île pionnière initiée par l’installation de semis de ligneux pionniers et archivage sédimentaire associé dans une rivière sablo-graveleuse de plaine
The present study is focused on the three first stages: geomorphic, pioneer and biogeomorphic of the Fluvial Biogeomorphological Succession applied to a sandy-gravel bed lowland river: the Loire River (in its middle reaches). This work is based on both an in and ex situ approach. It analyses the recruitment and survival during their first stages of growth of two Salicaceae trees: Populus nigra L. and Salix alba L. developed on a non-migrating (forced) bar. The dynamics of this bar influences the survival potential of seedlings during floods. The seedlings adapt morphologically according to the sedimentary structure, and as a consequence, modify their survival potential. Three conceptual models detail: (i) the dynamics of a mid-channel forced bar during floods, (ii) the longitudinal evolution of the mortality of seedlings induced by the downstream fining of sediments, (iii) the sediment archiving and time needed to reach a pioneer island state from a non-migrating vegetated bar

abstract: Ephemeral streams in Arizona that are perpendicularly intersected by the Central Arizona Project (CAP) canal have been altered due to partial or complete damming of the stream channel. The dammed upstream channels have experienced decades long cycles of sediment deposition and waterlogging during storm events causing the development of "green-up" zones. This dissertation examines the biogeomorphological effects of damming ephemeral streams caused by the CAP canal by investigating: (1) changes in the preexisting spatial cover of riparian vegetation and how these changes are affected by stream geometry; (2) green-up initiation and evolution; and (3) changes in plant species and community level changes. To the author's knowledge, this is the only study that undertakes an interdisciplinary approach to understanding the environmental responses to anthropogenically-altered ephemeral stream channels. The results presented herein show that vegetation along the upstream section increased by an average of 200,872 m2 per kilometer of the CAP canal over a 28 year period. Vegetation growth was compared to channel widths which share a quasi-linear relationship. Remote sensing analysis of Landsat TM images using an object-oriented approach shows that riparian vegetation cover gradually increased over 28 years. Field studies reveal that the increases in vegetation are attributed to the artificial rise in local base-level upstream created by the canal, which causes water to spill laterally onto the desert floor. Vegetation within the green-up zone varies considerably in comparison to pre-canal construction. Changes are most notable in vegetation community shifts and abundance. The wettest section of the green-up zone contains the greatest density of woody plant stems, the greatest vegetation volume, and a high percentage of herbaceous cover. Vegetation within wetter zones changed from a tree-shrub to a predominantly tree-herb assemblage, whereas desert shrubs located in zones with intermediate moisture have developed larger stems. Results from this study lend valuable insight to green-up processes associated with damming ephemeral streams, which can be applied to planning future canal or dam projects in drylands. Also, understanding the development of the green-up zones provide awareness to potentially avoiding flood damage to infrastructure that may be unknowingly constructed within the slow-growing green-up zone.
Dissertation/Thesis
Ph.D. Geography 2014

Long-term perspectives on the evolution of river deltas have provided useful knowledge capable of responding to pending questions related to the ongoing climate and environmental changes. Increasing utilization pressure on delta environments has necessitated increased attention to protect the socio-economic and ecological values. As a result, multiple local initiatives have been designed, aimed at mitigating environmental deterioration and implementing adaptive measures, but many such initiatives have shown limited success. This thesis uses a case study of Save River delta in Mozambique to explore the relation between geomorphological evolution and socio-ecological system dynamics in delta environments. In addition, key environmental variables that concern the society today are highlighted and discussed in a management perspective. The results of the study show the development of Save River delta from the mid-Holocene to the present. The geomorphological settings of the delta suggest a faulted coastline over which subsequent deposition of fluvial sediments has formed a protruding delta front. Between c. 3000 and 1300 years ago, fine-grained sediments accumulated on top of the delta-front in the proximal part of the delta. This type of material was deposited under intertidal conditions and supported the formation of mangrove habitat. The geographical distribution of the mangrove deposit was driven by successive stages of back-barrier swamp formation and sea-level change as the delta evolved. From c. 1300 years ago, the river delta started to receive fluvial sediments from pulses of floods forming an alluvial floodplain. These sediments have accumulated mainly on the fine-grained mangrove wetland deposit. All the geomorphological features have evolved in a shoreward-shifting pattern over time. Centennial to decadal changes observed in the delta have followed a predictable geomorphological pattern, which is also part of the millennial evolution. The mangrove system, the base for the socio-economic system, is consequently strongly affected by the geomorphological development of the area. An increasing sensitivity of socio-ecological systems to environmental stressors, e.g. floods, cyclones and erosion, has motivated multiple initiatives to work towards a sustainable management of delta environments. This thesis highlights the need for interplay between geomorphology and ecology, considering both long- and short-term dynamics of delta environments. Hitherto, management initiatives have been concentrated on fragmented interventions of controlling water flow, which have disrupted the natural dynamics by obstructing the sedimentation-erosion cycle. To change this trend, coastal planners need to consider the significance of natural processes, e.g. cyclones, floods, erosion and accretion, for the long-term ecological and social sustainability of delta environments.

At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: Manuscript. Paper 2. Manuscript. Paper 3: Manuscript. Paper 4: Manuscript.

Meandering rivers and associated vegetation communities are highly dynamic systems that interact through various geomorphic and successional processes. However, much is still unknown about these interactions. Studies that focus on system integration rather than examining fluvial-related and vegetation dynamics individually will benefit science and the management of river systems. Tree communities in riparian areas, although consisting mainly of bottomland hardwood species, can be very diverse. Diversity has been linked to environmental influences such as meander migration, and changes in elevation and soil texture. This study focused on a single meander bend of the lower Trinity River in southeast Texas. The purpose of this research was to examine interactions between soil texture variation and the establishment and succession of riparian tree communities, as such interactions contribute to the formation of complex riparian landscapes. A bend-scale approach was utilized to provide a detailed study of vegetation pattern and of soil texture resulting from sedimentation processes, to examine for any relationships between them. Aerial imagery was used to assist in interpreting patterns of vegetation succession. The field portion of the study collected species and size class data on trees and soil samples for textural analysis. These data were analyzed separately to understand variations in tree communities and soils, but also together, to determine any relationships between soil texture and what tree communities are able to establish. Mean annual flow data from gauges upstream and downstream of the site were analyzed for changes in flow following dam construction upstream, as river regulation could potentially alter the vegetation establishment regime. Results showed five distinct communities or zones of vegetation. Soils on the site were strongly skewed toward finer sands and high silt and clay content. Zone locations and community structure were not directly related to soil texture; however, given species had clear relationships of relative density or dominance with specific soil textures. No changes in flow were noted between pre- and post- dam construction periods, indicating that the riparian system at this site may operate under near-natural conditions. Further studies in species-soil texture interactions, and for rare and invasive species in particular, may prove beneficial in improving understanding of the complex functioning of riparian systems and in providing valuable information for their management and restoration.