Artículos de revistas:

1

Zhang, Wen-Song, An Pan, Liu Yang, Yuan-Yuan Cai, Bao-Lin Liu, Ping Li, Lian-Wen Qi, Jing Li y Qun Liu. "American Ginseng and Asian Ginseng Intervention in Diet-Induced Obese Mice: Metabolomics Reveals Distinct Metabolic Profiles". American Journal of Chinese Medicine 47, n.º 04 (enero de 2019): 787–801. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0192415x19500411.

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American ginseng and Asian ginseng, which occupy prominent positions in the list of best-selling natural products in the West and East, are suitable for different indications in the traditional pharmacological uses. Currently, the effects of American ginseng and Asian ginseng in the protection against metabolic dysfunction and the differences between them are still unknown. Herein, an untargeted metabolomics based on liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-Q-TOF-MS) was determined. The serum metabolomics and dynamic feces metabolomics revealed significant metabolic distinction between American ginseng and Asian ginseng in diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. The results show that American ginseng and Asian ginseng alleviate glucose and lipid metabolism disorder in DIO mice. A total of 45 differential metabolites were confirmed between the drug-naïve and American ginseng group, and 32 metabolites were confirmed between the drug-naïve and Asian ginseng group. Metabolic pathways analysis shows that these two ginsengs treatment dynamic rectifies metabolic disorder in DIO mice mainly via regulating linoleic acids metabolism, cysteine and methionine metabolism and biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acid. Moreover, American ginseng’s specific function in monitoring the carnitines and taurine/hypotaurine metabolism might make it more effective in meliorating lipids metabolism disorder than Asian ginseng.

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2

Li, Lele, Yang Wang, Yang Xiu y Shuying Liu. "Chemical Differentiation and Quantitative Analysis of Different Types of Panax Genus Stem-Leaf Based on a UPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap/MS Combined with Multivariate Statistical Analysis Approach". Journal of Analytical Methods in Chemistry 2018 (2018): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/9598672.

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Two quantitative methods (−ESI full scan and −ESI PRM MS) were developed to analyze ginsenosides in ginseng stem-leaf by using UPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap/MS. By means of −ESI PRM MS method, the contents of eighteen ginsenosides in Asian ginseng stem-leaf (ASGSL) and American ginseng stem-leaf (AMGSL) were analyzed. The principal component analysis (PCA) model was built to discriminate Asian ginseng stem-leaf (ASGSL) from American ginseng stem-leaf (AMGSL) based on −ESI PRM MS data, and six ginsenosides (F11, Rf, R2, F1, Rb1, and Rb3) were obtained as the markers. To further explore the differences between cultivated ginseng stem-leaf and forest ginseng stem-leaf, the partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) model was built based on −ESI full scan data. And twenty-six markers were selected to discriminate cultivated ginseng stem-leaf (CGSL) from forest ginseng stem-leaf (FGSL). This study provides reliable and effective methods to quantify and discriminate among different types of ginseng stem-leaf in the commercial market.

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3

Bai, Dapeng, J. Brandle y R. Reeleder. "Genetic diversity in North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) grown in Ontario detected by RAPD analysis". Genome 40, n.º 1 (1 de febrero de 1997): 111–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/g97-015.

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Genetic diversity within North American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) grown in Ontario was investigated at the DNA level using the randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method via the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A total of 420 random decamers were initially screened against DNA from four ginseng plants and 78.8% of them generated RAPD fragments. Thirty-six of the decamers that generated highly repeatable polymorphic RAPD markers were selected for further RAPD analysis of the ginseng population. With these primers, 352 discernible DNA fragments were produced from DNA of 48 ginseng plants, corresponding to an average of 9.8 fragments per primer, of which over 45% were polymorphic. The similarity coefficients among the DNA of ginseng plants analyzed were low, ranging from 0.149 to 0.605 with a mean of 0.412, indicating that a high degree of genetic diversity exists in the ginseng population. Lower levels of genetic diversity were detected among 3-year-old ginseng plants selected on the basis of greater plant height than among the plants randomly selected from the same subpopulation or over the whole population, suggesting that genetic factors at least partly contribute to morphological variation within the ginseng population and that visual selection can be effective in identifying the genetic differences. The significance of a high degree of genetic variation in the ginseng population on its potential for improvement by breeding is also discussed.Key words: Panax quinquefolius, ginseng, RAPD, genetic diversity.

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4

Sloley, Brian Duff, Yi-Chan James Lin, Douglas Ridgway, Hugh Alexander Semple, Yun Kau Tam, Ronald Thomson Coutts, Raimar Löbenberg y Nuzhat Tam-Zaman. "A Method for the Analysis of Ginsenosides, Malonyl Ginsenosides, and Hydrolyzed Ginsenosides Using High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Ultraviolet and PositiveMode Electrospray IonizationMass Spectrometric Detection". Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 89, n.º 1 (1 de enero de 2006): 16–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/89.1.16.

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Abstract A high-performance liquid chromatographic separation coupled to diode array absorbance and positive mode electrospraymass spectrometric detection has been developed for the analysis of ginsenosides, malonyl ginsenosides, and hydrolyzed ginsenosides in extracts of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng) and American ginseng (P. quinquefolius). The method is capable of separating, identifying, and quantifying the predominant ginsenosides found in heated alcoholic extracts of Asian and American ginseng roots routinely sold as nutraceuticals. It also separates and identifies the malonyl ginsenosides often found in cold alcoholic extracts of ginseng root and has the potential to quantify these compounds if pure standards are available. Furthermore, it can separate and identify ginsenoside hydrolysis products such as those readily produced in situations mimicking gastric situations, including those used for dissolution studies (i.e., 0.1 N HCl, 37C).

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5

Xie, J. "American ginseng leaf: ginsenoside analysis and hypoglycemic activity". Pharmacological Research 49, n.º 2 (febrero de 2004): 113–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2003.07.015.

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6

Zhu, Lei, Ji Li, Nannan Xing, Dongwei Han, Haixue Kuang y Pengling Ge. "American Ginseng Regulates Gene Expression to Protect against Premature Ovarian Failure in Rats". BioMed Research International 2015 (2015): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/767124.

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Premature ovarian failure (POF) is defined as lost ovarian functions before the age of 40. Three possible molecular markers (PLA2G4A,miR-29a, andmiR-144) have been identified in our previous study by integrated analysis of mRNA and miRNA expression profiles. The present study aimed to evaluate American ginseng root’s protective potential against POF by studying transcriptional and protein variations between American ginseng treatments and controls in rats. 4-Vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) was administered to rats for 14 days to induce POF. Additionally, American ginseng was administered to POF rats for one month, andPLA2G4A,miR-29a, andmiR-144expressions were measured in rat ovaries by qRT-PCR. PLA2G4A protein expression was examined by Western Blot, and PGE2, LH, FSH, and E2 serum levels were detected by ELISA.PLA2G4AmRNA and protein were downregulated in American ginseng-treated rats,miR-29aandmiR-144levels increased, and PGE2serum levels decreased, while LH, FSH, and E2 increased compared to POF induction alone. Analysis of transcriptional and protein variations suggested that American ginseng protects the ovary against POF by regulating prostaglandin biosynthesis, ovulation, and preventing ovarian aging. High hormone levels (PGE2, FSH, and LH) were reduced, and E2 secretion approached normal levels, leading to improved POF symptoms and abnormal ovulation.

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7

Qi, Hongyu, Zepeng Zhang, Jiaqi Liu, Zhaoqiang Chen, Qingxia Huang, Jing Li, Jinjin Chen et al. "Comparisons of Isolation Methods, Structural Features, and Bioactivities of the Polysaccharides from Three Common Panax Species: A Review of Recent Progress". Molecules 26, n.º 16 (18 de agosto de 2021): 4997. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26164997.

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Panax spp. (Araliaceae family) are widely used medicinal plants and they mainly include Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Panax quinquefolium L. (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (notoginseng). Polysaccharides are the main active ingredients in these plants and have demonstrated diverse pharmacological functions, but comparisons of isolation methods, structural features, and bioactivities of these polysaccharides have not yet been reported. This review summarizes recent advances associated with 112 polysaccharides from ginseng, 25 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 36 polysaccharides from notoginseng and it compares the differences in extraction, purification, structural features, and bioactivities. Most studies focus on ginseng polysaccharides and comparisons are typically made with the polysaccharides from American ginseng and notoginseng. For the extraction, purification, and structural analysis, the processes are similar for the polysaccharides from the three Panax species. Previous studies determined that 55 polysaccharides from ginseng, 18 polysaccharides from American ginseng, and 9 polysaccharides from notoginseng exhibited anti-tumor activity, immunoregulatory effects, anti-oxidant activity, and other pharmacological functions, which are mediated by multiple signaling pathways, including mitogen-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor kappa B, or redox balance pathways. This review can provide new insights into the similarities and differences among the polysaccharides from the three Panax species, which can facilitate and guide further studies to explore the medicinal properties of the Araliaceae family used in traditional Chinese medicine.

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8

Harnly, James, Pei Chen y Peter de B. Harrington. "Probability of Identification: Adulteration of American Ginseng with Asian Ginseng". Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 96, n.º 6 (1 de noviembre de 2013): 1258–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.13-290.

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Abstract The AOAC INTERNATIONAL guidelines for validation of botanical identification methods were applied to the detection of Asian Ginseng [Panax ginseng (PG)] as an adulterant for American Ginseng [P. quinquefolius (PQ)] using spectral fingerprints obtained by flow injection mass spectrometry (FIMS). Samples of 100% PQ and 100% PG were physically mixed to provide 90, 80, and 50% PQ. The multivariate FIMS fingerprint data were analyzed using soft independent modeling of class analogy (SIMCA) based on 100% PQ. The Q statistic, a measure of the degree of non-fit of the test samples with the calibration model, was used as the analytical parameter. FIMS was able to discriminate between 100% PQ and 100% PG, and between 100% PQ and 90, 80, and 50% PQ. The probability of identification (POI) curve was estimated based on the SD of 90% PQ. A digital model of adulteration, obtained by mathematically summing the experimentally acquired spectra of 100% PQ and 100% PG in the desired ratios, agreed well with the physical data and provided an easy and more accurate method for constructing the POI curve. Two chemometric modeling methods, SIMCA and fuzzy optimal associative memories, and two classification methods, partial least squares-discriminant analysis and fuzzy rule-building expert systems, were applied to the data. The modeling methods correctly identified the adulterated samples; the classification methods did not.

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9

Lee, Jin Wook y Kenneth W. Mudge. "GYPSUM AFFECTS AMERICAN GINSENG'S GROWTH, NUTRITION, AND GINSENOSIDES". HortScience 41, n.º 3 (junio de 2006): 492C—492. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.41.3.492c.

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In the Northeast, wild American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) is typically found growing in the dense shade provided by deciduous hardwood tree species such as a sugar maple, in slightly acidic soils with relatively high calcium content. Woods cultivated ginseng is often grown in forest farming agroforestry systems under similar conditions. Supplemental calcium by soil incorporation of gypsum (CaSO4·2H2O) is often recommended for woods cultivated ginseng. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of this practice on soil chemical properties, plant growth and quality of American ginseng. In a greenhouse pot culture experiment, 2-year-old seedlings were treated with 0, 2, 4, 8, or 16 Mt·ha–1 gypsum and grown for 12 weeks. Gypsum application decreased soil pH slightly, elevated soil electrical conductivity and increased available soil Ca and sulfate concentrations. Tissue calcium concentration was increased with by gypsum treatment, but shoot and root growth was reduced. HPLC analysis of root ginsenosides revealed that Re, Rb1, Rc, and Rb2, PT ginsenoside (sum of ginsenoside Rb1, Rc, Rb2, and Rd) and total ginsenoside concentration increased by gypsum soil amendment.

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10

Wang, Chong-Zhi, Samantha Anderson y Chun-Su Yuan. "Phytochemistry and Anticancer Potential of Notoginseng". American Journal of Chinese Medicine 44, n.º 01 (enero de 2016): 23–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0192415x16500026.

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Asian ginseng, American ginseng, and notoginseng are three major species in the ginseng family. Notoginseng is a Chinese herbal medicine with a long history of use in many Oriental countries. This botanical has a distinct ginsenoside profile compared to other ginseng herbs. As a saponin-rich plant, notoginseng could be a good candidate for cancer chemoprevention. However, to date, only relatively limited anticancer studies have been conducted on notoginseng. In this paper, after reviewing its anticancer data, phytochemical isolation and analysis of notoginseng is presented in comparison with Asian ginseng and American ginseng. Over 80 dammarane saponins have been isolated and elucidated from different plant parts of notoginseng, most of them belonging to protopanaxadiol or protopanaxatriol groups. The role of the enteric microbiome in mediating notoginseng metabolism, bioavailability, and pharmacological actions are discussed. Emphasis has been placed on the identification and isolation of enteric microbiome-generated notoginseng metabolites. Future investigations should provide key insights into notoginseng’s bioactive metabolites as clinically valuable anticancer compounds.

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11

Xia, Yong-Gang, Yan Song, Jun Liang, Xin-Dong Guo, Bing-You Yang y Hai-Xue Kuang. "Quality Analysis of American Ginseng Cultivated in Heilongjiang Using UPLC-ESI−-MRM-MS with Chemometric Methods". Molecules 23, n.º 9 (19 de septiembre de 2018): 2396. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules23092396.

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American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) has long been cultivated in China for the function food and medicine. Here, ultra-high performance liquid chromatography was coupled with electrospray ionization and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI−-TQ-MS) for simultaneous detection of 22 ginsenosides in American ginseng cultivated in Mudanjiang district of Heilongjiang. The extraction conditions also were optimized by a Box Behnken design experiment. The optimized result was 31.8 mL/g as ratio of liquid to raw materials, 20.3 min of extraction time, and 235.0 W of extraction powers. The quantitative MS parameters for these 22 compounds were rapidly optimized by single factor experiments employing UPLC-ESI−-multiple reaction monitoring or multiple ion monitoring (MRM/MIM) scans. Furthermore, the established UPLC-ESI−-MRM-MS method showed good linear relationships (R2 > 0.99), repeatability (RSD < 3.86%), precision (RSD < 2.74%), and recovery (94–104%). This method determined 22 bioactive ginsenosides in different parts of the plant (main roots, hairy roots, rhizomes, leaves, and stems) and growth years (one year to four years) of P. quinquefolium. The highest total content of the 22 analytes was in the hairy roots (1.3 × 105 µg/g) followed by rhizomes (7.1 × 104 µg/g), main roots (6.5 × 104 µg/g), leaves (4.2 × 104 µg/g), and stems (2.4 × 104 µg/g). Finally, chemometric methods, hierarchical clustering analysis (HCA) and partial least squares discrimination analysis (PLS-DA), were successfully used to classify and differentiate American ginseng attributed to different growth years. The proposed UPLC-ESI−-MRM-MS coupled with HCA and PLS-DA methods was elucidated to be a simple and reliable method for quality evaluation of American ginseng.

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12

Quayyum, H. A., M. Gijzen y J. A. Traquair. "Purification of a Necrosis-Inducing, Host-Specific Protein Toxin from Spore Germination Fluid of Alternaria panax". Phytopathology® 93, n.º 3 (marzo de 2003): 323–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.2003.93.3.323.

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Spore germination fluid of Alternaria panax, the causal agent of Alternaria blight of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), collected from water droplets or aqueous ginseng leaf extracts produced visible water-soaked lesions on wounded, detached leaflets after incubation for 48 h. Maximum development of brown, necrotic spots occurred 4 to 5 days after inoculation on attached and detached ginseng leaflets. Of 15 plant species tested, only American ginseng was susceptible to applications of spore inoculum or spore germination fluid. The phytotoxic activity of the spore germination fluid was destroyed by heat and treatment with proteinase A. The phytotoxic factor was retained by an ultrafiltration membrane with a 30-kDa molecular mass cut-off. Purification of the phytotoxic protein, named AP-toxin, was performed by anion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. Bioactive fractions eluted as a single peak. By comparison with protein standards, a molecular mass of 35 kDa was estimated for the native protein. The denatured protein toxin also had a mass of 35 kDa as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis. Production of the protein toxin was induced on American ginseng leaflets and water extracts of ginseng leaves but not on leaves of other nonhost plants and their water extracts. The results show that A. panax produces a host-specific, proteinaceous toxin during colonization and pathogenesis of ginseng leaves.

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13

Lin, Hongqiang, Hailin Zhu, Jing Tan, Han Wang, Qinghai Dong, Fulin Wu, Yunhe Liu, Pingya Li y Jinping Liu. "Non-Targeted Metabolomic Analysis of Methanolic Extracts of Wild-Simulated and Field-Grown American Ginseng". Molecules 24, n.º 6 (18 de marzo de 2019): 1053. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24061053.

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Aiming at revealing the structural diversity of secondary metabolites and the different patterns in wild-simulated American ginseng (WsAG) and field-grown American ginseng (FgAG), a comprehensive and unique phytochemical profile study was carried out. In the screening analysis, a total of 121 shared compounds were characterized in FgAG and WsAG, respectively. The results showed that both of these two kinds of American ginseng were rich in natural components, and were similar in terms of the kinds of compound they contained. Furthermore, in non-targeted metabolomic analysis, when taking the contents of the constituents into account, it was found that there indeed existed quite a difference between FgAG and WsAG, and 22 robust known biomarkers enabling the differentiation were discovered. For WsAG, there were 12 potential biomarkers including two ocotillol-type saponins, two steroids, six damarane-type saponins, one oleanane-type saponins and one other compound. On the other hand, for FgAG, there were 10 potential biomarkers including two organic acids, six damarane-type saponins, one oleanane-type saponin, and one ursane. In a word, this study illustrated the similarities and differences between FgAG and WsAG, and provides a basis for explaining the effect of different growth environments on secondary metabolites.

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14

Wang, Yaping, Hyung-Kyoon Choi, Josef A. Brinckmann, Xue Jiang y Linfang Huang. "Chemical analysis of Panax quinquefolius (North American ginseng): A review". Journal of Chromatography A 1426 (diciembre de 2015): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2015.11.012.

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15

Proctor, John T. A., David C. Percival y Dean Louttit. "Inflorescence Removal Affects Root Yield of American Ginseng". HortScience 34, n.º 1 (febrero de 1999): 82–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.34.1.82.

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Manual removal of inflorescences from mature (3- and 4-year-old) American ginseng plants (Panax quinquefolium L.) at commercial timing (early July, ≈25% flowers open) increased root yield at harvest. Consecutive inflorescence removal for 2 years (third and fourth) increased yield 55.6%. Inflorescence removal in 4-year-old plants increased yield by 34.7% compared with 26.1% in 3-year-old plants. Analysis showed that the largest portion of roots (≈40%) was in the medium category (10-20 g), and inflorescence removal did not influence root size distribution. Root yield for 3-year-old plants increased quadratically with plant density, with plants lacking inflorescences having an estimated yield increase of 25%. Maximum yields of 2.4 kg·m-2 for deflowered plants were achieved at a plant density of 170 plants/m2. To maximize ginseng root yield, all plants except those needed to provide seed for future plantings should have inflorescences removed.

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16

Wang, Chong-Zhi, Karen E. Kim, Guang-Jian Du, Lian-Wen Qi, Xiao-Dong Wen, Ping Li, Brent A. Bauer et al. "Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography and Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Ginsenoside Metabolites in Human Plasma". American Journal of Chinese Medicine 39, n.º 06 (enero de 2011): 1161–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0192415x11009470.

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American ginseng is a commonly used herbal medicine in the United States. When ginseng is taken orally, its active components, ginsenosides, are reportedly biotransformed by intestinal microbiota. Previous pharmacokinetic evaluations of ginseng in humans have focused on its parent constituents. However, the metabolites, especially those transformed by intestinal microbiota, have not been carefully studied. We used an ultra-performance liquid chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/TOF-MS) method to determine 15 ginsenosides and/or metabolites and their bioavailability in humans. Six healthy human subjects received a single oral dose of 10 g of American ginseng root powder, after which samples of their blood were collected at 0, 2, 4, 7, 9 and 12 h for measurement of ginsenoside/metabolite levels in plasma. Ginsenosides Rb1, Rd, Rg2 and compound K (C-K) were detected in human plasma samples at different time points. The Rb1 concentration peak was 19.90 ± 5.43 ng/ml at 4 h. C-K was detected from 7 h to 12 h with 7.32 ± 1.35 ng/ml at 12 h. Since the last time point was at 12 h, C-K peak level was not observed. The areas under the concentration curves (AUC) from 0 to 12 h were 155.0 ± 19.5 ng⋅h/ml for Rb1 and 26.4 ± 6.4 ng⋅h/ml for C-K, respectively. The gradual decrease of Rb1 levels and the delayed increase in levels of C-K observed in human subjects supported previous reports that enteric microbiota played a key role in transforming Rb1 to C-K.

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17

Pastucha, Alina y Barbara Kołodziej. "The effect of irrigation and foliar fertilization on the colonization of american ginseng (Panax quinquefolium l.) diseased parts by different micro-organisms". Acta Agrobotanica 63, n.º 1 (2012): 179–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/aa.2010.020.

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Field studies on the health of American ginseng cultivated in the Lublin district on poor sandy soil were conducted in the years 2004-2006. The studies involved treatment combinations with irrigation and without irrigation as well as foliar fertilization with Alkalin PK and Resistim of American ginseng plants. Mycological analysis was made of diseased ginseng parts with the aim of determining the quantitative and qualitative composition of fungi-like organisms and fungi threatening the cultivation of this plant. Fungi from the genera of Cylindrocarpon, Fusarium and the following species Alternaria alternata, Rhizoctonia solani, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, as well as fungi-like organisms: Pythium irregulare and Phytophthora sp., were isolated from the infected parts of ginseng. The smallest number of fungi was isolated from the plants growing on the plots without irrigation and those where foliar application with Alkalin PK was applied.

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18

Ludwiczuk, Agnieszka, Barbara Kołodziej y Tadeusz Wolski. "The content and the composition of ginsenosides in different parts of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.)". Acta Agrobotanica 59, n.º 1 (2012): 507–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/aa.2006.053.

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Percentage of ginsenosides in roots of American ginseng is ranged from 6.5 to 12.5%. 4-year-old roots are characterized by the highest content of ginsenosides. The highest amount of ginsenosides was found in ginseng leaves (24.8 - 37.5%). Stems and fruits of Panax quinquefolium are characterized by much lower content of saponins. Maximum level of ginsenosides, in case of leaves, stems and fruits, was observed in 4-year-old organs. The results show, that Polish ginseng for medicinal uses should be harvested from fourth year of plant vegetation. Qualitative TLC analysis showed presence of the same ginsenosides in the same ginseng organs in different age of plants. In ginseng rots were identified 6 compounds: Rb1, Re, Rc, Rd, Rg1 and Rg2, in leaves 7: Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Re, Rd, Rg1 and Rg2; in stems 6 ginsenosides: Rb1, Rc, Re, Rd, Rg1 and Rg2, instead in fruits 5 compounds: Rb2, Re, Rd, Rg1 and Rg2.

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19

Proctor, J. T. A., D. C. Percival y D. Louttit. "Inflorescence Removal Effects on Root Yield of American Ginseng (Panax quiquefolium L.)". HortScience 33, n.º 3 (junio de 1998): 481c—481. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.33.3.481c.

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American ginseng is a perennial herbaceous plant grown for its fleshy root and seeds. Little is known about fruit set and development in ginseng. In commercial practice a small proportion of 2-year-old plants may bear flowers and seed but these seeds usually are not harvested. Seeds from 3-year-old plants are harvested and used for establishing plantings, but seed from 4-year-old plants, if available, are preferred. Some growers remove flowers manually from plants in June at an estimated cost of $2500 per ha and claim higher root yields. The objective of this work was to determine the effect of inflorescence removal in 1 or 2 years on root yield. Manual removal of inflorescences from mature (3-and 4-year old) American ginseng plants at commercial timing (early July, ≈25% flowers open) increased root yield at harvest compared to plants where the inflorescences were retained. Consecutive inflorescence removal for 2 years (3rd and 4th) increased yields 55.6% compared to 34.4% for removal in one year only (4th). Root size distribution analysis showed that most roots (≈40%) were in the medium category (10–20g): inflorescence removal did not influence root size distribution. Root yield for 3-year-old plants increased quadratically with plant density with plants lacking inflorescences having an estimated yield increase of 25%. Maximum yields of 2.4 kg·m–2 for deflowered plants were suggested at a plant density of 170 plants/m2. To maximize ginseng root yield all plants should have inflorescences removed except those needed to provide seed for future plantings.

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20

Liu, X. D., X. F. Zhong, Y. Ma, H. J. Gong, Y. Y. Zhao, B. Qi, Z. K. Yan, X. B. Sun y B. Liu. "Copia retrotransposons of two disjunctive Panax species: P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius". Australian Journal of Botany 56, n.º 2 (2008): 177. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/bt07030.

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Sixty highly heterogeneous reverse transcriptase (RT) gene domains, each representing a different copia retrotransposon, were isolated from Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius, two highly valued medicinal plant species representing classical eastern Asian and eastern North American disjunctive speciation. These RT domains were classifiable into 10 distinct families. While some families contained highly degenerate elements, others were largely composed of intact ones that had been subjected to purifying selection. DNA gel-blot analysis showed that all 10 families existed in both ginseng species, although the copy number of Family 1 showed marked difference between them. All element families appeared heavily methylated in both species, but a difference in cytosine DNA-methylation patterns between the two species was also evident. Thus, the copia retrotransposons in the two ginseng species are diverse and polyphyletic in origin, yet, they all appeared antique and presumably occurred before separation of P. ginseng and P. quinquefolius, followed by genetic and epigenetic differentiation in their respective host genomes.

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21

Nantel, Patrick, Daniel Gagnon y Andree Nault. "Population Viability Analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek Harvested in Stochastic Environments". Conservation Biology 10, n.º 2 (abril de 1996): 608–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020608.x.

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22

Chen, Xiao-Jia, Jian-Feng Qiu, Yi-Tao Wang y Jian-Bo Wan. "Discrimination of Three Panax Species Based on Differences in Volatile Organic Compounds Using a Static Headspace GC-MS-Based Metabolomics Approach". American Journal of Chinese Medicine 44, n.º 03 (enero de 2016): 663–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0192415x16500361.

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Panax ginseng (Asian ginseng), Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng) and Panax notoginseng (notoginseng) are highly valuable tonic herbs derived from the Panax genus that have similar morphological appearances and odors but different pharmacological activities and clinical indications. Thus, the authentication of these three Panax species is crucial for ensuring the quality, safety and efficacy of medication. In the present study, a static headspace gas chromatography — mass spectrometry (GC-MS) followed by a multivariate statistical analysis was developed to globally characterize the volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles in P. ginseng, P. quinquefolium, and P. notoginseng, and subsequently to discover differentiating chemical markers. Under the optimized conditions, the headspace VOCs of a total of 49 batches of Panax herbs derived from the three Panax species were profiled, and the dataset of sample code, [Formula: see text]-m/z pair and ion intensity was processed by unsupervised principal component analysis (PCA) and by supervised partial least squared discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) to comprehensively compare the chemical differences in Panax across the species. The results demonstrated that Panax herbs derived from three species possess obviously diverse chemical characteristics of VOCs, PCA, and PLS-DA. According to their VOC profiles, 49 tested samples could be clearly differentiated according to species. Chemomarker 1, 2, and 4 might be used as unique chemical markers of P. ginseng, P. notoginseng and P. quinquefolium, respectively. Our findings indicate that static headspace GC-MS-based VOC profiling, combined with multivariate statistical analysis, provide a reliable tool to discriminate between the three Panax species and to identify their differentiation markers, which will be helpful for ensuring their quality, safety and efficacy.

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Ludwiczuk, Agnieszka, Tadeusz Wolski y Stanisław Berbeć. "Chromatographic analysis of ginsenosides occurring in the roots of American ginseng (Panax quinquefoliumL.) and in Asian ginseng (Panax ginsengC.A. Mayer) preparations". Journal of Planar Chromatography – Modern TLC 15, n.º 2 (abril de 2002): 147–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1556/jpc.15.2002.2.12.

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24

Obae, Samuel G., Hillar Klandorf y Todd P. West. "Growth Characteristics and Ginsenosides Production of In Vitro Tissues of American Ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L." HortScience 46, n.º 8 (agosto de 2011): 1136–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.46.8.1136.

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American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) is an economically important perennial herb whose root is highly valued in the Orient for its medicinal properties. The root grows into different morphotypes, notably “bulb or round” (BLB), “man-like” (ML), and “straight or stick” (STK), and these roots are valued differently by consumers because they are assumed to have different medicinal qualities. Currently, wild-growing and field-cultivated plants are the major source of ginseng roots available on the market; however, because of declining wild populations and the lengthy time required in field cultivation to produce marketable root size, in vitro propagation has been sought as a potential alternative to supply ginseng's bioactive components (ginsenosides). The objectives of this study were: 1) to evaluate how explants derived from the three root morphotypes (lines), BLB, ML, and STK, responded to in vitro callus induction and growth; 2) to compare ginsenosides profiles and content among stock roots and their callus tissues; and 3) to assess genetic diversity among stock roots. Root explants were cultured on solid Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 1.0 mg·L−1 2,4-D and 0.1 mg·L−1 kinetin for 12 weeks. Explants from the three lines exhibited varied callus induction response, growth, and ginsenosides production. Explants from the ML line induced callus faster, were prolific in growth, and accumulated more biomass compared with explants from BLB and STK lines. ML lines (both stock roots and calluses) had significantly higher total ginsenosides content than either BLB or STK lines. There were positive and highly significant correlations between total ginsenosides content of stock roots and callus tissues and callus dry weights. Ginsenosides profiles varied among lines. ML lines exclusively exhibited low Rg1/high Re ginsenosides profiles, whereas BLB and STK lines exhibited mixed Rg1/Re profiles. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis of stock roots showed genetic variations within and among lines; however, there was no clear link between DNA bands or band patterns and ginsenoside profiles or content. Overall, these results showed that ginsenoside content of stock roots directly influenced callus induction response and subsequent callus biomass and ginsenoside content. These results provide information that could be useful in selecting suitable stock plants for in vitro production of ginsenosides. Also, because there are no ginseng cultivars, this information would be useful in advancing breeding efforts toward selecting superior cultivars for this species. Chemical names used: 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)

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25

Lee, Jinwook y Kenneth W. Mudge. "Genotypic and Organ Variation in Ginsenoside Contents from American Ginseng Populations". Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 143, n.º 4 (julio de 2018): 259–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/jashs04405-18.

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Variation in ginsenoside content was investigated as a function of population/genotype, plant organ, and age using four geographically isolated wild populations and one landrace population of american ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). The contents of individual and total ginsenosides were affected by the main and two-way interactions between population, organ, and age. Ginsenoside Re was not detected in roots of the wild population plants but was found in leaves and in both organs of the landrace population. A positive relationship between root age and total root ginsenosides was detected in two wild populations. Individual root ginsenosides were highly correlated with certain leaf ginsenosides in wild populations rather than in landrace populations. Therefore, the results suggest that certain leaf ginsenosides would be applied for potential biomarkers to estimate individual root ginsenosides. Principal component analysis (PCA) scores plot indicates that all wild populations were segregated from the single landrace population. However, cluster analysis indicates that differences existed between organs, and between the wild and landrace populations. Overall, the result suggests that the variation of individual and total ginsenoside contents would be influenced by a combination of population, plant organ, and root age.

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26

Li, Wenkui y John F. Fitzloff. "HPLC ANALYSIS OF GINSENOSIDES IN THE ROOTS OF ASIAN GINSENG (PANAX GINSENG) AND NORTH AMERICAN GINSENG (PANAX QUINQUEFOLIUS) WITH IN-LINE PHOTODIODE ARRAY AND EVAPORATIVE LIGHT SCATTERING DETECTION". Journal of Liquid Chromatography & Related Technologies 25, n.º 1 (31 de enero de 2002): 29–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/jlc-100108537.

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27

Yu, Chunhao, Chong-Zhi Wang, Chun-Jie Zhou, Bin Wang, Lide Han, Chun-Feng Zhang, Xiao-Hui Wu y Chun-Su Yuan. "Adulteration and cultivation region identification of American ginseng using HPLC coupled with multivariate analysis". Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 99 (octubre de 2014): 8–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2014.06.031.

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28

Qi, Jianjun, Peng Sun, Dengqun Liao, Tongyu Sun, Juan Zhu y Xianen Li. "Transcriptomic Analysis of American Ginseng Seeds during the Dormancy Release Process by RNA-Seq". PLOS ONE 10, n.º 3 (19 de marzo de 2015): e0118558. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118558.

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29

Tung, Nguyen Huu y Yukihiro Shoyama. "Eastern Blotting Analysis and Isolation of Two New Dammarane-Type Saponins from American Ginseng". Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 60, n.º 10 (2012): 1329–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1248/cpb.c12-00486.

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30

Hill, S. N., O. P. Hurtado-Gonzales, K. H. Lamour y M. K. Hausbeck. "First Report of Mefenoxam Sensitivity and Pathogenicity of Phytophthora citricola Isolated from American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium)". Plant Disease 92, n.º 12 (diciembre de 2008): 1706. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis-92-12-1706a.

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In March of 2004, stratified ginseng seeds from commercial Wisconsin gardens were planted in sterilized silica sand in a research greenhouse at Michigan State University. Following emergence, seedlings exhibiting wilting, damping off, and black stem lesions were observed. In the laboratory, symptomatic seedlings were rinsed with distilled water. Tissue samples were excised and embedded in water agar amended with ampicillin (100 mg/liter) and incubated at 25°C. In addition to the isolation of Phytophthora cactorum, a known pathogen of ginseng, P. citricola, (five isolates) also was identified from single-zoospore cultures based on morphology (2). One-week-old, dilute V8 agar cultures were used to obtain single zoospores. Cultures were flooded with 20 ml of sterilized distilled water chilled to 10°C and incubated at 25°C for 25 min to induce zoospore release. Zoospore suspensions were spread onto water agar plates, and after 24 h at 25°C, single germinating zoospores were selected at random and transferred to benomyl, ampicillin, rifampicin, and pentachloronitrobenzene (BARP)-amended V8 agar plates. Sequence analysis of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region 1 and 2 of the rDNA was also used to distinguish P. citricola from P. cactorum. A representative sequence for the isolates of P. citricola (NCBI Accession No. FJ217388) matched (100% similarity) a P. citricola isolate deposited in GenBank (Accession No. DQ486661). To screen P. citricola for in vitro response to mefenoxam, agar plugs (7-mm diameter) from 1-week-old V8 agar cultures incubated at 25°C under fluorescent lighting were placed in the center of each of two V8 agar plates amended with 0 and 100 ppm of mefenoxam (Ridomil Gold EC, 48% a.i., suspended in sterile distilled water and added to V8 agar cooled to 49°C). The plates were incubated at 25°C for 3 days under fluorescent lighting. Isolates were assigned a mefenoxam sensitivity rating based on the percentage of radial mycelial growth on the amended V8 agar when compared with the unamended control. Each of the five isolates was scored as mefenoxam resistant with growth on 100-ppm plates >30% of the controls. Koch's postulates were conducted for the isolates of P. citricola recovered from ginseng seedlings to confirm pathogenicity. Previously, P. citricola was reported as nonpathogenic to ginseng (1). Three-week-old, healthy ginseng seedlings were planted into 89- × 64-mm pots filled with autoclaved medium-particle vermiculite and maintained in the greenhouse under 63% shade cloth with temperatures between 18 and 26°C. Pots were arranged in a completely randomized block design with eight seedlings per isolate as replicates and watered as needed. A 2-ml inoculum suspension (approximately 104 zoospores) was injected into the potting medium at the stem base of each seedling. All of the isolates were pathogenic to ginseng seedlings with 60% of inoculated seedlings per isolate exhibiting wilting, damping off, and blackened stems within 3 weeks after inoculation. P. citricola was reisolated from all inoculated plants. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. citricola pathogenic on ginseng. References: (1) T. W. Darmono et al. Plant Dis. 75:610, 1991. (2) D. C. Erwin and O. K. Ribeiro. Page 96 in: Phytophthora Diseases Worldwide. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN. 1996.

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31

DesRochers, Natasha, Jacob P. Walsh, Justin B. Renaud, Keith A. Seifert, Ken K. C. Yeung y Mark W. Sumarah. "Metabolomic Profiling of Fungal Pathogens Responsible for Root Rot in American Ginseng". Metabolites 10, n.º 1 (14 de enero de 2020): 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo10010035.

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Ginseng root is an economically valuable crop in Canada at high risk of yield loss caused by the pathogenic fungus Ilyonectria mors-panacis, formerly known as Cylindrocarpon destructans. While this pathogen has been well-characterized from morphological and genetic perspectives, little is known about the secondary metabolites it produces and their role in pathogenicity. We used an untargeted tandem liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based approach paired with global natural products social molecular networking (GNPS) to compare the metabolite profiles of virulent and avirulent Ilyonectria strains. The ethyl acetate extracts of 22 I. mors-panacis strains and closely related species were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Principal component analysis of LC-MS features resulted in two distinct groups, which corresponded to virulent and avirulent Ilyonectria strains. Virulent strains produced more types of compounds than the avirulent strains. The previously reported I. mors-panacis antifungal compound radicicol was present. Additionally, a number of related resorcyclic acid lactones (RALs) were putatively identified, namely pochonins and several additional derivatives of radicicol. Pochonins have not been previously reported in Ilyonectria spp. and have documented antimicrobial activity. This research contributes to our understanding of I. mors-panacis natural products and its pathogenic relationship with ginseng.

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32

Popovich, David G., Shi Yun Yeo y Wei Zhang. "Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) and Licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) Root Extract Combinations Increase Hepatocarcinoma Cell (Hep-G2) Viability". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2011 (2011): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nep074.

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The combined cytoactive effects of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) and licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis) root extracts were investigated in a hepatocarcinoma cell line (Hep-G2). An isobolographic analysis was utilized to express the possibility of synergistic, additive or antagonistic interaction between the two extracts. Both ginseng and licorice roots are widely utilized in traditional Chinese medicine preparations to treat a variety of ailments. However, the effect of the herbs in combination is currently unknown in cultured Hep-G2 cells. Ginseng (GE) and licorice (LE) extracts were both able to reduce cell viability. The LC50 values, after 72 h, were found to be 0.64 ± 0.02 mg/mL (GE) and 0.53 ± 0.02 mg/mL (LE). An isobologram was plotted, which included five theoretical LC50s calculated, based on the fixed fraction method of combination ginseng to licorice extracts to establish a line of additivity. All combinations of GE to LE (1/5, 1/3, 1/2, 2/3, 4/5) produced an effect on Hep-G2 cell viability but they were all found to be antagonistic. The LC50 of fractions 1/3, 1/2, 2/3 were 23%, 21% and 18% above the theoretical LC50. Lactate dehydrogenase release indicated that as the proportion of GE to LE increased beyond 50%, the influence on membrane permeability increased. Cell-cycle analysis showed a slight but significant arrest at the G1 phase of cell cycle for LE. Both GE and LE reduced Hep-G2 viability independently; however, the combinations of both extracts were found to have an antagonistic effect on cell viability and increased cultured Hep-G2 survival.

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33

Boehm, C. L., H. C. Harrison, G. Jung y J. Nienhuis. "Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) Variation among and within Cultivated and Wild American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) Populations". HortScience 32, n.º 3 (junio de 1997): 454B—454. http://dx.doi.org/10.21273/hortsci.32.3.454b.

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The magnitude of genetic differences among and the heterogeneity within cultivated and wild American ginseng populations is unknown. Variation among individual plants from 16 geographically separated, cultivated populations and 21 geographically separated, wild populations were evaluated using RAPD markers. Cultivated populations from the midwestern U.S., the southern U.S., and Canada were examined. Wild populations from the midwestern U.S., the southern U.S., and the eastern U.S. were examined. Polymorphic bands were observed for 15 RAPD primers, which resulted in 100 scored bands. Variation was found within and among populations, indicating that the selected populations are heterogeneous with respect to RAPD markers. The genetic relationships among individual genotypes were estimated using the ratio of discordant bands to total bands scored. Multidimensional scaling of the relationship matrix showed independent clusters corresponding to the geographical and cultural origins of the populations. The integrity of the clusters were confirmed using pooled chi-squares for fragment homogeneity. Average gene diversity (Hs) was calculated for each population sample, and a one-way analysis of variance showed significant differences among populations. Overall, the results demonstrate the usefulness of the RAPD procedure for evaluating genetic relationships and comparing levels of genetic diversity among populations of American ginseng genotypes.

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34

LIU, Lingyu, Tianying CHANG, Xiansheng ZHANG y Hongliang CUI. "Identification of American ginseng by terahertz time domain spectroscopy combined with principal component analysis and linear discriminant analysis". Journal of Shenzhen University Science and Engineering 36, n.º 2 (2019): 207. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1249.2019.02207.

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35

Corbit, Rebecca M., Jorge F. S. Ferreira, Stephen D. Ebbs y Laura L. Murphy. "Simplified Extraction of Ginsenosides from American Ginseng (Panax quinquefoliusL.) for High-Performance Liquid Chromatography−Ultraviolet Analysis". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 53, n.º 26 (diciembre de 2005): 9867–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf051504p.

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36

Robbins, Christopher S. "Comparative Analysis of Management Regimes and Medicinal Plant Trade Monitoring Mechanisms for American Ginseng and Goldenseal". Conservation Biology 14, n.º 5 (18 de octubre de 2000): 1422–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99100.x.

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37

Bobev, S. G., S. Baeyen, C. Crepel y M. Maes. "First Report of Phytophthora cactorum on American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Bulgaria". Plant Disease 87, n.º 6 (junio de 2003): 752. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/pdis.2003.87.6.752c.

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American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a recently introduced crop in Bulgaria. In autumn 2001, several 2-year-old plants from Stara Zagora County exhibited symptoms of wilting and dying. Laboratory analysis also revealed some browning of the ginseng root surface and discoloration of the vascular tissues. During later stages of the disease, roots became soft, rubbery, and disintegrated. After storage in a humid chamber for 3 to 5 days, roots were covered with a white, cottony mycelium. Following the transfer onto potato dextrose agar, this fungus formed rounded colonies of white, aerial mycelium. Pathogenicity of the isolate was demonstrated by inoculation of roots that were surface-disinfected with alcohol (70%) for 30 s and rinsed with sterile water. Roots were wounded with a scalpel, and agar pieces from a 1-week-old culture were placed under the cortical tissue. Five inoculated root pieces were kept in a humid chamber at 24 to 25°C, and the pathogen was reisolated subsequently from necrotic lesions that developed from wounds. No symptoms were found in the five wounded but noninoculated control roots. The pathogen was reisolated from the diseased tissue to fulfill Koch's postulates. Microscopic examination showed that the pathogen had an aseptate mycelium (mean diameter of 5.3 μm), did not form hyphal swellings or chlamydospores, and had simple sympodial branching of the sporangiophores. Sporangia had a caducous nature with a pedicel length of 4.7 μm (1.7 to 6.7 μm). Sporangia were ovoid to obpyriform in shape, papillate, and nonproliferating measuring 30.6 (26.6 to 40.0) μm × 24.3 (23.3 to 30.0) μm. The length/width ratio varied between 1.25 and 1.3. The fungus was homothallic and produced paragynous antheridia and spherical oogonia with a diameter of 30.6 μm (26.6 to 33.3 μm) on V8 agar and in petri solution. Oospores were aplerotic and spherical (25 to 30 μm in diameter). Based on symptoms and pathogen characteristics (2), the disease was identified as Phytophthora root rot caused by Phytophthora cactorum. Additionally, the identity of the isolate was verified by sequence determination of the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer I region and alignment to the GenBank-EMBL DNA database (1), which revealed 100% sequence similarity with P. cactorum. To our knowledge, this is the first report of P. cactorum on American ginseng in Bulgaria. References: (1) S. F. Altschul et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 25:3389,1997. (2) D. C. Erwin and O. K. Ribeiro. Morphology and identification of Phytophthora species. Pages 96–125 in: Phytophthora Diseases Worldwide. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN, 1996.

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Popovich, David G. y David D. Kitts. "Ginsenosides 20(S)-protopanaxadiol and Rh2 reduce cell proliferation and increase sub-G1 cells in two cultured intestinal cell lines, Int-407 and Caco-2". Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 82, n.º 3 (1 de marzo de 2004): 183–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/y04-001.

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Ginsenosides derived from 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (PT) and 20(S)-protopanaxadiol (PD) groups had similar characteristic cytotoxic effects on the growth of two intestinal cells lines, Int-407 and Caco-2. Pure Rh2, a ginsenoside structurally related to PD, inhibited intestinal cell growth at greater than twice the concentration of PD, while Rh1, a ginsenoside structurally related to aglycone PT, had no cytotoxic effect. Concentrations causing growth inhibition of 50% of cells (LC50) for the compounds PD, PT, and Rh2 were 23, 26, and 53 µg/mL, respectively, for Int-407 cells. In comparison, the LC50 for PD and PT was determined to be 24 µg/mL, and that for Rh2 was 55 µg/mL in Caco-2 cells. A standardized North American ginseng extract with a known ginsenosides composition did not induce cytotoxicity in either of the intestinal cell lines. Cell cycle analysis showed characteristically different (P = 0.05) effects of ginsen o sides PD, Rh2, and PT in both cell lines. Rh2 treatment of Int-407 caused a significantly (P = 0.05) higher production of sub-G1 (apoptotic) cells (35% ± 1%) compared with untreated cells (14% ± 0.3%) after 24 h. PD and Rh2 treatments were both significantly (P < 0.05) higher in apoptotic cells than in untreated cells after 48 and 72 h. Similar results were obtained for treatment of Caco-2 cells. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in both cell lines was similar for PD and Rh2 and higher (P = 0.05) than for PT treatment at most time periods. These results show a specific structure–function relationship for bioactive ginsenosides in two contrasting intestinal cell types.Key words: ginseng, ginsenosides, protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol, Rh2, apoptosis.

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Wang, Jie, Tengteng Zhang y Yongbin Ge. "C/N/H/O stable isotope analysis for determining the geographical origin of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius)". Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 96 (marzo de 2021): 103756. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2020.103756.

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40

Wu, Jianwei, Yougang Liu, Runhuai Zhao y Rong Xu. "Fast pesticide multiresidue analysis in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) by gas chromatography with electron capture detection". Journal of Natural Medicines 65, n.º 2 (8 de enero de 2011): 406–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11418-010-0500-z.

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41

Shellie, Robert A., Philip J. Marriott y Carmen W. Huie. "Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) and GC×GC-quadrupole MS analysis of Asian and American ginseng". Journal of Separation Science 26, n.º 12-13 (1 de agosto de 2003): 1185–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.200301404.

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42

Elza, Michael C., Christina Slover y James B. McGraw. "Analysis of wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina) movement patterns to explain the spatial structure of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) populations". Ecological Research 31, n.º 2 (15 de diciembre de 2015): 195–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11284-015-1327-6.

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Morinaga, Osamu, Takuhiro Uto, Chun-Su Yuan, Hiroyuki Tanaka y Yukihiro Shoyama. "Evaluation of a new eastern blotting technique for the analysis of ginsenoside Re in American ginseng berry pulp extracts". Fitoterapia 81, n.º 4 (junio de 2010): 284–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2009.10.005.

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Ludwiczuk, Agnieszka, Elżbieta Weryszko-Chmielewska y Tadeusz Wolski. "Localization of ginsenosides in Panax quinquefolium root tissues". Acta Agrobotanica 59, n.º 2 (2012): 7–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.5586/aa.2006.057.

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We carried out histochemical studies to find the localization of ginsenosides in roots of Panax quinquefolium cultivated in Poland. We performed an anatomical study on the structure and localization of secretory canals on the cross section of 4-year-old American ginseng roots. We observed the occurrence of large secretory canals, mainly in the middle part of the secondary cortex and less in the phloem layer. In our studies, moreover, we demonstrated the production of secretory canals within the periderm layer. After the anatomical study, the 4-year-old ginseng root was divided into periderm, cortex and xylem, and the ginsenosides were extracted from each part of the root. The TLC separation of ginsenosides was performed on silica gel Si60 glass plates with chloroform-methanol-ethyl acetate-water-hexane, 20+22+60+8+4 (v/v) as mobile phase. Quantitative analysis of ginsenosides was performed by using the TLC-densitometric method. Concerning the distribution of ginsenosides in the different anatomical parts of the root of Panax quinquefolium, they were contained in the periderm layer at the highest level.

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45

Yuan, Meifang y Yan Hong. "Heterogeneity of Chinese Medical Herbs in Singapore Assessed by Fluorescence AFLP Analysis". American Journal of Chinese Medicine 31, n.º 05 (enero de 2003): 773–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0192415x03001351.

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There are conflicting records on the identity of Chinese medical herbs, and it is known that different plant materials are used under the same common names in different regions in China. However, there is no study on the genetic heterogeneity of medical herbs in any market outside of China. In this report, Chinese medical herbs under common names Radix Quinquefolii (American Ginseng or Xiyangshen), Radix Astragali (Huangqi), Radix Notoginseng (Tianqi), Coxtex Cinnamomum (Guipi), Radix Isatidis (Banlangen), Radix Codonopsis (Dangshen) and Radix Rehmannia (Shengdi) were collected from three independent herbal shops in Singapore and their DNAs were isolated and subjected to fluorescence Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) analysis. While samples for Radix Quinquefolii and Radix Astragali were homogenous genetically [similarity index (SI) = 0.85 – 1.00] across the three shops, genetic heterogeneity was found for the other herbs (SI < 0.7). For example, four samples of Radix Codonopsis were of three distinct patterns (SI < 0.6). Our results highlight the situation that genetically distinct herbal materials are labeled and marketed under the same common names in an international market of Chinese medical herbs, which may contribute to inconsistency in quality and efficacy.

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Sabo, Ian A., Jennifer Rhode Ward, H. David Clarke y Jonathan L. Horton. "Partial-root Harvest of American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.): A Non-Destructive Method for Harvesting Root Tissue for Ginsenoside Analysis". Castanea 84, n.º 2 (13 de diciembre de 2019): 310. http://dx.doi.org/10.2179/0008-7475.84.2.310.

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Sritularak, Boonchoo, Osamu Morinaga, Chun-Su Yuan, Yukihiro Shoyama y Hiroyuki Tanaka. "Quantitative analysis of ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, and Re in American ginseng berry and flower samples by ELISA using monoclonal antibodies". Journal of Natural Medicines 63, n.º 3 (18 de abril de 2009): 360–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11418-009-0332-x.

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Yeo, Chia-Rou, Sea-Ming Lee y David G. Popovich. "Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) Reduces Cell Growth, Lipid Acquisition and Increases Adiponectin Expression in 3T3-L1 Cells". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2011 (2011): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ecam/neq051.

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An American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) extract (GE) that contained a quantifiable amount of ginsenosides was investigated for the potential to inhibit proliferation, affect the cell cycle, influence lipid acquisition and adiponectin expression in 3T3-L1 cells. Six fingerprint ginsenosides were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography and the respective molecular weights were confirmed by LC-ESI-MS analysis. The extract contained Rg1 (347.3 ± 99.7 μg g−1, dry weight), Re (8280.4 ± 792.3 μg g−1), Rb1 (1585.8 ± 86.8 μg g−1), Rc (32.9 ± 8 μg g−1), Rb2 (62.6 ± 10.6 μg g−1) and Rd (90.4 ± 3.2 μg g−1). The GE had a dose-dependent effect on 3T3-L1 cell growth, the LC50 value was determined to be 40.3 ± 5 μg ml−1. Cell cycle analysis showed modest changes in the cell cycle. No significant changes observed in both G1 and G2/M phases, however there was a significant decrease(P<.05)in the S phase after 24 and 48 h treatment. Apoptotic cells were modest but significantly(P<.05)increased after 48 h (3.2 ± 1.0%) compared to untreated control cells (1.5 ± 0.1%). Lipid acquisition was significantly reduced(P<.05)by 13 and 22% when treated at concentrations of 20.2 and 40.3 μg ml−1compared to untreated control cells. In relation to adiponectin activation, western blot analysis showed that the protein expression was significantly(P<.05)increased at concentrations tested. A quantified GE reduced the growth of 3T3-L1 cells, down-regulated the accumulation of lipid and up-regulated the expression of adiponectin in the 3T3-L1 adipocyte cell model.

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Sun, Chao, Ying Li, Qiong Wu, Hongmei Luo, Yongzhen Sun, Jingyuan Song, Edmund M. K. Lui y Shilin Chen. "De novo sequencing and analysis of the American ginseng root transcriptome using a GS FLX Titanium platform to discover putative genes involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis". BMC Genomics 11, n.º 1 (2010): 262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2164-11-262.

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Brown, Paula N., Michael Chan, Lori Paley y Joseph M. Betz. "Determination of Major Phenolic Compounds in Echinacea spp. Raw Materials and Finished Products by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with Ultraviolet Detection: Single-Laboratory Validation Matrix Extension". Journal of AOAC INTERNATIONAL 94, n.º 5 (1 de septiembre de 2011): 1400–1410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jaoac/94.5.1400.

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Abstract A method previously validated to determine caftaric acid, chlorogenic acid, cynarin, echinacoside, and cichoric acid in echinacea raw materials has been successfully applied to dry extract and liquid tincture products in response to North American consumer needs. Single-laboratory validation was used to assess the repeatability, accuracy, selectivity, LOD, LOQ, analyte stability (ruggedness), and linearity of the method, with emphasis on finished products. Repeatability precision for each phenolic compound was between 1.04 and 5.65% RSD, with HorRat values between 0.30 and 1.39 for raw and dry extract finished products. HorRat values for tinctures were between 0.09 and 1.10. Accuracy of the method was determined through spike recovery studies. Recovery of each compound from raw material negative control (ginseng) was between 90 and 114%, while recovery from the finished product negative control (maltodextrin and magnesium stearate) was between 97 and 103%. A study was conducted to determine if cichoric acid, a major phenolic component of Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench and E. angustifolia DC, degrades during sample preparation (extraction) and HPLC analysis. No significant degradation was observed over an extended testing period using the validated method.

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