Tesis sobre el tema "Antisocial behaviour"

Antisocial behaviour is a common and significant problem. This thesis focuses on the causal role of antisocial cognition in antisocial behaviour during late childhood and adolescence and comprises three parts. Part I is a systematic review and narrative synthesis of studies examining the causal nature of the antisocial cognition-antisocial behaviour relationship in older children and adolescents. Whilst the included studies generally support the existence of a reciprocal relationship between antisocial cognition and antisocial behaviour and suggest that antisocial cognition might constitute a causal mechanism of antisocial behaviour in adolescence, more high-quality research is needed to elucidate the causal role of antisocial cognition in antisocial behaviour. Part II is an empirical study that uses data from the Systemic Therapy for at Risk Teens study and mediation analysis to examine the extent that one aspect of antisocial cognition, namely beliefs and attitudes supporting peer conflict, explains two robust findings in the antisocial literature known as the peer influence effect and peer selection effect. The results suggest that beliefs and attitudes supporting peer conflict could constitute a causal mechanism underlying these effects. Part III is a critical appraisal that discusses some of the challenges associated with using mediation analysis to establish causal mechanisms in the study of antisocial behaviour and highlights some potential solutions to these problems with respect to the research questions addressed in the empirical paper in Part II of this thesis.

Social concern about deviant, delinquent and disorderly behaviour has a long history in the UK. Propelled by the New Labour government’s Crime and Disorder Act 1998, the ‘antisocial behaviour agenda’ reframed the problem and constructed a punitive solution (Newburn, 2007). While in recent years Scottish policy has diverged from the punitive rhetoric established in Westminster, the ‘antisocial’ individual continues to be conceptualised as part of a disruptive minority that fails to conform to societal norms of behaviour. This antisocial minority has, invariably, come to be associated with young people and, in particular, young people from ‘disadvantaged’ socio-economic circumstances. While there is a growing body of empirical research on this topic, most has focused on young people’s relationship to antisocial behaviour in terms of their role as victim or as perpetrator. Alternatively, studies have evaluated how young people experience specific policy interventions. The principal aim of this doctoral research is to shift away from attempting to explain why young people become involved in antisocial behaviour and instead explore the diverse ways they define, experience and relate to it. Its gaze, therefore, is upon young people’s everyday interactions with antisocial behaviour and, in so doing, seeks to produce a more rounded understanding of young lives. The research was based within ‘Robbiestoun’ (a pseudonym): a predominantly social housing estate in the suburbs of a Scottish city and, as such, was able to situate young people’s experiences of antisocial behaviour alongside their experiences of living in a ‘disadvantaged’ socio-economic place. It employed participatory ethnographic methods to engage with a range of young people across multiple research sites. The empirical analysis found that understandings of what is, and is not, normal behaviour were fundamental to young people’s relationship with the antisocial. Social and physical disorder was a regular occurrence, and for many, it was an established, even normal, part of everyday life. Nonetheless, young people were aware of external categorisations of Robbiestoun and its residents as ‘abnormal’, an identity which most young people resisted and challenged. Young people’s behaviour in public spaces was similarly contested. Professionals (and many adults) had clear ideas about what constituted normal, social behaviour and these frequently conflicted with those held by young people. Such conflict was most evident for those young people actively engaged in criminal and antisocial acts. Not only was antisocial was a label these groups identified with, but they also rationalised their involvement in antisocial behaviour as an expected, and indeed necessary, part of growing up in Robbiestoun. The research revealed that young people utilised a range of strategies, techniques and rationales which enabled them to navigate the area’s ‘abnormal’ identity and ‘get on’ with ‘normal’ life. Such tactics were not universal across Robbiestoun, but rather varied according to young people’s own behavioural standards and social norms. The research concludes by arguing that the different relationships young people have to antisocial behaviour were, in fact, expressions of economic inequality, poverty and material disadvantage. This is an important point, but one not adequately addressed by policy makers. Rather than pursuing policy objectives based on the pursuit of ‘correct’ social values and norms, it is contended that more attention must be given the role of local norms in shaping young people’s definitions of, and relationships to, antisocial behaviour. Only then can a more rounded understanding of everyday lives in a disadvantaged place be developed and, in turn, workable solutions be found and delivered.

In an effort to further understand the contribution of maladaptive personality characteristics to the expression of distinct forms of antisocial behaviour during adolescence, this study examined links between personality disorder traits, physical and social aggression, and nonaggressive antisocial behaviour over one year. A community sample of adolescents (n=182) completed self-reports of physical and social aggression and nonaggressive antisocial behaviour during the summer between the 10th and 11th grades. Participants’ parents (n=192) completed a measure assessing the adolescents’ personality disorder traits when the youths were 15 years of age in 2009, and their teachers (n=154) completed measures of the frequency of adolescents’ perpetration of physical and social aggression during the following academic year. Analyses, conducted separately for boys and girls, explored the links between broad personality disorder factors and facet-level traits as predictors of teacher- and self-rated physical and social aggression, and nonaggressive antisocial behaviour. Results of a series of multiple regression analyses revealed that disagreeableness emerged as a strong predictor of teacher-rated social aggression, self-rated physical aggression and nonaggressive antisocial behaviour in girls but not boys. Broad personality disorder traits did not predict self-rated social aggression. Findings from the facet level revealed that, in contrast with previous research, associations were not found between aspects of disagreeableness, emotional instability, compulsivity and nonaggressive antisocial behaviour in boys. Further, facets within the introversion factor strongly predicted self-rated physical and teacher-rated social aggression for girls only. Findings highlight the importance of examining both higher- and lower-order maladaptive personality traits and considering gender differences in trait expression, in understanding the perpetration of distinct forms of adolescent antisocial behaviour.

A number of studies have demonstrated a social gradient in antisocial behaviour, with children from low-socioeconomic backgrounds exhibiting more behavioural difficulties than those from high-socioeconomic families. However, this relationship has not always been reported and estimates of association vary in magnitude across the studies. Moreover, a range of studies have highlighted the indirect nature of this relationship and examined potential mediating variables. It remains unclear whether socioeconomic status (SES) presents similar associations with a range of heterogeneous forms of antisocial behaviour in terms of their gradient and underlying mechanisms. Three studies were conducted to address the nature of the relationship between family SES and children’s antisocial behaviour. In Study 1 (Chapter 2), an extensive systematic review and meta-analysis reported that SES can be considered a major correlate of broadly conceptualised antisocial behaviour and the strength of this relationship is a function of the type of informant and the construct under investigation; stronger relationships were found when antisocial behaviour was reported by parents or teachers, and when callous-unemotional traits were considered as an outcome. Study 2 (Chapter 3) investigated the level, direction, and homogeneity of the impact of household income upon different types of antisocial behaviour in a series of structural equation models using the B-CAMHS 2004 dataset. This study showed that income gradients are similar across a range of antisocial behaviours (such as irritability, aggressive behaviours, callous-unemotional traits), and that income may lead to greater behavioural differences in the mid-income range, and less variation at low- and high-income extremes. Study 3 (Chapter 4) concerns models delineating potential mechanisms indicating that unhealthy family functioning, neighbourhood disadvantage, stressful life events and children’s reading and spelling abilities mediate the relationship between income and antisocial behaviour. The findings arising from the three studies described and their collective contribution are considered in terms of current literature; further theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Thesis (M.A. (Clinical Psychology)) --University of Limpopo, 2010
This study examined the relationship between parenting styles, parental punitiveness and family structure, and antisocial behaviour, as well as the influences of parental educational levels on respondents’ antisocial behaviour. Participants consisted of 227 male and 140 female students from the University of Limpopo, whose ages ranged from 17 to 24 years. Families were classified into one of four parenting styles (namely, authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful) on the basis of respondents’ ratings of their parents on two parental dimensions: warmth/acceptance and supervision/control. The respondents were then compared with antisocial behaviour. The results indicated that the difference between the four groups of parenting styles did not reach statistical significance on antisocial behaviour. As well as the relationship between family structures and antisocial behaviour did not reach statistical significance. However, there were significant and positive relationships between parental punitiveness and antisocial behaviour. There were significant relationships between parental educational levels and antisocial behaviour. Parental warmth and supervision were also significantly and negatively related to the respondents’ antisocial behaviour. Finally, the implications and limitations of the study are described.

Rewards are fundamental in directing our behaviour, yet maladaptive reward processing can lead to risky and impaired decision making. The nature of reward processing in individuals who display antisocial behaviour is poorly understood, particularly in adolescents. The present thesis examined reward processing in young male offenders involved in the criminal justice system. A multi-method approach to the examination of reward was adopted, using personality, neuropsychological and psychophysiological approaches. The heterogeneity of antisocial behaviour was explored by using self-report and official criminal records. The first study explored reward traits in young offenders (n=85) and non-offending controls (n=50). Trait reward drive was heightened in offenders and reward seeking traits positively predicted antisocial behaviour measures, while the response to reward was negatively associated with psychopathic traits and conduct problems. The second chapter focussed on neuropsychological and behavioural measures of reward and the results showed that young offenders (n=56) and matched controls (n=44) both demonstrated an increased preference for reward. However, reward seeking became deficient resulting in increased punishment for the young offenders only. The third study provided evidence that young offenders (n=33) are able to condition to reward but not to fear. The fourth study (n=66) explored descriptively the nature of substance use in young offenders; cannabis and alcohol were used frequently by a number of offenders and aspects of this behaviour were related to increased offence rate, and reward and psychopathic traits. In summary, the findings showed that young offenders differed from controls in terms of personality traits, neuropsychological and emotional functioning. Reward processing was altered in young offenders as a group compared to controls, but reward processing was not consistently associated with any particular dimension of antisocial behaviour. The results also supported past research on the importance of punishment insensitivity in antisocial behaviour. The research has extended the literature on biobehavioural factors associated with antisocial behaviour in adolescent offenders in the community and emphasises the importance of examining multiple dimensions of both reward and antisocial behaviour. The implications of these findings for policy and practitioners working with young offenders were discussed.

Prior research addressing children's antisocial and prosocial behaviours have predominantly used a predetermined set of criteria which have been devised by adults. This psychological approach has lead to the perception of children as an individual phenomenon, using a dichotomy of behaviours consistently regardless of their immediate social environment. Therefore an argument is made for the use of an inductive, sociological approach in order to gain understanding of the everyday social interactions which children engage in. Conversation analysis and membership categorization analysis (Sacks, 1992a, 1992b) were employed to transcribe audio and video footage taken of thirteen, four-year-old children in their primary school playground in mid-Wales. The detailed and iterative analysis found that children employ specific resources to organise the social order of their playground. These resources include the use of name calling; access tools; possessive pronouns and collective proterms; reference to gender; physical gestures and the use of playground huts. The resources were used in the interaction of excluding or affiliating with peers, and also in the disaffiliation of peers where no further interaction was produced. These actions worked to produce different outcomes but were often used simultaneously in the co-construction of context. The wider findings which emanated from the detailed analysis identified the issues of sequences in children's establishment of social order; the context free and context sensitive nature of affiliation, disaffiliation and exclusion; issues of power; verbal actions supported by physical gestures; children's use of their environment; exclusive dyads; and children's social competence. The thesis holds implications for practice where practitioners can acknowledge the complex, multidimensional aspects of children's social organisation processes in order to avoid stereotyping. This study extends research which uses conversation and membership categorization analysis in the area of childhood studies which is important as this methodology affords unique access into children's worlds.

The aim of this thesis was to examine the role of biobehavioural and social variables in explaining adolescent antisocial behaviour. One study examined neuropsychological functioning in 115 young offenders. A more extensive second study was carried out on a sub-sample of the original young offender group, consisting of 48 participants. This second study used more detailed neuropsychological assessments and assessed participants' responses to emotional stimuli. Emotional functioning was assessed in 3 ways: by recording electrodermal responses during a fear conditioning task, by recording the eye-blink startle reflex while participants passively viewed different types of affective pictures, and by examining facial affect recognition. It was expected, first, that antisocial teenagers would be characterised by a sensation-seeking personality, neuropsychological impairments as evidenced by executive functioning tasks, low IQ, poor electrodermal fear conditioning, and reduced startle amplitudes, compared to age and sex matched controls. Second, it was expected that biobehavioural risk factors would interact with social risk factors in explaining ASB, and that social factors would moderate the biobehavioural - ASB relationship. We found that young offenders differed from matched controls in terms of personality traits, and neuropsychological and emotional functioning. With respect to the second hypothesis, it was found that biobehavioural risk factors did not interact with social variables in explaining different types of offending behaviour, contrary to previous studies. Specifically, the research findings indicated that young offenders were characterised by lower IQ and specific neuropsychological deficits in terms of working memory, planning and decision-making. Additionally, they had problems with the learning, processing, and recognition of emotions. Finally, we showed that different risk factors were associated with different types of offending, with both social and biobehavioural variables predicting prolific and persistent offending, and only biobehavioural factors predicting severe offending. The implications of these findings for policy and practitioners working with young offenders were discussed.

This thesis examined the regulatory role of emotion in antisocial behaviour using Bandura’s (1991) social cognitive theory of moral thought and action as a framework. In Chapter 2, moral disengagement was associated with reduced, and empathy with increased, negative affective reactions to unpleasant images depicting players hurt or mistreated. In Chapter 3, an initial study yielded a positive link between moral disengagement and antisocial behaviour which was partially mediated by anticipated guilt. In a second study, manipulating attribution of blame (mechanism of moral disengagement) led to reduced unpleasant affective reactions to images depicting aggressive content. Moreover, attribution of blame led to greater likelihood to aggress which was partly mediated by a reduction in anticipated guilt. Chapter 4 revealed that inducing empathy led to more unpleasant affective reactions to antisocial conduct as well as reduced the likelihood to aggress, which was mediated by an enhancement in anticipated guilt. In the final experiment, empathy reduced aggression following provocation during a competitive reaction time task that was partially mediated by guilt, but not anger. Collectively, these results provide support for the role of emotion in regulating antisocial behaviour, and indicate that moral disengagement may negate and empathy may enhance this self-regulatory mechanism.

This research provides a quantitative analysis of data collected by the MRC funded 'Twins Early Development Study - Environment' also known as the E-Risk study. The E-Risk study is a national sample of 1116 families with twin children who were born in 1994-95. The families were home-visited in 1999-2000 when the children were 5 years old. Using a multi-disciplinary approach the research aims to build knowledge about risk factors and protective factors for childhood antisocial behaviour. Our analysis is fourfold. First, we examine how far distinct measures of parenting behaviour and maternal attitude impact on child antisocial behavioural outcomes. We define parenting behaviour as parental discipline, and measure it by our variable frequency of smacking. Maternal attitude is measured by four variables which assess maternal expressed emotion: maternal warmth, maternal positive comments, maternal negative comments and maternal negativity. Parenting behaviour and maternal attitude are examined from a 'between' family perspective. Second, we extend our analysis beyond the parent-child dyad and examine how far the wider context within which the child develops (Bronfenbrenner 1979), for example, family structure, marital conflict, poverty, and parental antisocial behaviour, impact on child antisocial behaviour outcomes. Third, we introduce our statistically significant parenting and contextual variables into a model to identify some of the key risk factors for antisocial behaviour in children aged 5 years old. Frequency of Smacking relates to both parents smacking of children, whilst maternal attitude measures the mother's attitude only. Lastly, we examine how far our four contextual factors impact on parenting practices. We continue by examining to what extent parenting behaviour and maternal attitude mediates the effect of these contextual factors on child antisocial behaviour at age 5 years old. Our research utilises the E-Risk sampling frame which oversampled younger mothers and we examine the results in terms of a weighted sample which is representative of all mothers and is referred to as 'all' mothers, a younger mother sample and an older mother sample.

Antisocial behaviour in childhood and adolescence is associated with a range of negative outcomes in later life, which are costly to both society and to the antisocial individual themselves. Because the effectiveness of current interventions appears to be limited, it has been argued that treatment efforts should focus more on designing interventions that target neuropsychological correlates of antisocial behaviour. Two important correlates are impaired facial emotion recognition and empathy; these deficits have been proposed to cause antisocial behaviour because they involve an inability to understand and appropriately respond to the distress of others.

Antisocial behaviour and depression co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. Different mechanisms may account for the association including shared risk factors, shared genetic effects and causal developmental pathways from one trait to another. Identifying mechanisms involved in the association of antisocial behaviour and depression is imperative given that this might indicate approaches to treating these serious disorders. Many studies have addressed cross-sectional associations, with limited research on the longitudinal association. In this thesis, three studies were carried out to investigate the association between antisocial behaviour and depressed mood at three different time points (mean ages: 15, 17, and 20 years). The analyses are based on the G1219 longitudinal study of 3,640 adolescent twins and siblings. In the first study (Chapter 2), longitudinal associations were examined to investigate the directionality of the association between the two traits using cross-lagged autoregressive pathway models. Strong cross-sectional associations were found, in addition to significant cross-trait association from depressed mood to oppositionality. In the second study (Chapter 3), a multivariate genetically informative design (Cholesky decomposition) was used to investigate these strong cross-sectional associations. Overlapping genetic effects were found between antisocial behaviour and depressed mood. Considering the results of the second study, the third study (Chapter 4) investigated the role of functional variants of candidate genes (GNβ3, 5HTTLPR and COMT) in the association between both traits. Only GNβ3 was associated with depressed mood, however none of the candidate genes examined showed associations with both antisocial behaviour and depressed mood. Overall, the findings from the first two studies supported phenotypic and genetic overlaps. However, results of third study did not provide evidence on the overlap between the traits. Further replication with additional genetic variants in different age groups is pertinent to uncover the mechanisms involved in the association.

Early onset of antisocial behaviour is one of the most robust predictors of persistent offending across the life course. In broad terms, there are two pathways that follow from this early onset: persistence of extreme antisocial behaviour and desistence from extreme antisocial behaviour. Understanding the pathways away from extreme antisocial behaviour provides useful information in relation to intervention in the lives of those who are at risk for offending. The methodology is guided by Moffitt's dual typology of life-course persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour (Moffitt et al 1996). Moffitt's typological approach also includes a group known as the ‘Recovery’ or 'low-level chronic' group (Moffitt 2006). This research focuses on those individuals who exhibited extreme antisocial behaviour in early childhood but by adolescence were no longer classified as extreme: the Recovery group. The data are drawn from the Mater-University Study of Pregnancy (MUSP); a prospective longitudinal study of mothers and their children from the pre-natal period to when the study child was fourteen years of age. The full sample contains 7223 mothers and their children. The MUSP study includes data which allows for the identification of childhood and adolescent antisocial behaviour, as well as a range of variables of key theoretical interest in the study of antisocial behaviour. Moffitt’s typological groupings were replicated using the MUSP data and a series of mean level comparisons between the groups were conducted. Subsequently series of models were estimated to identify the variables which significantly predicted recovery and also to test for gender differences. Findings highlight that those children with an early onset of antisocial behaviour (LCP and Recovery groups) come from the most adverse circumstances when compared to the rest of the sample. However further analyses highlighted that although the Recovery group were faring worse than the majority of the sample in many ways, they were still faring better than the individuals in the LCP group. The models showed that the individual and peer characteristics measured in adolescence were more strongly related to recovery from antisocial behaviour than factors measured earlier in life. Model comparisons also showed that separate models were required for males and females when predicting recovery.

The present study firstly aimed to identify children with delayed reading who were missing the component skills of decoding fluency and who also displayed antisocial behaviour in the classroom. It also aimed to replicate with them an intervention designed by Church, Nixon, Zintl and Williams (2005). The study finally aimed to explore the question of whether children who have both a reading delay and a disruptive behaviour disorder require a reinforcement scheme to maintain their engagement in learning activities. Six participants worked with same-age peer tutors on specially-designed practice activities for approximately 20 minutes a day, four times a week, for 8-18 sessions. Improvement in decoding fluency and prose reading fluency was tracked for each child throughout the intervention. Results showed that the six participants gained, on average, sixteen months on their age-equivalent score for reading rate. Decoding fluency scores increased from a pre-test average of 16 correct graphemes per minute to 32 correct graphemes per minute at the post-test measure. Reading accuracy improved by an average of five months and reading comprehension by an average of six months. The gains in reading rate are most likely due to the practice opportunities afforded by the testing procedures as decoding fluency scores did not improve enough to have had a direct impact on the learners’ prose reading ability. Implications for remedial reading interventions with children with behaviour problems are discussed.

Adolescence is a developmental period typically characterised by increasing levels of risk-taking and antisocial behaviour (ASB), and these behavioural changes coincide with physical, neurological, psychological, and social maturational changes and transitions (Crone, van Duijvenvoorde, & Peper, 2016; Steinberg, 2010a). There is an emerging understanding of the role neuropsychological factors, including executive functioning (EF), play in the expression of risk-taking and ASB during adolescence. EF abilities follow a protracted course of development into adolescence, and are associated with improving regulatory and cognitive control capacities as they mature (Diamond, 2013). There is a significant body of research highlighting a robust link between EF impairments and engagement in ASB (Morgan & Lilienfeld, 2000). In contrast, there have been few attempts to explore how developmentally immature EF may be associated with increasing rates of participation in ASB during adolescence and early adulthood in typically developing youth. The aim of this thesis was to integrate criminological and neuropsychological perspectives to examine the intersection between EF and ASB during the developmental period of adolescence. Four studies were conducted to explore the links between EF and ASB. The first study was a meta-analysis to quantify the association between EF and ASB and summarise the current state of the research literature. Results confirmed a robust association between EF and ASB that held across varied study methodologies. Significant variation in effect size magnitude was observed across EF measures and operationalisations, suggesting that there is specificity in the association between EF and ASB. The second study documented the development of a self-report measure of ASB, and summarised the involvement in a range of antisocial acts for a sample of 404 typically developing youth (262 females) aged 17 to 22-years-old. Results suggested that ASB was best measured as a multidimensional construct, and that engagement in ASB was widespread and therefore appeared relatively normative for typically developing youth. The third study examined the developmental progression and structure of EF for an age-stratified cross-sectional sample of 129 typically developing youth (67 females) aged 17 to 22-years-old. Participant’s EF abilities were assessed using a battery of paper-and-pencil and computerised EF measures. Results indicated that most EFs were functionally mature at the time of assessment, although there was some evidence to suggest that inhibitory control abilities continued to improve across late adolescence into early adulthood. Further results suggested that EF was best represented as a multidimensional construct of five distinct but related components, which included a component related to the operation of EF under motivational/affective conditions (i.e., “hot” EF). The fourth study examined the links between EF, risk taking and self-reported engagement in ASB during late adolescence and early adulthood using the same typically developing sample as the third study. Results indicated that levels of risktaking and self-reported ASB appeared stable across the age-range studied, suggesting that the age period may have represented a heightened period of involvement in these behaviours. Contrary to hypotheses, better performance on some EF measures was associated with greater involvement in some forms of ASB. Overall, results suggested that the role of EF in ASB might be different for typically developing youth compared to clinical samples of antisocial youth. In summary, this thesis makes a unique contribution to existing research by examining the links between EF and ASB in a sample of typically developing youth. Results provide evidence that engagement in ASB is widespread for typically developing youth, and that the role of EF in explaining these behaviours differs from pathologically antisocial youth.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy in Clinical Psychology (PhD ClinPsych)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
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Bibliography: pages 211-235.
This study looks at the role of statutory social work practice within the framework of current South African legislation. The implications of this legislation for persons exhibiting antisocial behaviour were examined in the light of institutional and community-based management options. An overview of the literature is presented in order to place the concepts of institutional care, community-based options and legal reform in perspective. These literature studies provided the framework for an exploratory survey of 70 purposely sampled statutory social work clients, with a view to re-examining institutionalization as a possible contributing factor in their antisocial behaviour. Using a structured interview schedule, the Researcher elicited information concerning the respondents' histories of institutionalization, their evaluations of its effects and other possible factors contributing to their antisocial behaviour. The outcome of the study confirmed the major research question, namely that institutionalization could be regarded as a contributing factor in antisocial behaviour. Conversely, the findings reflected major literature surveys which stated that institutionalization has an adaptive potential for certain client systems. Results flowing from both negative and positive factors are mediated by the characteristics of the institution; by those who are institutionalized, and by other factors which precede, coexist with or follow institutionalization. The study supports the preferential use of community-based alternatives in statutory social work as well as providing guidelines for institutional reform and future research.

A travers cette thèse, nous étudions l'envie et explorons l'impact de cette dernière sur le bien-être et le comportement individuel. Cette thèse se compose de quatre chapitres. Dans un premier chapitre, nous définissons l'envie en nous référant à des travaux réalisés en philosophie et en psychologie. Nous concluons que l'envie est une émotion déclenchée par la prise de conscience d'un attribut désiré, possédé par autrui et qui se caractérise par une douloureuse tristesse incluant des sentiments d'hostilité. Ensuite nous élaborons un protocole expérimental dont l'objectif est d'étudier l'impact de l'envie sur le bien-être et sur le comportement individuel. Nous capturons l'envie à travers des méthodes d'évaluation subjective et nous examinons si l'envie incite les sujets à réduire la dotation de leur partenaire malgré le coût personnel induit par la réduction. Nous observons que l'envie est fortement présente mais n'explique pas pourquoi les sujets réduisent la dotation des autres. Les inégalités de dotations mesurées en termes relatifs modulent les décisions des sujets à réduire la dotation d'autrui. Dans le chapitre trois, nous nous intéressons à l'impact de l'effort sur l'envie. Pour cela nous élaborons deux traitements. Dans un traitement, les sujets reçoivent des dotations de manière aléatoire alors que dans l'autre traitement les dotations sont attribuées en fonction de la performance de chaque sujet lors d'une tache effectuée avant l'expérience. Nous trouvons que l'effort n'affecte pas la satisfaction des sujets mais partiellement leur comportement : les sujets ne sont pas plus nombreux a réduire les gains des autres mais ils en réduisent une plus grande partie. Enfin, nous nous intéressons à un type de sujets particulier dans lequel l'envie est susceptible d'être ressentie fortement : les sportifs. Nous concluons que la pratique d'activités sportives pousse les agents à ressentir de l'envie et les incite à entreprendre des actions de réduction
Throughout this dissertation we aim at identifying envy and investigating its impacts on both individual well-being and behaviour. This dissertation consists of four chapters. The first chapter is devoted to the definition of envy by referring to both researches on philosophy and psychology. We convey that envy can be defined as an emotion triggered by the awareness of a desired attribute enjoyed by another person characterised by a painful sadness including feelings of hostility. In the second chapter, we implement an experiment so as to investigate the impact of envy on individual well-being and behaviour. We capture envy through referring to self-report methods and explore whether envy pushes subjects to reduce their opponent's endowment at a personal cost. We observe that envy is highly present but does not explain why subjects reduce others' income. Inequalities between subjects' endowments measured in relative terms modulate subjects' decisions to reduce others' income. In chapter three, we study how effort affects envy and whether the impact of envy on both individual well-being and behaviour is amplified or weakened by effort. To fulfil our purpose, we implement two different conditions. In one condition endowments are randomly attributed to subjects and in the other condition endowments are allocated according to each subject's performance in a task. We observe that effort does not affect subjects' satisfaction and partially their behaviour : subjects do not reduce more often their opponent's endowment but they cut a higher portion of their opponent's endowment when endowments are attributed according to individual effort. In the final chapter, we focus on a specific category of subjects in which envy is ought to be experienced intensively : subjects practicing sport activities. We observe that sport practice pushes subjects to experience envy and exerts them to engage in reduction decisions

Moffitt (1993) proposed two trajectories for the development of criminal behaviour; one was life-course-persistent offenders with long histories of developmental and behavioural problems and the other was normally developing adolescence-limited offenders who engaged in criminal behaviour for a brief period during the teen years. Moffitt suggested that adolescence-limited offenders mimicked the behaviour of their life-course-persistent contemporaries in order to access the trappings of adulthood, a sign of the “maturity gap” that is hypothesised to occur between physical maturity and social acceptance into adult roles. Consistent with this, Bukowskiet al. (2000) found support for an increased attractiveness of antisocial peers during the adolescent years. The goal of the present study was to examine how young adolescents believe others would view different kinds of behaviour. Subjects from a longitudinal study on low socioeconomic families in Christchurch, NZ, completed a questionnaire where they indicated what they believed others would think if they engaged in pro-social, unconventional, and antisocial behaviours. Adolescents rated how they thought parents, same-sex peers, and attractive opposite-sex peers would perceive the different behaviours, and also indicated how they would perceive the same behaviours in an opposite-sex peer. Results showed that, overall, the sample did not think others would approve of antisocial behaviour, and that they would not approve of antisocial behaviour in an opposite-sex friend. However, differences in perceived approval were found when comparisons were made between boys and girls, and across variations in parenting styles of the adolescent’s caregivers. Differences were also found across indicators of different developmental trajectories, such that those youth who are probably on the life-course persistent trajectory expected less disapproval of antisocial behaviour in others than youth who are probably not on that trajectory. These results are partially consistent with Moffitt’s theory.

Through a re-examination of the issue of moral panics, with particular reference to sociological work around ideas of ‘risk’ and a ‘culture of fear’, this thesis attempts to examine the emergence of the social problem of ‘antisocial behaviour’. Situated in part within the changing political terrain of the 1990s, the emergence of the politics of behaviour is related to the diminution of the human subject and the development of a therapeutic culture - both trends helping to lay the basis for an engagement by the political elite with the ‘vulnerable public’. These developments are traced through the 1980s and 1990s to illustrate the construction of the problem of ‘antisocial behaviour’, with particular reference made to the shift in left-wing thought from radical to ‘real’. Using the example of the Hamilton curfew in the west of Scotland, empirical research with adults and young people, and media coverage of this safety initiative, are examined to explore the idea of a ‘culture of fear’. The legitimation of the curfew justified by various claimsmakers is examined to indicate the emergence of the new ‘amoral’ absolute of safety. The experience of the curfew for the local people is also analysed and the contradictions between local concerns and those of the authority are contrasted. Finally, through exploring the changing meaning of the term ‘antisocial behaviour’ and its growing politicisation, the emergence of this social problem is related to the deterministic and managerial form of politics that emerged at the end of the 20th century.

Antisocial behaviour during adolescence can have grave consequences for young people, particularly when such behaviour leads to official contact with the criminal justice system. Numerous risk and promotive/protective factors have been identified by researchers. Often these are proximal influences such as individual characteristics or relationships with parents which have a strong, direct, and mostly immediate effect on outcomes. While the ways in which proximal factors influence antisocial activity are quite well established, a much smaller body of literature within Criminology (as well as associated fields such as Health), demonstrates that broader sociodemographic contexts also impact adolescent lives. These distal factors include contextual risks such as neighbourhood of residence, family SES, and cultural background. It has been difficult to establish in empirical research that the strong statistical relationship between structural characteristics such as social class and delinquency/crime can also be a direct relationship. Instead, the literature suggests that sociodemographic factors have an interactive and/or mediated effect on adolescent experiences, especially through effects on family functioning and parenting capabilities, the positive effects of which tend to be undermined by poverty and social exclusion. Testable theory-based models of the moderated mediation pathways of environmental and structural contexts are not particularly common in the literature on adolescent antisocial behaviours. The aim of this research is to explore how broad sociodemographic contexts affect adolescent involvement in antisocial behaviours. In line with bioecological theory, I posit that distal or macro variables related to environmental and social structural contexts affect proximal processes in a number of ways that lead to increases in the likelihood of antisocial activities. Because General Strain Theory (GST) proposes that strains increase the likelihood of crime due to the negative emotions which they evoke, I have adopted GST as an explanatory framework which is suitable for constructing and testing a moderated-mediation model for youth antisocial behaviours. Central to this thesis is the notion of cumulative sociodemographic risk. Risk factors tend to co-occur, and many adolescents are subjected to an accumulation of risks experienced simultaneously. Cumulative risk research has demonstrated that the likelihood of poor outcomes increases markedly as more and more risks co-occur. The literature on this phenomenon most often uses indices that count the number of risks experienced, with risks that are drawn from different domains, including individual, family, and social-structural grouped together. While this is useful to examine how increased risk exposure is related to outcomes, such an approach makes it difficult to explore the specific processes through which structural or sociodemographic stressors operate. I addressed this gap in the literature by constructing a cumulative index of risks related only to structural or social-environmental factors. I sourced data from 524 Australian youths aged 13 to 18 who responded to social media advertisements for participation, or who were registered with organisations providing rewards for survey completion. In order to ‘oversample’ adolescents likely to be exhibiting antisocial involvement, a subset of the study participants (n = 62) was made up of adolescents already exhibiting problematic behaviours and/or experiencing difficulties of some kind, to a level requiring assistance, resulting in them either being in contact with a Youth Service Agency, or attending an alternate schooling program. All participants completed a self-report survey that collected information on individual attributes (self-control, prosocial beliefs, empathy), emotional wellbeing (self-esteem, self-worth, life satisfaction, depressed feelings), social ties (social acceptance, school membership) and parenting relationships (parental attachment, knowledge, monitoring and availability). Antisocial behaviour of both self and friends during the previous 12-months was assessed using the 24-item scale utilised in 2006 in the Australian Healthy Neighbourhoods Study. This scale was adapted for Australian participants from the Communities That Care Youth Survey. Items in this scale assess antisocial behaviours, engagement in risk taking behaviours (such as drug and alcohol use) and deviant/criminal behaviours (such as truancy, theft, physical violence). With the influence of structural background characteristics being a key question in this study, information was also collected on several demographic and contextual variables. From this information participants were assigned cumulative sociodemographic risk scores ranging from 0 to 12, based on reported family size, family mobility, family structure, socioeconomic status, neighbourhood of residence, and Indigeneity. These scores were used to categorise youths as vulnerable or not vulnerable due to cumulative sociodemographic risk. As is frequently the case with data on antisocial behaviours, particularly where it consists of a count of antisocial acts, issues arose in relation to the modelling of a highly skewed outcome variable with an excess of zero values. I undertook an extensive investigation of suitable statistical approaches for highly skewed count data, including an in-depth exploration of model fit as a means of determining the optimal statistical distribution for my measure of antisocial behaviour. Consistent with much of the criminological literature in this area, a Negative Binomial Regression model (NBRM) was identified as the ‘least-worst’ solution, based simultaneously on statistical, theoretical, and practical considerations. As the notion of cumulative sociodemographic risk is relatively novel in the criminological literature, this aspect of the research was largely exploratory in nature. I aimed to present a picture of what constitutes cumulative sociodemographic vulnerability, how this phenomenon affects the lives of adolescents, and whether, why, and how it is related to an increased likelihood of antisocial behaviour. In exploring the ‘how’ I was particularly interested in the explanatory value of GST. I structured the overall investigation of these issues through three research questions: 1. How does cumulative sociodemographic risk influence adolescent lives? In responding to this question, I identified risk, promotive, and protective factors for poor youth outcomes according to cumulative sociodemographic vulnerability, thus providing insight into how cumulative sociodemographic risk affects individual attributes as well as proximal processes for male and female adolescents. Socio-demographically vulnerable youths exhibited lower levels of factors which research suggests should act protectively, including the individual characteristics of self-control, empathy, and prosocial beliefs, as well as lower levels of life satisfaction and school membership. In addition, sociodemographic vulnerability increased the likelihood of interaction with other adolescents who were also behaving antisocially, a known risk factor for antisocial involvement. Cumulative sociodemographic risk was associated with higher likelihoods of engaging in antisocial activities for both male and female adolescents. Socio-demographically vulnerable males (but not females) were also significantly more likely to use illicit substances and alcohol than their not-vulnerable counterparts. Vulnerable adolescents were more likely than non-vulnerable adolescents to engage in all categories of antisocial activity. The greatest differences in participation rates were observed for more serious offending, namely automotive crime, property crime, assault, and substance use, in contrast to acts of minor delinquency including truancy, shoplifting and stealing money. 2. Do predictors of adolescent antisocial behaviour differ according to cumulative sociodemographic risk status? Model fit analyses suggested that predictors of adolescent antisocial involvement during the previous year were best investigated utilising a hurdle model. My hurdle model first involved a logistic regression to determine predictors of absence/presence of antisocial behaviour, and then a truncated negative binomial regression to determine predictors of the extent of antisocial behaviour amongst those youths who reported some antisocial activity. The hurdle model analyses showed that cumulative sociodemographic vulnerability was related to differences in predictors of the absence/presence of antisocial behaviour. Specifically, while several individual and parenting characteristics predicted antisocial involvement for not-vulnerable adolescents, exposure to peer antisocial behaviour and the extent of sociodemographic risk overwhelmed other predictors of antisocial involvement for vulnerable youths. I found greater commonalities between vulnerability groups for predictors of the extent of antisocial behaviour for youths reporting some antisocial activity, with peer antisocial behaviour and parental monitoring being the strongest predictors. These findings suggest that while antisocial activity (particularly its extent) might be reduced for all youths through increased monitoring and reduced contact with antisocial peers, participation (vs non-participation) in antisocial behaviour amongst vulnerable adolescents is most strongly influenced by the extent of their vulnerability — something which is beyond the immediate control of these youths and their families, or prevention scientists. 3. Can the relationship between cumulative sociodemographic risk and adolescent antisocial behaviour be explained with a General Strain Theory (GST) model? Given the lack of theoretically based explanations for the impact of cumulative socioeconomic disadvantage on adolescent antisocial behaviour, I tested the applicability of a General Strain Theory (GST) model. This model included mediation of cumulative sociodemographic risk on adolescent antisocial behaviour through affective responses to sociodemographic strain. Two affective mediators of strain were tested. The first, depressed feelings, has shown mixed success as a mediator in previous strain research. The second, life satisfaction, has not previously been explored in the strain literature, but was considered to be an appropriate affective mediator due to its ability to capture a wide range of affective responses, thus reducing the likelihood of gender effects. Of these two mediators, only life satisfaction was found to be significant, partially mediating the relationship between cumulative risk and antisocial behaviours. In an extended moderated mediation model, I found several interactions that were consistent with predictions based on GST. Strong parenting relationships, better emotional wellbeing, and bonds with school acted protectively to reduce the effects of strain (cumulative sociodemographic risk) as well as the affective consequences of experiencing strain (life satisfaction). However other significant moderators did not fit with GST, with some findings suggesting that the possibility of reciprocal relationships over time should be tested using longitudinal data. Despite these inconsistencies, the pattern overwhelmingly revealed through the modelling was that the magnitude of the positive effects of factors that should be protective for adolescents reduced as levels of cumulative risk increased. Conclusion While society emphasises personal accountability in relation to youth offending, it is clear that environmental and structural contexts, which are beyond immediate control, have a powerful effect on adolescent lives. Cumulative sociodemographic risk increases the likelihood of experiencing more risk factors and fewer protective factors. Adolescents who are socio-demographically vulnerable not only engage in more antisocial acts, they participate in more serious delinquent behaviours. The extent of sociodemographic disadvantage is the strongest predictor of this antisocial involvement. Factors which act protectively in reducing the impact of the strain of disadvantage on the extent and seriousness of antisocial behaviour have reduced effects as cumulative sociodemographic risk increases. The influence of cumulative sociodemographic risk is pervasive and all-encompassing, suggesting that it should be more carefully measured and modelled in future criminological research. Some limitations are acknowledged in this research, most notably the use of cross-sectional data which has prevented the investigation of time-order in relationships between variables. Statistical issues in regard to the problematic nature of a highly skewed dataset have been addressed to the greatest extent possible within the bounds of a PhD study that is not primarily statistical in nature, but it is clear that further investigation using advanced analytic procedures is possible and desirable. Despite these limitations, the findings reported in this thesis have important implications for preventing and responding to youth antisocial activity. While there is much that can be done using data-driven, evidence-based strategies to tackle antisocial behaviour during the adolescent period, without some attention to the effects of structural and contextual factors these approaches are likely to fall short of their full potential. Further research is necessary to better understand the processes through which cumulative sociodemographic disadvantage affects adolescents, and the factors that are most influential in reducing its impact. Such understanding will facilitate the development of realistic and effective countermeasures for youths at the ‘sharp end’ of structural social inequality.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Griffith Law School
Arts, Education and Law
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The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic is not only a health crisis, but also shatters the socialand economic lives through regulations and social restrictions. As seen duringSARS 2002-2003, measures like social restrictions can impact behaviournegatively, leading to discrimination, stigmatisation and xenophobia. There is alack of studies on antisocial behaviour and crime during health crises, such aspandemics. Related studies on disaster and crime gave mixed results, with somesuggesting an increase in prosocial rather than antisocial behaviour. Using acriminological perspective, German news media from January 1, 2020 untilMarch 31, 2020 were analysed. These media sources were the tabloid Bild andtwo main elite newspapers, Süddeutsche Zeitung and Frankfurter AllgemeineZeitung. Analyses were conducted quantitatively based on frequencies, means andword counts. Additionally, a qualitative media content analysis regarding events,behaviour and story tone was undertaken. The aim was to reveal indications ofreported behavioural changes. For a complete overview, both antisocial andprosocial behaviours were included. Results indicate that antisocial behaviour,such as ignoring of governmental advice and rules, and discriminatory behaviours,as well as crimes like fraud became more prominent over time than prosocial andhelping behaviour. This study shows only a fragment of the situation in Germany,but highlights the importance of continuous assessments of human behaviourduring dynamic and critical times.

Among all the child psychopathologies, the literature on the study of child and adolescent antisocial behaviour is perhaps the most abundant and historically rich. The present paper adds to this literature by reviewing and summarising recent research that advances our understanding into the development of severe antisocial behaviour. This review is separated into four main areas. Firstly, the topic of antisocial behaviour and conduct disorder is introduced, with reference to the political, economic, and social reasons why research in this area is becoming so relevant. This is followed by brief discussion of definitions of antisocial behaviour and their descriptive features, prognostic subtypes, and epidemiology. Secondly, a developmental model of conduct disorder is presented that attempts to integrate and synthesise the vast research that has been conducted in this area. Such a model aims to provide a coherent understanding as to how multiple factors operate together and lead to conduct problems. Thirdly, the review focuses specifically on studies that investigate the association between parenting and antisocial behaviour. It summarises the evidence as to which dimensions and features of parenting are most commonly linked to, and how they are hypothesised to operate on, antisocial behaviour. Finally, the review considers recent evidence for factors that moderate the link between parenting and antisocial behaviour (i.e. is a particular parenting behaviour always associated with child antisocial behaviour, or only under certain conditions).

Evidence implicates poor verbal ability as a risk factor for antisocial behaviour, but less is known about how specific oral language skills are associated with antisocial behaviour, or confer risk in conjunction with other risk factors. The aim of the current research was to inform an understanding of the complexity of associations between oral language skills and related risk factors for antisocial behaviour in youth offenders. One hundred and thirty (81 youth offenders; 49 non-offenders) adolescent (age M = 16.32) males of relatively low SES participated in the research. Participants completed a range of measures during individual data collection sessions with the researcher. A systematic review revealed that youth offenders have relatively poor oral language skills, but that ongoing research into the biopsychosocial factors that influence the association between oral language deficits and youth offending is a high priority. Over three empirical studies associations between unique dimensions of oral language skills and nonverbal ability (NVA), callous-unemotional (CU) traits, perspective taking skills and/or antisocial behaviour were investigated at a fine-grained level, predominantly using a dimensional approach. Findings revealed that discrete oral language skills were differentially associated with participation in and patterns of antisocial behaviour dependent on associations with NVA and variants of CU traits. Further, primary and secondary variants of CU traits were associated with different patterns of oral language and perspective taking skill which, in some cases, was further associated with different patterns of antisocial behaviour. Current findings have the potential to inform theoretical models of antisocial behaviour and intervention strategies directed towards antisocial children and adolescents.

Research seeking to understand the developmental origins of antisocial behaviour (ASB) has depended on complex theories and analyses, as well as multidisciplinary approaches. Such complexity comes from considering how different aspects of individuals’ lives may interact to explain the change in their ASB over the lifespan. Overall, developmental theories support that ASB originates in a mix of adverse socio-environmental circumstances and individual characteristics (e.g., temperament and mental health conditions) that vary in number and seriousness between people but also within the same individual over the life course. However, one of the main challenges of studying ASB development is the substantial heterogeneity in its manifestation, which includes distinct aggression forms (e.g., physical, verbal, relational) and specific rule-breaking behaviours (e.g., vandalism, gang membership, stealing). In this respect, much is yet to be understood about specific risks, which could be successfully identified in childhood, for distinct types of ASB into adolescence. Therefore, focusing on ASB and its developmental origins, this thesis is composed of one systematic review and two prospective longitudinal studies. The systematic review summarised the results from 31 prospective longitudinal studies reporting on childhood predictors of distinct ASB trajectories (Study 1). Drawing from a 7-wave national Australian sample, the two prospective longitudinal studies tested age four childhood predictors of boys’ and girls’ physical aggression (Study 2) and rule-breaking (Study 3) into late adolescence. The predictors tested in Studies 2 and 3 were effortful control deficits and specific features of both negative emotionality (anger, fear, and sadness dysregulation) and callous-unemotional traits (callous-lack of empathic concern for others). In Studies 2 and 3, in addition to direct effects of the tested predictors, possible catalyst effects were also tested, whereby the presence of callous-lack of empathic concern for others at age four was expected to intensify associations of effortful control deficits and anger, fear and sadness dysregulation with physical aggression and rule-breaking behaviours. Furthermore, the examination of sex differences was a particular focus in both Studies 2 and 3. The main results of the systematic review (Study 1) suggested that, overall, higher levels of chronic ASB, relative to no/low-stable ASB, can be predicted by a wide range of risk factors measured in childhood. Also, there was no evidence of sex differences in the socio-environmental risks for ASB. Still, a few sex-specificities were found in individual-level risks (i.e., the risks that were identified as significantly related to ASB in one sex, but not the other), as their higher level in childhood was associated with a higher level and more chronic ASB for girls more consistently than for boys. The main results from Studies 2 and 3 showed that all tested individual-level risks measured at age four were associated with either a higher intercept or with change (i.e., linear or U-shaped pattern of change over time) in aggression (Study 2) and with more frequent rule-breaking (Study 3) into adolescence. In Study 2, the significance of associations did somewhat differ depending on whether physical aggression was reported by mothers or selfreported. Also, callous-lack of empathic concern for others enhanced the positive association of effortful control deficits and anger dysregulation with physical aggression into late adolescence (Study 2). This catalyst effect was not observed for rule-breaking behaviour (Study 3). Notably, in both Studies 2 and 3, there was no evidence of significant sex differences in associations of any of the age four risk factors tested and either physical aggression or rule-breaking behaviours over time. Still, a few specific individual-level risks tested did seem to posit an increased risk for ASB in boys only or girls only. Two general conclusions can be drawn from these studies. First, although many risk factors were identified across all three studies, the lack of consensus in the literature about the distinct descriptions of ASB development, and the many ways of identifying and measuring risk factors, pose challenges to the consolidation of the findings. Second, risks for ASB development can be identified in childhood, and risks for physical aggression and rulebreaking into adolescence can be identified as early as age four. However, the degree to which the considerable sex differences in ASB levels could be explained/predicted by socioenvironmental and individual-level risks measured in childhood is still not clear. Findings in this thesis can be applied to inform risk assessment and intervention services for young children most at-risk for chronic or elevated ASB into adolescence and adulthood. These include, for instance, upskilling young children’s effortful control, anger regulation, and empathic concern for others to mitigate both physical aggression and rule-breaking during adolescence, when the prevalence of ASB increases substantially for both boys and girls. Also, sex-specific prevention initiatives could be useful, mainly concerning the trait of callous-lack of empathic concern for others in girls and effortful control deficits in boys. Still, anger dysregulation is a core risk factor, hence, a relevant specifier of chronic ASB for both sexes. As such, it should be targeted in prevention programs and child- or family-based interventions with both boys and girls. Study limitations and directions for future research are also discussed within each study chapter and also in the final chapter of this thesis.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith Health
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The role that parenting plays in the development of antisocial behaviour has been, and is still widely researched. International studies on this topic are vast. In South Africa, however, very little has been researched within this area. This study aimed to systematically review literature on the role of parenting in the development of antisocial behaviour. International literature published between 2000 and 2013 was reviewed in order to gain a better idea of the current state of knowledge on this topic. All of the articles included in the review examined some aspect of parenting behaviour, parenting practices and/or parenting styles related to the development of antisocial behaviour, conduct disorder, and/or oppositional defiant disorder. The articles were systematically assessed, and eight themes emerged which include: effective parenting behaviours; the moderating effects of callous unemotional traits on parenting; parental warmth; parental discipline; parental knowledge and monitoring; parental psychopathology; parenting styles; and parenting during infancy.

Research suggests that the temporary rise in adolescent antisocial behaviour (ASS) is attributable to a very large number of young people each engaging in a relatively small number of ASS's while progressing through adolescence. One possible explanation for the temporary increase in ASS during adolescence is that during puberty, the cognitive processes responsible for monitoring and controlling behaviour are disrupted. In support of this, recent research has found that adolescents' participation in ASS is positively correlated with the stage of pubertal development rather than age. Additionally, there is evidence that a temporary 'dip' in executive functioning (planning, organizing, decision-making) occurs at an age range (Le. 11-14 years) typically associated with the onset of puberty. This thesis reports a first test of a model which proposes a causal relationship between puberty, decreased executive function and increased antisocial behaviour. Self-report data on pubertal development, antisocial attitudes and ASS participation were collected from 323 boys and girls (ages 9 -17 years) attending New South Wales public schools. Executive function, (Le. updating, response inhibition, set-shifting) was measured in a 3D-minute individual interview. Data were analysed to determine if participants reported greater participation in ASS during puberty onset and whether this period was also characterized by a decline in executive function. In addition, it was investigated whether adolescents who attain puberty earlier than their peers participate in ASS earlier, longer, and at higher rates than their 'on-time' or 'late-maturing' peers, and whether there was an association between 'early' puberty and a persistent reduction in executive function. Results revealed that ASS participation was significantly associated with puberty onset timing, and some significant associations were found between antisocial attitudes and pubertal timing. There was some indication of decreased executive function at puberty onset and a link between early pubertal timing and a persistent reduction in executive function. Thus, there is some partial evidence to support the proposed model of adolescent ASS. However, complications in performing mediation analysis prevent concluding that executive function mediates the relationship between pubertal development and ASB. The implications of these findings are discussed with reference to future research in this field.

Parenting programmes are the most effective intervention to change persistent child antisocial behaviour and are widely used, but little is known about the mechanisms through which they work and hence how to improve them. This PhD project aims to bridge this gap by performing formal mediation analyses partitioning total effects of parenting programmes on child outcome into indirect effects (mediated through aspects of parenting) and direct effects (non-mediated effects). This thesis focuses on further developing methods for mediation analysis to cover complex scenarios and applies them in three trials (SPOKES, CPT and HCA) of parenting programmes. This project improves traditional methods for trials that assume no putative mediator-outcome confounding in three ways: Firstly, the mediator-outcome relationship is adjusted for observed confounding variables. The newly developed MI-BT method facilitates the application of Multiple Imputation to handle missing data and the use of linear mixed models to reflect trial design, and generates non-parametric inferences via a bootstrap approach. The application of this method to the SPOKES trial showed statistically significant indirect effects for two mediators (parental warmth and criticism). Secondly, the MI-BT method is extended to combine with instrumental variables method and become the IV-MI-BT method which allows for unmeasured confounding of the mediator-outcome relationship in the presence of missing data. The application of this method to the SPOKES trial showed that while IV estimators of mediation effects were similar in value compared to MI-BT estimates, their confidence intervals were inflated. Finally, methods were further developed to enable pooling of individual participant data from multiple trials and so provide for potentially more precise and more generalizable mediation analyses. A framework for systematically conducting such an IV-MI-BT IPD meta-mediation analysis is described. Meta-analysis of the three contributing trials did not detect any evidence for between-trial heterogeneity in mediation effects of interest. Pooling of the studies resulted in smaller and non-significant overall indirect effect estimates and provided a considerable precision gain compared to the SPOKES only analysis.

Magister Artium (Child and Family Studies) - MA(CFS)
To some extent all families experience family conflict; however, the concern is when it has an effect on preadolescents (age 10-12), behaviorally and psychologically. Preadolescence is a period marked by pubertal, emotional and behavioural changes. Family conflict may intensify preadolescents' experience of managing difficult situations. Self-determination theorists suggest that in order to have good mental health, basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness) need to be met. Literature suggests that family conflict shapes behaviour and thus plays a pivotal role in externalizing behaviour (aggressive and antisocial behaviours). This study aimed to determine the effects of family conflict on preadolescents' basic psychological needs and externalizing behaviour. A quantitative approach and a crosssectional research design were employed in this study. A probability random sample was selected from two low socio-economic communities in Hout Bay, Cape Town. The sample consisted of N =128 preadolescents in grades 4, 5 and 6. The data for the study was obtained using self-report questionnaires that included - demographics, Family Environment Scale (FES), Basic Psychological Needs Scale (BPNS), Youth Self Report (YSR) and Buss Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ). Participants could choose whether they preferred responding in English or Afrikaans. The data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) V23. The results were provided using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings of the study indicated that there is a significant positive relationship between family conflict and preadolescents psychological needs, antisocial behaviour and aggression (with the exception of verbal aggression). The results, yielded by regression analysis, indicated that physical aggression (β = 0.31, p = 0.01) and need frustration, significantly predicted antisocial behaviour (β = 0.28, p = 0.00); need frustration (β = 0.28, p = 0.00) and antisocial behaviour significantly predicted physical aggression (β = 0.30, p = 0.00); antisocial behaviour (β = 0.24, p = 0.01) significantly predicted verbal aggression; need frustration (β = 0.35, p = 0.00) significantly predicted anger and need frustration (β = 0.26, p = 0.01) significantly predicting hostility. The assumptions of this study were confirmed - family conflict frustrates the basic psychological needs of preadolescents, and family conflict is related to the externalizing behaviour of preadolescents. The researcher ensured that confidentiality, anonymity and respect were adhered to throughout the study.

This study aimed to assess a model of interactive risk in a young offender sample (n=60) aged 14 to 17 years old. It was hypothesised that interactive relationships between callous-unemotional traits, materialism and risk-taking behaviour would account for more variance in the severity of antisocial behaviour. The participants completed a set of self-report questionnaires measuring callous-unemotional traits, materialism, antisocial behaviour and also played a computer task, the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) that assesses risk-taking behaviour. The regression analyses showed that both callous-unemotional traits and materialism were predictors of self-reported antisocial behaviour. Risk-taking behaviour was not found to be predictive of self-reported antisocial behaviour or risk for re-offending. However, it was found that age was predictive of risk for re-offending scores. The only significant interaction effect was between materialism and risk-taking in predicting risk for reoffending. An interactive model with these variables (callous-unemotional traits, materialism and risk-taking) has only been partially supported in this study. Callous-unemotional traits and materialism appear to be important risk factors but the role of risk-taking behaviour in young offenders requires further clarification.

This thesis investigated (1) social status and shaming experiences in relation to aggressive behaviour and depression, and (2) gene-environment interactions between two genetic polymorphisms related to the serotonergic system – MAOA-VNTR and 5HTTLPR – and experiences of maltreatment in relation to delinquent behaviour and depression among adolescents. The four included studies are based on questionnaire data from the Survey of Adolescent Life in Vestmanland 2006 (SALVe-2006). A total of 5396 students in 9th (15-16 years old) grade of elementary school and 2nd (17-18 years old) grade of high school comprised the target population. The students in 2nd grade of high school also provided a saliva sample for gene extraction. There were strong associations between shaming experiences and both aggressive behaviour and depression. In addition, individuals who reported many shaming experiences and had either low or high social status had increased risks of physical aggression or depression, whereas medium social status seemed to have a protective effect. Gene-environment interactions were found between experiences of maltreatment and the MAOA-VNTR in relation to delinquent behaviour. Moreover, the direction of the gene-environment interaction differed depending on sex: boys with the short (S) variant of the MAOA-VNTR, in contrast to girls with the long (LL) variant, had the highest risk of delinquency in combination with maltreatment. Gene-environment interactions were also found between experiences of maltreatment and the 5HTTLPR in relation to depression among girls. The girls that were homozygous for the S allele (SS) had the highest risk of depression in combination with maltreatment. Among boys however, no gene-environment interaction was found between the 5HTTLPR and maltreatment in relation to depression. In conclusion, it is important to consider both genetic effects, and psychosocial factors such as social status, shaming experiences, and experiences of maltreatment when investigating different aspects of health and behaviour among adolescents.

Magister Artium (Social Work) - MA(SW)
Child sexual abuse is a well-documented social crime that influences every aspect of the survivor and their family's lives. The parents are then confronted with a child that presents behavior that may include scholastic challenges, antisocial behaviour, sexual explorative behaviour as well as adult mannerisms. In addition, parents are then 'expected' to cope with their own feelings of guilt in relation to their child's affected behaviour. The aim of the study was to explore parental coping with childcare post the disclosure of child sexual abuse. This study used a qualitative methodological framework. A group of twelve (12) heterogeneous parents were purposively sampled from Childline case registers. Face-to-face interviews were conducted with the parents, using an interview schedule and a voice recorder. The parents' interviews were transcribed verbatim, translated and verified with the parents. The data was analysed using thematic analysis in order to explore parents' experiences. The findings of the study reveal the participants' emotional responses to the disclosure of child sexual abuse, parental coping post the disclosure of CSA and available resources. These themes highlight the experiences of the parents who care for children post the disclosure of child sexual abuse. The study discusses the needs and challenges of the parents, and offers recommendations regarding provisions that can be made for these parents.

Callous and Unemotional (CU) traits are a relatively recent addition to the existing body of research examining the development of severe behavioural problems in children, and antisocial behaviour in adults. Children who are high in CU traits display shallow emotions, manipulate other children, lie easily, and demonstrate very little remorse or guilt. Additionally, they are more likely to engage in more severe forms of antisocial behaviour, more often, and from a younger age than their peers. Research has found that CU traits moderate the well-established relationship between parenting and conduct problems. That is, children who are high in CU traits seem to display levels of behaviour problems that are unrelated to the quality or type of parenting they receive. This has serious implications when one considers that the most effective psychosocial treatments available for behavioural disorders are based upon improving parenting, and would therefore require significant modification for children high in CU traits. In addition, the research exploring the moderating role of CU traits in the relationship between parenting and conduct problems has not taken a developmental perspective and considered different ages of children. Finally, existing research has not considered the reciprocal relationship that CU traits have upon parenting behaviour, or the direct relationship between parenting and CU traits. The present study has addressed these limitations by utilizing an accelerated longitudinal methodology. The present study recruited 449 grades one, three and five children from six public primary schools. Questionnaires assessing conduct problems, CU traits, and parenting styles were administered to their parents for completion. Additionally, teacher report was also sought on a number of key variables to ensure validity. One year later, all of these children and their families were re-approached to assess the extent to which each of these variables had changed over time. One year later 233 (51.89%) of the original sample completed the same measures allowing examination of the change in these variables over time. Given the relatively short time period, it was expected that one of the best predictors of any of the key variables at time 2, would be baseline scores measured at time 1. For this reason, hierarchical regression was used to control for temporal stability, as well as demographic factors. Additionally, the hypothesis that a different pattern of relationships would emerge for children of different ages was tested by examining the moderating effect of age upon all predictive relationships. This was done by entering the product of age and the predictor variable(s) as the final step of the regression analyses, and then conducting simple slopes analysis on all significant predictive interactions. Three distinct findings emerged from these analyses. Firstly, age moderates the effect of CU traits on the relationship between parenting styles and conduct problems. Behaviour problems in younger children are better predicted by parenting behaviours and by CU traits than in older children. Secondly, both CU traits and conduct problems were predictive of worsening parental behaviour. Once again, this was particularly evident in younger children. Finally, inconsistent parenting, and corporal punishment were found to be predictive of CU traits. These findings are discussed from a developmental perspective in the context of Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model.

Callous and Unemotional (CU) traits are a relatively recent addition to the existing body of research examining the development of severe behavioural problems in children, and antisocial behaviour in adults. Children who are high in CU traits display shallow emotions, manipulate other children, lie easily, and demonstrate very little remorse or guilt. Additionally, they are more likely to engage in more severe forms of antisocial behaviour, more often, and from a younger age than their peers. Research has found that CU traits moderate the well-established relationship between parenting and conduct problems. That is, children who are high in CU traits seem to display levels of behaviour problems that are unrelated to the quality or type of parenting they receive. This has serious implications when one considers that the most effective psychosocial treatments available for behavioural disorders are based upon improving parenting, and would therefore require significant modification for children high in CU traits. In addition, the research exploring the moderating role of CU traits in the relationship between parenting and conduct problems has not taken a developmental perspective and considered different ages of children. Finally, existing research has not considered the reciprocal relationship that CU traits have upon parenting behaviour, or the direct relationship between parenting and CU traits. The present study has addressed these limitations by utilizing an accelerated longitudinal methodology. The present study recruited 449 grades one, three and five children from six public primary schools. Questionnaires assessing conduct problems, CU traits, and parenting styles were administered to their parents for completion. Additionally, teacher report was also sought on a number of key variables to ensure validity. One year later, all of these children and their families were re-approached to assess the extent to which each of these variables had changed over time. One year later 233 (51.89%) of the original sample completed the same measures allowing examination of the change in these variables over time. Given the relatively short time period, it was expected that one of the best predictors of any of the key variables at time 2, would be baseline scores measured at time 1. For this reason, hierarchical regression was used to control for temporal stability, as well as demographic factors. Additionally, the hypothesis that a different pattern of relationships would emerge for children of different ages was tested by examining the moderating effect of age upon all predictive relationships. This was done by entering the product of age and the predictor variable(s) as the final step of the regression analyses, and then conducting simple slopes analysis on all significant predictive interactions. Three distinct findings emerged from these analyses. Firstly, age moderates the effect of CU traits on the relationship between parenting styles and conduct problems. Behaviour problems in younger children are better predicted by parenting behaviours and by CU traits than in older children. Secondly, both CU traits and conduct problems were predictive of worsening parental behaviour. Once again, this was particularly evident in younger children. Finally, inconsistent parenting, and corporal punishment were found to be predictive of CU traits. These findings are discussed from a developmental perspective in the context of Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological model.
Thesis (PhD Doctorate)
Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
School of Psychology
Full Text

The overall aim of this thesis was to explore patterns of antisocial behaviour, mental health and recidivism among Swedish young offenders in community-based rehabilitative programmes (n=189). Study I explored the character and severity of self-reported behavioural problems prior to programme participation.  Four distinct subgroups were identified: subgroup (SG) 1 (n=60), boys exhibiting adolescent delinquency; SG 2 (n=65), boys exhibi­ting pronounced adolescent delinquency; SG 3 (n=48), boys exhibiting pronounced adolescent delinquency as well as criminality including violence; SG 4 (n=16), boys exhibiting pronounced adolescent delinquency as well as criminality including violence and drug-related crimes. Study II investigated the mental health of the participants, by means of the Strengths and Difficulty Questionnaire (SDQ). When relating SDQ-scores to the previously identified subgroups, SG 1 with the least prominent history of antisocial behaviour was found to resemble a normative sample, while the subgroups with more extensive histories of antisocial behaviour had significantly elevated scores on the hyperactivity/inattention and conduct problem scales. Study III investigated recidivism in criminality in the 18-months following programme start, finding that 60% of the participants had been registered as suspected of new crimes. SG 3 and 4 with the most extensive histories of antisocial behaviour were responsible for a significantly larger part of recidivism than expected. By contrast, SG 1, reporting the least antisocial behaviour in their past, was responsible for a significantly smaller part of the recidivism. This was true for all crimes as well as crimes of violence specifically, confirming the subgroups identified based on the self-reports. The results are related to developmental theories of antisocial behaviour and to contemporary research on risk assessment. Implications for the practice of rehabilitation of convicted young offenders are discussed.
At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 1: In press Paper 2: Submitted. Paper 3: Submitted.